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I 


Bulletin  68.  Harch,  1902. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 

HMPl'  ..  /VG.  . 


ARKANSAS  VALLEY  SUBSTATION. 


PASTURE  GRASSES. 
LEGUMINOUS  CROPS. 
CANTALOUPE  BLIGHT. 


By  H.  H.  GRIFFIN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1902.^  ft 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Row.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW  •  Canon  City* 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT,  ...  -  Denver, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , . Denver, 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  . Fort  Collins, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS,  -  Denver,  - 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS, . Denver, 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  ....  Gypsum,  - 
Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . Rockyford, 


Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN, 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


|  ex-officio. 


7ena* 

CXPIMC* 

1903 
1903 
1905 
1905 
1907 
-  1907 
-  1909 
1909 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ...  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . Chemist 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S., . Agriculturist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  *  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer  and  Meteorologist 

E.  D.  BALL,  M.  S.,  -  ...  Assistant  Entomologist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  Superintendent  Arkansas  Valley  Substation 
J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Superintendent  Plains  Substation 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN., . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


UNIVERSITY  OF  IlIINOTS 
AGRICULTURE  LIBRARY 


(o36. 7 


PASTURE  GRASSES  FOR  THE  ARKANSAS 

VALLEY. 


BY  H.  H.  GRIFFIN. 


For  years  there  has  been  considerable  inquiry  in  re¬ 
gard  to  pasture  grasses  for  this  valley.  The  farmer  is  of¬ 
ten  heard  to  remark  “I  wish  I  could  get  something  on  which 
to  pasture  a  cow.  this  alfalfa  is  so  dangerous.” 

Almost  since  the  establishment  of  the  substation  pas¬ 
ture  grasses  have  been  tested  for  their  adaptability  to  this 
section,  but  one  of  which  has  been  reported  upon  in  bulle¬ 
tin  form,  viz:  Bromus  inermis  in  Bulletin  61. 

The  behavior  of  other  grasses  has  been  reported  from 
time  to  time  in  the  annual  reports  but  this  information  is 

not  generally  accessible  to  the  public. 

Enough  data  has  now  been  obtained  in  regaid  to  the 
adaptability  of  all  of  the  most  important  grasses,  to  warrant 


publication. 

The  theory  of  permanent  pastures  is  a  very  fine  one. 
Farmers  are  more  and  more  giving  up  the  idea  on  lands 
under  irrigation.  I  believe  the  farmer  can  get  more  feed 
and  much  greater  returns  from  the  land  in  a  regular  rota 
tion  of  crops.  One  acre  of  alfalfa  cut  and  properly  fed  will 
keep  an  animal  the  year  round.  W  ith  pastures,  much  more 
land  must  be  devoted  to  one  animal. 

It  will  not  pay  the  small  farmer  to  devote  much  land  to 
pasture.  There  are  others  having  larger  farms  who  do  not 
look  so  closely  to  the  return  per  acre,  who  do  desire  some 
grass  for  stock  pasture.  Often  there  are  waste  lands  or 
tree  claims  that  can  be  devoted  to  pasture. 

The  first  work  in  testing  grasses  was  done  in  1891. 
Mr.  Huntley,  then  superintendent,  reports  on  these  in  the 
annual  report  of  the  Experiment  Station  for  1894  as  fol- 
lows: 


“Based  upon  trials  of  three  years’  duration,  but  two  grasses  out 
of  eight  tried,  have  given  promise  of  enduring  field  culture  for  pasture. 
They  are  Bromus  and  Orchard  grass.  The  unsuccessful  ones  were, 
Hard  Fescue,  Meadow  Fescue,  Perennial  Bye  grass,  Italian  Rye  grass, 
Red  Top  and  Blue  grass.  It  is  quite  probable  some  of  these  would  suc¬ 
ceed  in  moist  soils  of  other  localities  in  the  state.’ 


4 


BULLETIN  68. 


The  report  for  1895  mentions  only  the  Bromus  and  Or¬ 
chard  grass  as  making  good  showing  that  season. 

The  varieties  tested  in  addition  to  those  above  mention¬ 
ed  since  the  writer  took  charge  in  1898  are,  the  Tall  Oat 
grass  and  Meadow  Fescue  ( Festuca  elatior)  sometimes  call¬ 
ed  English  Blue  grass. 

Bromus  inermis  has  been  quite  extensively  reported 
upon  in  Bulletin  61  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  it  for  in¬ 
formation.  It  may  be  said  that  the  results  in  1901  confirm 
the  report  made  of  it  in  bulletin  61. 

Orchard  grass,  Tall  Meadow  Fescue,  Tall  Oat  grass 
and  Blue  grass  comprise  the  list  of  grasses  that  may  be 
profitably  grown  here  for  pasture. 

orchard  grass.  ( Dactylis  glomerata .) 

This  grass  is  uniformly  successful  in  the  Arkansas  val¬ 
ley,  whether  sown  on  the  dry  uplands,  in  timber  claims  or 
in  moister  lands.  It  is  a  tall  grass  growing  in  clumps  but 
is  valuable  for  either  pasture  or  hay.  It  may  be  sown 
profitably  with  alfalfa.  It  matures  with  the  first  crop  and 
would  improve  the  quality  of  the  hay  for  feeding  horses. 

This  grass  is  easily  started  and  does  not  need  nursing 
to  get  it  established;  it  resists  drouth  and  hot  weather 
well.  It  is  one  of  the  first  things  to  appear  in  the  spring. 
When  pastured  off,  it  soon  starts  growing  again. 

Owing  to  its  nature  to  grow  in  tussocks,  it  is  advisable 
to  sow  some  other  grass  with  it  to  occupy  the  intervening 
spaces.  Either  the  Tall  Oat  grass  or  the  Tall  Fescue  is 
adapted  to  the  purpose,  preferably  the  latter. 

Orchard  grass,  like  many  others  here,  does  not  fail  to 
grow  some  during  the  hot  weather.  It  also  stands  irriga¬ 
tion  well,  not  becoming  sod  bound. 

About  25  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  sown. 


tall  meadow  fescue.  (. Festucci  elatior .) 

This  grass  is  sometimes  called  English  Blue  grass.  In 
ordering  the  seed  of  this  grass  it  must  not  be  confounded 
with  another  grass  called  Meadow  Fescue  (F.  pratensis)  in 
the  catalogues. 

The  latter  kind  has  never  been  successful  at  the  station. 

Tall  Fescue  has  not  been  under  trial  so  long  as  the  Or¬ 
chard  grass  but  its  value  has  been  fully  demonstrated  to  the 
uplands  of  this  section.  It  forms  a  thick  vegetation  and  is 
so  persistent  as  to  gradually  thicken  up;  the  seed  shoot 
growing  about  two  feet  in  height. 

Reports  from  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  speak 
well  of  it. 


PASTURE  GRASSES. 


5 

It  is  a  valuable  grass  in  the  Arkansas  Valley;  alone,  or 
in  combination  with  others. 

L.  Sow  about  25  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 

tall  oat  grass.  (A vena  eldtior .) 

This  grass  is  largely  grown  in  the  southern  states  where 
it  is  highly  valued. 

It  does  well  in  this  valley  but  does  better  if  sown  in 
mixture  with  Orchard  grass.  It  has  been  difficult  to  get  a 
good  stand  of  this  grass  owing  to  the  poor  germinating 
power  of  the  seed. 

This  grass  will  remain  partially  green  nearly  all  winter 
and  will  commence  growth  very  early  in  spring. 

All  reports  of  this  grass  with  which  I  am  familiar  give 
it  very  high  nutritive  qualities.  At  least  two  bushels  of  seed 
should  be  sown  per  acre. 

KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  (Pod  firdteUSZS.) 

Climate  has  much  to  do  with  pasture  grasses.  It  is  a 
well  known  fact  that  Blue  grass  cannot  stand  hard  use  and 
long  continued  dry  hot  weather.  It  is  said  “whoever  has 
limestone  land  has  Blue  grass,”  and  while  we  have  plenty 
of  lime  in  the  soils  of  this  section,  yet  Blue  grass  cannot  be 
relied  upon  for  pasture,  owing  to  the  vast  amount  of  irriga¬ 
tion  it  requires  to  keep  it  thrifty.  Nearly  everyone  is  aware 
how  much  irrigation  this  grass  requires  when  it  is  grown  for 
lawn,  which  is  sufficient  demonstration  that  under  but  few 
conditions  can  it  be  relied  upon  for  pasture. 

Lands  having  considerable  clay  or  adobe  with  an  abun¬ 
dant  water  supply  will  produce  this  grass  in  sufficient  quan¬ 
tity  to  make  good  pasture.  But  put  under  conditions  where 
it  must  withstand  drouth  it  will  perish  at  a  time  when  Or¬ 
chard  grass  or  Tall  Fescue  would  be  in  good  condition. 

In  most  instances  it  will  require  considerable  nursing 
to  secure  a  stand  and  it  is  only  when  ornament  and  utility 
are  both  desired  that  it  is  advisable  to  grow  Blue  grass  for 
pasture. 

red  top.  ( Agrostis  vulgdris .) 

This  grass  has  not  been  a  success  on  the  dry  upland 
soils  of  the  station. 

I  see  no  reason  why  this  grass  should  not  succeed  upon 
some  of  the  moist  low  lands  and  sub-irrigated  lands  of  this 
valley.  The  writer  has  seen  this  grass  succeed  in  other  lo¬ 
calities  under  similar  climatic  and  soil  conditions  to  those 
above  mentioned. 


6 


BULLETIN  68. 

timothy.  ( Phleum  pratense .) 

Timothy  is  not  a  success  on  the  uplands  and  it  can  hard¬ 
ly  be  said  to  be  on  any  lands  in  the  valley. 

I  do  not  believe  the  returns  will  warrant  sowing  it  at  all. 

WHEN  TO  SOW  GRASS  SEED. 

There  are  two  times  of  year  only  when  grass  seed  may 
be  sown  with  good  success  in  this  country,  viz:  March  and 
August. 

By  sowing  in  the  former  month,  the  grass  gets  a  start 
before  the  weeds  come  on  to  choke  it  out  and  besides  it 
will  sometimes  get  the  benefit  of  April  storms. 

In  many  respects  August  is  the  preferable  time  to  sow. 
There  are  no  weeds  or  foreign  grass  to  choke  the  young 
grass.  The  weather  becomes  cooler  and  damper  and  the 
young  plant  receives  the  benefit  of  summer  rains  that  usual¬ 
ly  occur. 

The  plant  gets  well  established  before  winter  and  starts 
the  next  spring  strong  and  vigorous  to  take  possession  of 
the  land. 

If  sown  in  August,  the  farmer  may  take  a  grain  crop 
from  the  land  previous  to  sowing,  but  if  the  grass  is  sown 
in  the  spring  the  season  is  lost  for  anything  but  the  grass. 

FALL  SEEDING  OF  ALFALFA. 

Sometimes  conditions  of  crops  and  labor  are  such  that 
the  farmer  wishes  to  sow  alfalfa  in  the  fall.  He  wishes  to 
know  if  it  may  be  done  with  impunity. 

In  the  first  week  of  September  1898  the  station  sowed 
three  acres  to  alfalfa.  This  was  just  preceeding  the  severe 
winter  of  1898-99  in  which  the  thermometer  registered -320. 
A  good  rain  came  soon  after  the  seed  was  sown  and  the 
seed  came  up  nicely,  the  plants  getting  about  two  inches 
high  when  winter  set  in.  A  few  spots  died  out  during  the 
winter  but  the  greater  part  of  it  stood  the  extreme  cold 
weather  well. 

The  weather  conditions  that  winter  were  the  worst  ever 
recorded  in  this  country  and  the  results  seem  to  indicate 
that  alfalfa  may  be  sown  in  August  or  early  September 
with  impunity. 

The  rules  given  for  the  sowing  of  grass  seed  hold  good 
in  regard  to  the  sowing  of  alfalfa  seed. 


LEGUMINOUS  CROPS  FOR  THE  ARKANSAS 

VALLEY. 


BY  H.  H.  GRIFFIN. 


For  three  seasons  the  sub-station  has  been  testing  le¬ 
guminous  plants  to  ascertain  what  may  be  expected  of  them 
in  this  valley.  The  main  object  has  been  fertility,  but  in¬ 
cidentally  their  value  for  forage,  for  bees  and  mulch  or 
cover  crops  for  the  soil. 

The  plants  under  investigation  are  the  Serradella,  Red 
Clover,  Cow  pea,  Field  pea,  Soy  bean  and  Hairy  vetch. 

SERRADELLA.  ( OmitkopUS  SCltivUS.) 

The  Station  failed  to  secure  a  single  plant  of  this 
legume.  The  writer  has  seen  other  trials  in  the  arid  region 
with  this  plant  but  has  never  seen  them  successful.  The 
plant  does  not  seem  to  be  adapted  to  arid  conditions. 

red  clover.  ( Tri folium  pratense . ) 

This  legume  does  not  thrive  under  our  arid  conditions. 
However,  in  old  orchards  where  there  is  partial  shade,  or 
in  open  fields  where  the  soil  is  rather  heavy  and  water 
supply  abundant,  some  success  may  be  secured  with  Red 
Clover. 

To  be  of  much  value  as  a  fertilizing  plant  it  must  occupy 
the  land  for  at  least  three  years  and  as  there  is  not  much 
revenue  from  it  in  the  interim,  it  becomes  an  expensive 
plant  to  grow  for  field  fertilizing. 

The  only  place  for  which  we  can  recommend  it  at  all 
is  old  orchards  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  advisable  to 
use  there,  as  there  are  other  plants  better  adapted  to  our 
conditions. 


cow  pea.  (  Vigna  catjang) 

,  • 

This  is  a  valuable  plant  for  the  Arkansas  Valley.  The 

Station  has  tested  the  Whipporwill,  Black,  Clay  and  New 
Era  varieties.  The  former  we  consider  the  most  desirable 
owing  to  its  upright  growth.  This  variety  will  ripen  if 
sown  as  late  as  the  last  of  May. 

As  high  as  two  tons  of  hay  per  acre  have  been  cut  on 
jand  devoted  to  this  plant,  besides  leaving  a  considerable 


8 


BULLETIN  68. 

quantity  of  vegetation  to  be  incorporated  with  the  soil. 
The  roots  are  well  supplied  with  tubercles.  It  will  produce 
from  6  to  io  bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  which  is  relished  by 
poultry  or  hogs,  and  about  two  tons  of  hay. 

The  New  Era  variety  will  mature  seed  in  about  one 
month  less  time  than  the  Whipporwill  and  may  meet  a 
demand  for  late  sowing  in  orchards.  It  does  not  grow 
nearly  so  rank  as  the  Whipporwill. 

This  plant  should  be  sown  in  drills  from  22  to  32  inches 
apart.  '  The  work  may  be  done  by  a  grain  or  beet  drill. 
One  or  two  early  cultivations  should  be  given,  after  which 
it  will  cover  the  ground.  This  plant  can  be  sown  as  late  as 
the  first  of  July  where  intended  only  for  fertilizing  purposes. 
It  is  a  splendid  plant  to  sow  in  orchards  to  relieve  the  trees 
from  the  reflection  of  the  sun  in  late  summer,  winter  and 
early  spring,  after  which  it  may  be  plowed  under  as  a 
fertilizer. 

Two  plats,  one-tenth  acre  each,  that  produced  Cow  peas 
in  1 900,  were  devoted  to  the  growth  of  beets  in  1901.  The 
peas  were  cut  with  a  mower  so  that  only  the  roots  and 
stubble  remained  to  plow  under.  Two  plats  of  the  same 
size  that  had  never  been  fertilized,  and  which  had  grown 
crops  similar  to  those  on  which  the  Cow  peas  were  sown, 
were  planted  to  beets  also  for  comparison.  Both  plats 
were  given  the  same  treatment.  The  plats  on  which  the 
Cow  peas  had  been  grown  yielded  16  tons  per  acre,  the 
other  plats  yielded  12.5  tons  per  acre.  That  the  nitrogen 
supply  was  augmented  by  the  growth  of  the  peas  was 
apparent  from  the  color  and  vigor  of  the  beet  tops. 

the  field  pea.  {Pisiim  arveuse.) 

The  Field  pea  does  fairly  well  at  Rocky  Ford  if  sown 
very  early  in  spring,  so  that  its  growth  may  be  made  before 
the  approach  of  hot  weather. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  the  latter  part  of  March. 
The  peas  will  ripen  the  first  week  in  July. 

The  yield  on  the  Station  grounds  in  iqoi  was  23 bushels 
from  two  acres.  The  yield  in  1899  was  at  the  rate  of  16 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  In  addition  to  the  yield  of  grain 
there  was  produced  at  least  3  tons  of  splendid  feed  on  the 
two  acres.  The  above  returns  are  only  medium,  for  in 
neither  case  were ,  the  conditions  such  as  to  give  the  best 
returns 

The  variety  grown  in  1899  was  the  “Mummy;’  that 
grown  in  1901  was  the  “Marrowfat.”  I  consider  either  of 
them  preferable  to  the  Canada  pea  for  this  section. 


LEGUMINOUS  CROPS. 


9 

This  pea  may  be  sown  with  oats  early  in  the  spring;  the 
product  cut  for  hay  late  in  June  and  the  ground  devoted  to 
some  other  nitrogen  gathering  crop  for  the  remainder  of 
the  season. 

From  ioo  to  120  pounds  of  seed  should  be  used  per 
acre.  I  think  the  most  desirable  way  to  cover  the  seed  is  to 
plow  it  under. 

the  soy  bean.  ( Glycine  hispida. ) 

The  Soy  bean  is  an  upright,  bushy,  leafy  plant  growing 
about  3  feet  high  and  requiring  about  100  days  to  mature. 

The  station  has  grown  the  Early  Yellow  and  the  Me¬ 
dium  Early  Green. 

The  bean  of  this  plant  is  extremely  rich  in  protein  and 
is  especially  desirable  for  combining  with  corn  or  sugar  beets 
for  pork  production.  When  utilized  this  way  no  threshing 
is  required. 

The  Kansas  Experiment  station  has  made  some  exten¬ 
sive  experiments  with  Soy  beans  in  combination  with  other 
foods  (especially  Kaffir-corn)  for  feeding  pigs.  The  results 
are  reported  in  Bulletin  95,  and  show  a  gain  of  96  per  cent, 
by  the  substitution  of  one-fifth  Soy  bean  meal  to  a  Kaffir- 
corn  ration. 

This  plant  resists  drouth  well;  the  Kansas  stationclaims 
it  is  fully  equal  to  Kaffir-corn  or  sorghum  in  this  respect. 

The  Soy  bean  may  profitably  be  grown  under  many 
ditches  with  scant  water  supply,  in  place  of  corn,  especially 
if  the  soil  is  rather  light  and  needs  improving  in  fertility. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  with  .a  grain  or  beet  drill 
about  the  middle  of  May,  putting  the  rows  from  22  to  32 
inches  apart.  About  40  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  required. 
The  yield  ranges  from  10  to  25  bushels  per  acre.  The  har¬ 
vesting  should  be  done  before  the  pods  begin  to  turn  yellow 
or  great  loss  will  ensue  from  the  popping  open  of  the  pods. 
But  one  crop  can  be  grown  in  one  season  on  land  devoted 
to  this  bean,  owing  to  the  time  required  to  mature  it. 

Land  devoted  to  Soy  beans  in  1900  and  planted  to  sugar 
beets  in  toot,  gave  as  hiodi  as  6  tons  greater  yield  than  ad¬ 
jacent  land  having  no  fertilizer  applied. 

HAIRY  VETCH.  (  Vida,  villoSCL .) 

Hairy  Vetch  is  known  as  Sand,  Winter,  or  Russiar 
Vetch. 

Some  of  the  farmers  of  the  Arkansas  Valley  have  ex 
pressed  their  desire  for  a  plant  that  may  be  sown  in  the  fall, 
after  taking  a  crop  from  the  land,  and  make  sufficient  growth 
to  turn  under  in  the  spring,  thus  adding  fertility  to  the  soil. 


10 


BULLETIN  68. 

Hairy  Vetch  meets  this  demand  admirably.  It  will 
make  growth  in  this  valley  during  all  but  the  severest  part 
of  the  winter.  It  makes  its  poorest  showing  during  the  heat 
of  summer.  For  this  reason  it  is  preferable  to  sow  in  late 
summer  or  fall. 

The  station  has  secured  good  results  from  sowing  as 
late  as  October  first. 

In  one  instance  the  seed  lay  in  the  soil  over  winter  and 
germinated  with  the  first  approach  of  spring;  the  plants  pro¬ 
duced  seed  in  July,  but  of  course  the  results  are  not  so  good 
as  where  the  plants  become  well  established  before  winter. 

The  Hairy  Vetch  will  thrive  on  the  lightest  kind  of 
sandy  soils  and  where  sown  in  the  fall,  will  keep  such  lands 
from  blowing  during  the  spring  months,  afterwards  adding 
a  vast  amount  of  humus,  and  fertility  to  them.  The  roots 
are  bountifully  supplied  with  tubercles.  If  this  plant  is  sown 
in  early  September  it  will  produce  a  considerable  growth  to 
plow  under  in  April  or  May,  or  if  allowed  to  ripen  will  do  so 
in  early  July.  It  will  bloom,  about  the  middle  of  May  and 
from  that  time  on  until  it  ripens  is  a  vast  profusion  of 
bloom.  Bees  frequent  it  in  great  numbers,  seeming  to  do 
so  to  the  exclusion  of  most  other  plants.  Early  fall  sowing 
makes  splendid  pasture  during  April  and  May,  and  if  the 
plant  is  started  in  the  summer  it  will  furnish  pasture  in  Feb¬ 
ruary  or  March. 

Six-sevenths  of  an  acre  was  sown  to  this  seed,  August  1 1, 
1899.  By  May  12,  1900,  it  stood  two  feet  high  and  com¬ 
menced  to  bloom.  The  seed  was  ripe  the  first  week  in  July, 
at  which  time  it  was  cut. 

The  yield  of  straw  was  3000  pounds,  which  yielded  400 
pounds  of  seed.  July  26,  the  same  land  was  prepared  by  a 
disc  harrow  and  watered,  and  from  the  seed  that  scattered 
off,  a  good  stand  of  the  vetch  was  secured,  which  was  allow¬ 
ed  to  grow  until  April  1901,  when  it  was  plowed  under  and 
the  land  seeded  to  beets. 

Two  acres  near  by  were  given  a  dressing  of  ten  loads  of 
sheep  manure  per  acre  and  one  acre  was  left  without  man¬ 
ure  as  a  check. 

The  tops  of  the  beets  on  the  vetch  land  grew  rank  and 
thrifty,  having  the  dark  healthy  green  and  much  of  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  beets  on  alfalfa  land. 

The  results  show  a  heavier  yield  than  was  obtained 
from  the  use  of  manure  and  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  increase 
over  the  land  not  fertilized. 

Trials  in  1901  show  further,  that  the  vetch  may  be  sown 
with  oats  and  be  cut  with  them  for  hay  in  July,  after  which 
it  will  produce  seed. 


LEGUMINOUS  CROPS. 


1 1 

This  plant  may  be  sown  in  orchards  late  in  summer  and 
make  a  splendid  cover  crop  to  overcome  reflection  from  the 
snow  in  winter  and  early  spring,  after  which  it  may  be  plow¬ 
ed  under,  adding  much  fertility  to  the  soil. 

The  plant  is  easily  destroyed  and  in  no  sense  will  be¬ 
come  a  nuisance. 

It  is  already  apparent  that  the  farmers  of  the  Arkansas 
Valley  must  fertilize  and  rotate  crops  if  success  is  to  be  ob¬ 
tained.  The  larger  farms  are  being  more  and  more  cut  up 
into  smaller  ones. 

On  small  farms  alfalfa  cannot  be  grown  to  advantage; 
it  takes  too  long  to  get  it  established  and  after  it  is  well  es¬ 
tablished,  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate. 

The  small  farmer  should  get  the  best  possible  results 
from  his  farm,  and  if  leguminous  crops  can  be  so  combined 
that  he  may  take  two  crops  from  the  same  land  in  one  year, 
they  will  be  of  profit  to  him. 

The  following  outline  will  briefly  show  how  some  of  the 
crops  above  mentioned  may  be  combined  as  fertilizers: 
Field  peas  may  be  sown  early  in  spring  with  oats  and  cut 
for  hay  the  latter  part  of  June.  The  ground  may  then  be 
planted  to  Mexican  beans. 

Field  peas  may  be  sown  early  and  allowed  to  ripen  seed, 
after  which  the  land  may  be  devoted  to  Cow-peas  which 
may  be  either  turned  under  or  cut  for  hay. 

Hairy  Vetch  may  be  sown  in  the  fall  and  plowed  under 
in  the  following  spring.  Mexican  beans  or  Cow-peas  may 
follow  it. 

Cow-peas  may  be  sown  quite  early  in  the  spring  and 
cut  for  hay,  after  which  the  land  may  be  sown  to  vetch  and 
the  growth  turned  under  the  following  spring. 

By  some  such  system  of  cropping  as  outlined  above,  the 
farmer  can  make  his  supply  of  yard  manure  do  much  greater 
service. 

The  above  mentioned  crops  will  enter  nicely  into  a  3  or 
4  year  rotation  with  cantaloupes,  beets  or  tomatoes. 


CANTALOUPE  BLIGHT  IN  1901. 


BY  H.  H  GRIFFIN. 


Bulletin  No.  62,  gave  full  information  of  our  results 
looking  to  the  control  of  the  cantaloupe  blight,  closing  with 
the  season  of  1900. 

The  work  in  1901  was  planned  as  follows:  To  treat  the 
seed  with  Bordeaux  mixture  to  control  the  blight;  to  de¬ 
termine  at  what  stage  of  growth  the  spraying  should  be  done 
to  be  most  efficient 

The  work  attempted  on  the  station  grounds  was  destroy¬ 
ed  by  a  hailstorm  the  24th  day  of  July.  Some  knowledge 
was  gained  of  the  efficacy  of  early  spraying  in  a  field  be¬ 
longing  to  a  Mr.  Dixon.  He  had  sprayed  one  part  of  his 
field  twice  and  another  part  three  times.  The  first  spray¬ 
ing  was  done  when  the  vines  had  started  to  run  slightly. 
The  second  spraying  was  done  about  the  time  the  melons 
were  setting  on  the  vines,  the  third  about  the  time 
picking  for  market  commenced. 

At  the  time  I  saw  the  field  (first  of  September)  there 
was  a  marked  difference  in  the  vines  in  the  two  lots.  Those 
sprayed  early  (hence  had  the  three  sprayings)  were  in  much 
the  better  condition,  and  Mr.  Dixon  said  the  melons  were 
of  better  quality.  Mr.  Dixon  has  used  the  Bordeaux  spray 
for  two  seasons  and  is  very  enthusiastic  over  the  benefits  to 
be  derived  from  its  use  for  control  of  cantaloupe  blight. 

Another  field  that  was  given  one  spraying  late  in  July, 
was  thrifty  and  bearing  splendid  melons  (August  26)  when 
fields  across  the  fence  had  been  abandoned  for  ten  days, 
both  fields  having  produced  melons  the  previous  year. 

The  sprayed  field  was  also  near  two  fields  of  melons 
growing  on  alfalfa  sod  that  about  September  first  were  ap¬ 
parently  in  the  best  of  condition.  By  Sept.  18th,  the  fields 
on  the  alfalfa  sod  were  almost  destroyed  by  the  blight, 
while  the  sprayed  field  remained  in  quite  good  condition 
and  was  yielding  melons  of  good  quality.  The  sprayed 
field  of  14  acres,  yielded  3300  crates  of  marketable  melons 
Mr.  Crum,  the  owner,  after  two  years’  trial  of  the  spray,  is 
well  pleased  with  the  results. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  vines  on  the  station  grounds 
a  part  of  an  adjoining  field  was  sprayed.  This  had  been 


CANTALOUPE  BLIGHT. 


1 3 

heavily  manured  with  sheep  manure  and  was  planted  the 
last  of  May.  The  work  was  done  July  30th,  at  which 
time  the  vines  were  almost  covering  the  ground. 

About  the  25th  of  August,  the  blight  was  making  rapid 
progress  in  all  melon  fields.  The  benefit  derived  from  the 
spraying  in  this  field  was  especially  well  marked.  About 
Sept.  1,  the  unsprayed  vines  were  giving  up  fully  twice  as 
many  melons  per  day  as  the  sprayed  vines.  The  latter 
were  ripening  somewhat  as  they  would  under  normal  con¬ 
ditions,  but  the  others,  both  vine  and  fruit,  were  deterior¬ 
ating  rapidly. 

A  portion  of  a  field  on  the  station  that  was  planted  the 
first  of  June,  and  which  recuperated  after  the’  hail,  was 
given  two  sprayings,  one  late  in  September  and  again  about 
ten  days  after.  The  results  confirm  the  results  given  else¬ 
where  in  regard  to  the  efficacy  of  the  Bordeaux  for  the 
control  of  the  blight. 

That  nothing  but  fresh  lime  should  be  used  in  the 
preparation  of  the  Bordeaux  was  especially  emphasized  in 
this  work.  We  used  some  air  slaked  lime,  as  it  happened 
to  be  at  hand,  and  a  portion  of  the  vines  were  badly  injured 
by  the  spray,  giving  them  much  the  appearance  of  a  bad 
case  of  blight.  There  was  one  significant  feature  of  this, 
the  vines  that  were  apparently  badly  injured  by  the  spray 
recuperated  and  looked  well  afterwards,  while  those  at¬ 
tacked  by  blight  grew  worse. 

There  is  evidence  that  the  blight  is  more  than  a  local 
trouble.  The  writer  happened  to  visit  some  melon  fields  in 
the  vicinity  of  Brighton,  about  September  first,  and  there 
saw  the  blight  doing  serious  injury.  Reports  and  specimens 
of  melon  leaves  sent  me  from  Grand  Junction  indicate  that 
the  disease  is  well  established  there.  The  observations  of 
this  year  verify  those  of  last  year  in  that  the  disease  is  well 
distributed  over  the  entire  Arkansas  valley.  Both  the 
farmers  and  the  shipping  agents  realize  that  the  trouble  is  a 
serious  one  and  are  considering  its  consequences.  That 
the  trouble  was  only  temporary  is  no  longer  held  as  a 
tenable  opinion,  but  rather  one  demanding  such  treatment 
as  will  lessen  its  ravages. 

The  weather  conditions  have  been  the  most  favorable 
for  a  study  of  the  disease  of  any  I  have  ever  had  in  that  it 
was  more  of  a  typical  season.  Two  of  the  former  seasons 
were  extremely  wet  during  Juiy  and  August  and  that  of 
1  goo  was  very  dry.  The  rain  of  the  last  season  was  moderate 
in  amount  and  well  distributed.  Two  features  were  promi¬ 
nently  brought  out  this  year.  One  was  to  avoid  the  use  of 
any  heating  manure  previous  to  planting  melons  and  the 


BULLETIN  68. 


14 

other  was  the  necessity  for  rotation  of  other  crops  with 
cantaloupes.  A  comparison  of  cantaloupe  fields  in  close 
proximity,  some  of  which  were  on  alfalfa  sod,  some  on  grain 
land  and  others  on  cantaloupe  ground,  revealed  the  great 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  the  alfalfa  land. 
Land  that  had  been  in  melons  for  a  number  of  years  showed 
the  blight  in  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  number  of  years  to 
which  the  land  had  been  cropped  to  melons.  Heating 
sheep  manure  is  especially  undesirable  to  precede  melons, 

I  had  under  observation,  this  year,  one  field  in  which 
the  seed  had  been  planted  March  28.  April  18  the  seed  was 
practically  in  the  same  condition  as  when  planted.  April  27 
the  seed  was  irrigated;  many  of  the  seed  sprouted  but  no 
plants  up.  May  8  some  of  the  plants  were  up  and  had  the 
third  leaf,  others  were  just  coming  up,  while  about  one-third 
of  the  field  had  to  be  replanted.  The  first  ripe  melon 
was  taken  July  27. 

Comparing  this  field  with  others  the  conclusion  can  be 
aptly  drawn  that  had  the  planting  been  done  one  month 
later  the  results  would  have  been  fully  as  good,  if  not 
better  Last  Spring  was  one  of  the  most  favorable  of 
springs  for  extremely  early  planting. 


EXPRESS  BOOK  PRINT 
FORT  COLLINS,  COLO. 


Bulletin  69. 


March,  1902. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


PLANT  DISEASES 

OF  1901. 

—  BY — 

WENDELL,  PADDOCK. 


A 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1902. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS,  - 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  - 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE,  .... 

Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


Canon  City,  - 

Term 

Expires 

-  1903 

Denver, 

-  1903 

Denver, 

-  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

1905 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Denver, 

1907 

Gypsum, 

1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

ex-officio. 


Executive  committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS.  , 


STATION  STAFF. 


L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director, 
C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S., 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S., 

E.  D.  BALL,M.  S., 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  - 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S., 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., 
EARLJDOUGLASS,  B.  S., 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S., 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S., 


Irrigation  Engineer 
-  -  Entomologist 

Chemist 

. -  Agriculturist 

. Horticulturist 

-  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 
Assistant  Entomologist 
Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 
-  Assistant  Horticulturist 
-  Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyeord 
Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 


L.IG.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

k.  M.  HAWLEY,  -  --  --  --  --  -  Secretary 


A.  D.  MILLIGAN,  ------  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


'  :  >. " 


Apple  trees  killed  by  too  much  water  and  root  rot. 


PLANT  DISEASES 

OF  1901. 


By  WENDELL  PADDOCK. 


INTRODUCTION. 

A  brief  account  is  given  in  the  following  pages  of  some  of  the 
plant  diseases  which  have  come  to  our  attention  during  the  past 
season.  Only  a  few  of  these  were  brought  to  our  notice  by  corre¬ 
spondents,  and  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  bulletin  to  stimulate  a 
greater  interest  in  the  subject,  for  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
these  pests  of  our  crops  will  increase  in  Colorado  as  they  have  done  in 
older  States.  By  prompt  attention  many  of  them  may  be  overcome 
or  controlled.  In  a  State  so  large  as  ours  it  is  impossible  for  one 
or  two  men,  w7ith  the  time  at  our  disposal,  to  visit  very  many  differ¬ 
ent  localities.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  in  the  interest  of  all  that 
any  untoward  condition  of  crops,  be  it  due  either  to  insects  or  fungi, 
should  be  reported  to  the  Experiment  Station.  Specimens  of  the 
affected  plants  should  in  all  cases  accompany  the  report. 

Now  a  word  as  to  the  nature  of  plant  diseases.  This  term  is 
commonly  applied  to  a  class  of  plants  known  as  fungi,  and  some¬ 
times  to  the  result  of  unfavorable  soil  or  atmospheric  condi¬ 
tions,  but  rarely  to  insect  attacks.  The  following  pages  have 
to  do  mostly  with  fungi.  These  plants  are  low  in  the  scale 
of  ’development  and  are  mostly  of  microscopic  size,  though 
some  of  them,  as  toad  stools  and  puff  balls,  are  familiar 
objects.  Plants  of  this  class  are  unable  to  take  nourishment 
from  the  soil,  consequently  they  must  live  on  food  that  has  been 
prepared  by  other  plants.  Man)7  of  them  live  on  decaying  vegetable 
matter,  but  others  are  true  parasites,  attacking  live  plants  and  thus 
becoming  of  economic  importance.  These  tiny  plants  have  organs 
that  correspond  to  the  roots,  branches  and  seeds  of  higher  plants. 

The  seed- like  organs  or  spores,  go  through  a  process  of  germi¬ 
nation  much  the  same  as  a  grain  of  corn.  Being  so  small  they  are 
readily  borne  about  by  the  wind  and  when  they  chance  to  fall  on 
the  kind  of  plant  to  which  the  fungus  is  adapted — its  host  plant — 
and  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  germination,  the  fungus  readily 
gains  a  foothold. 


4 


Bulletin  69. 


It  has  been  found  that  spores  are  unable  to  germinate  in  the 
presence  of  small  amounts  of  copper,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this 
fact  when  plants  are  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  copper 
in  the  mixture  protects  plants,  hence  the  better  the  spraying  is  done 
the  more  complete  is  the  protection.  The  fact  that  Bordeaux  is  not 
a  cure  should  be  borne  in  mind,  and  to  be  a  successful  preventive  it 
must  be  applied  before  the  spores  are  disseminated. 

Fungi  that  live  in  the  soil  and  attack  the  roots  of  plants  are  not 
dependent  on  spores  as  a  means  of  dissemination.  The  root-like 
organs,  or  hyphse,  spread  through  the  soil  from  plant  to  plant,  or 
they  may  be  distributed  by  the  cultivator  or  other  means.  With 
root  diseases  the  treatment  is  more  complicated,  since  there  is  usually 
no  way  of  telling  that  a  plant  is  affected  until  it  is  past  recovery. 
A  systematic  rotation  of  crops  is  often  of  help  in  keeping  annual  and 
biennial  plants  healthy,  but  with  orchards  little  can  be  done  after 
the  trees  are  attacked.  Good  care  in  every  respect  will  be  a  great 
aid  in  keeping  the  trees  free  from  disease. 

Many  of  the  fungi  which  produce  disease  in  plants  are  invisible 
to  the  unaided  eye,  hence  they  are  apt  to  be  regarded  as  something 
mysterious  and  the  effects  are  often  ascribed  to  other  causes.  The 
action  of  climate,  altitude,  winter  injury,  alkali  and  water  are  often 
mistaken  for  the  effects  of  attacks  of  fungi.  For  example,  the  potato 
failures  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  have  long  been  thought  to  be 
due  entirely  (o  peculiar  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  fact  that  the  famous  Greeley  potato  district  lies  only 
twenty  miles  east  and  in  the  same  altitude.  Experiments  conducted 
at  this  station  during  the  past  year  prove  that  the  lack  of  success  is 
due  primarily  to  root  diseases  which  thrive  much  better  in  our 
heavy  soil  than  in  the  lighter  and  better  drained  soils  in  the  potato 
district.  The  fact  that  we  have  occasional  successes  here  is  no  doubt 
largely  due  to  planting  clean  seed  in  soil  that  is  free  from  disease, 
or  the  conditions  are  not  suitable  for  the  best  development  of  the 
fungi  during  certain  seasons. 


APPLE  TREE  ROOT  ROT. 

The  presence  of  an  unusual  amount  of  yellow  foliage  on  fruit 
trees  last  spring  attracted  attention  in  various  localities  in  Northern 
Colorado.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  too  much  water  will  produce 
yellow  foliage,  and  this  is  the  cause  that  is  commonly  thought  to  be 
accountable  for  this  condition.  As  the  leaves  usually  regain  their 
normal  color  before  the  close  of  the  season  but  little  attention  is 
given  to  the  subject.  An  unusual  amount  of  rain  in  the  early  sum¬ 
mer  was  probably  the  cause  of  this  general  appearance  of  yellow 
foliage,  but  many  fruit  growers  have  noticed  that  occasional  trees 
are  affected  in  this  manner  year  after  year  and  finally  die  without 
any  apparent  cause,  while  adjacent  trees  remain  healthy.  It  is  not 


PLATE  II. 

Winter  injury  of  apple  trees  induced  by  peculiar  soil  conditions. 


PLATE  Ml. 

Blackberry  roots  injured  by  Rhizoctonia.  Natural  size. 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


5 


uncommon  for  such  trees  to  die  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  when 
the  fruit  and  foliage  wither  and  cling  to  the  dead  branches.  Such 
trees  are  usually  comparatively  loose  in  the  soil,  in  fact,  some  of 
them  may  be  tipped  over  while  they  are  yet  alive.  Upon  examina¬ 
tion  the  larger  roots  will  be  found  to  be  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
decay,  and  the  feeding  roots  finally  become  so  reduced  that  there 
are  not  enough  left  to  support  the  tree. 

Certain  fungi  are  constantly  associated  with  the  diseased  roots, 
and  it  is  probable  that  they  are  ultimately  responsible  for  the  death 
of  the  tree.  As  a  result  of  numerous  examinations,  it  was  found  that 
these  same  fungi  also  attack  the  roots  of  trees  that  are  apparently 
healthy.  Now  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  these  diseases  may  live  on 
the  roots  of  a  tree  for  a  number  of  years  without  doing  much  harm, 
but  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  weakened  from  any  cause  the  fungus  makes 
rapid  advance. 

Trees  that  take  on  yellow  foliage  from  overirrigation  suffer  a 
temporary  check  in  growth,  from  which  they  apparently  recover  in 
a  short  time.  But  if  this  is  repeated  year  after  year  the  ultimate 
effect  must  be  very  injurious.  A  wet,  heavy  soil,  however,  produces 
ideal  conditions  for  the  growth  of  root  destroying  fungi  which  appear 
to  be  abundant  in  our  State,  and  when  a  favorable  opportunity 
occurs  they  become  destructive. 

Winter  injuries,  which  result  in  sun  scald,  black  heart,  freezing 
of  the  roots  and  dry  freezing  of  both  roots  and  branches,  are  potent 
causes  of  the  weakening  of  the  vitality  of  trees  in  some  sections  of 
the  State.  Trees  may  be  injured  in  some  one  of  the  above  ways  and 
yet  not  show  any  marked  indication  that  anything  is  wrong. 

A  good  deal  of  damage  is  also  done  to  fruit  trees  by  the  attacks 
of  wooly  aphis,  which  are  abundant  in  many  localities.  They 
increase  rapidly  if  left  undisturbed,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the 
root  system  may  soon  be  infested.  These  conditions  result  in  serious 
injury  and  trees  may  even  be  ruined  by  such  attacks.  Root  fungi 
are  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  the  enfeebled  roots,  and  it  is  likely 
that  in  many  instances  they  rapidly  extend  these  injuries. 

In  some  localities  the  natural  drainage  of  the  soil  is  poor,  and 
it  is  evident  that  too  much  water  is  being  used  in  irrigating.  In  a 
number  of  orchards  visited  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  soil  had 
been  raised  till  the  lower  roots  of  the  trees  were  apparently  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  saturated  soil  most  of  the  time.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  small  orchards,  where  the  owners  grow  small  fruits  or  truck  crops 
between  the  rows  to  supplement  the  income  from  the  orchard.  Root 
fungi  thrive  remarkably  well  under  these  conditions,  and  the  com¬ 
bination  of  causes  is  doing  no  small  amount  of  damage.  One  orch¬ 
ard  came  under  my  observation  where  all  of  the  trees  on  an  area  of 
about  two  acres  had  been  ruined.  (See  Plate  I.).  Another  orcli- 
ardist  reports  a  yearly  loss  of  about  25  out  of  an  orchard  of  1,000 
trees.  Instances  of  this  kind  might  easily  be  multiplied. 


6 


Bulletin  69. 


That  the  trees  are  injured  by  water  under  these  circumstances 
cannot  be  doubted,  since  no  agricultural  plant  can  thrive  in  a  sat¬ 
urated  soil.  We  have  not  yet  demonstrated  the  exact  relation  which 
fungi  bear  to  this  condition,  but  it  is  evident  that  they  play  an 
important  part  in  the  destruction  of  the  trees.  Certain  species  are 
usually  found  on  the  roots  of  diseased  trees  and  attacking  healthy 
tissue.  Moreover,  young  trees  have  been  known  to  be  killed  in  one 
season,  apparently  by  root  rot,  when  planted  in  the  places  from 
which  dead  trees  had  been  removed. 

This  subject  is  a  most  perplexing  and  important  one,  and  one 
that  is  as  yet  but  little  understood.  We  expect,  however,  to  make  it 
one  of  the  principal  lines  of  investigation  of  this  Section  for  the 
coming  season.  In  the  meantime  certain  sanitary  measures  may  be 
mentioned  that  might  well  be  observed  by  many  orchardists. 

When  it  becomes  evident  that  too  much  water  is  being  used  in 
irrigating,  as  is  indicated  by  yellow  foliage,  or  by  the  raising  of  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  soil,  more  use  might  well  be  made  of  the  culti¬ 
vator.  By  keeping  the  surface  of  the  soil  loose  much  of  the  water 
is  prevented  from  evaporating,  thus  lessening  the  necessity  of  fre¬ 
quent  irrigation.  The  trees  should  be  kept  in  a  thrifty  condition, 
and  yet  not  allowed  to  make  a  rapid  growth,  which  produces  soft 
tissues  that  easily  succumb  to  attacks  of  blight.  On  some  soils  it 
may  be  best  to  keep  the  orchard  seeded  to  alfalfa,  but  usually  better 
results  will  follow  a  systematic  use  of  cover  crops.  The  many 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  cover  crops  cannot  be  dis¬ 
cussed  here,  but  with  this  system  of  cultivation  some  crop  is  sown  in 
the  orchard  in  late  summer  or  early  fall  which  is  plowed  under  the 
next  spring.  Mr.  Griffin  has  found  that  the  best  leguminous  plant 
for  this  purpose  at  Rocky  ford  is  hairy  vetch.  (See  Bulletin  No.  68 
of  this  Station).  Since  this  plant  is  one  of  the  nitrogen  gatherers  it 
may  not  be  advisable  to  use  it  on  all  soils ;  in  such  cases  winter  rye 
may  be  used  instead.  In  localities  where  the  attacks  of  blight  are 
severe,  it  may  be  advisable  not  to  plow  the  crop  under  till  late  in 
the  spring  and  thus  avoid  a  rapid  early  growth  of  new  wood. 


APPLE  TREE  ROSETTE. 

A  peculiar  condition  of  apple  trees  was  brought  to  our  attention 
on  Rogers  Mesa  in  Delta  county  by  the  Horticultural  Inspector. 
More  or  less  of  the  trouble  occurs  in  a  number  of  orchards  in  this 
locality,  consequently  it  is  a  matter  of  considerable  interest  in  the 
county.  Some  of  the  trees  are  dying,  while  there  are  a  number  of 
dead  limbs  on  others,  but  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  disease  is 
a  tuft  or  rosette  of  small  leaves  at  the  end  of  branches  that  are  other¬ 
wise  nearly  bare  of  foliage.  (See  Plate  II.).  The  similarity  of  this 
condition  to  the  peach  tree  rosette,  a  common  disease  in  portions  of 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


7 


the  Southeast,  was  so  great  that  the  presence  of  a  new  apple  tree 
disease  was  suspected. 

I  visited' this  section  in  July  and  collected  numerous  specimens? 
but  no  parasitic  organism  could  be  detected  by  laboratory  investiga¬ 
tion.  Later  on  Mr.  C.  H.  Potter  visited  some  of  these  orchards  and 
made  valuable  observations  on  the  soil  formation.  I  visited  the 
locality  again  in  September  in  company  with  Dr.  Headden,  and  as  a 
result  of  our  observations  and  study,  together  with  the  experience  of 
the  fruit  growers,  we  arrived  at  the  following  conclusions: 

Much  of  the  soil  on  the  Mesa  contains  an  excess  of  marl  and  in 
many  places  this  substance  forms  a  solid  substratum.  At  the  edge 
of  one  orchard  visited  the  owner  was  digging  and  burning  it  to  make 
a  cement  to  be  used  in  mason  work.  The  marl  in  itself  is,  perhaps, 
not  harmful  to  plants;  in  fact,  when  judiciously  applied  to  land  it 
acts  as  a  liberator  of  plant  food,  but  when  present  in  excess  the  soil 
is  infertile.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  roots  penetrate  the 
marl  substratum  they  send  out  few  or  no  fibrous  roots.  The  roots 
do  not  usually  penetrate  this  substratum  to  any  extent,  consequently 
the  trees  are  often  shallow-rooted  in  orchards  where  the  layer  of  marl 
is  close  to  the  surface.  The  level  of  the  lowest  roots  on  one  dying 
tree  was  only  ten  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  At  this  depth 
they  branched  out  horizontally,  where  they  were  readily  injured  by 
lack  of  moisture  and  by  the  action  of  frost.  But  a  more  immediate 
cause  for  this  condition  of  the  trees  is  found  in  the  water  supply. 
Water  is  plentiful  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  but  in  the 
latter  part  of  June  the  supply  has  usually  been  exhausted.  The 
nature  of  the  soil  is  such  that  it  readily  dries  out  and  the  trees  suffer 
for  moisture,  consequently  growth  stops  and  the  tissues  harden.  In 
the  latter  part  of  July  a  partial  supply  of  water  is  again  turned  into 
the  ditches  and  the  orchards  are  irrigated.  The  result  is  that  in 
many  instances  these  trees  make  a  distinct  second  growth  which  is 
immature  when  cold  weather  comes  on.  Those  branches  which  are 
not  killed  outright  but  are  severely  injured  during  the  winter  put 
forth  a  feeble  growth  the  following  spring.  The  end  bud,  usually 
being  the  strongest,  lives  at  the  expense  of  the  others,  consequently 
many  of  the  side  buds  soon  die  if  they  start  into  growth  at  all,  and 
the  terminal  one  develops  a  contracted  branch  on  which  the  leaves 
are  crowded,  thus  forming  the  rosette. 

Second  growth  is  not  always  necessary,  however,  for  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  this  disease.  Shallow-rooted  trees  planted  in  a  soil  that  is 
quickly  dried  out  are  easily  injured  during  the  winter.  This  prob¬ 
ably  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  disease  first  attracted  general 
attention  after  the  hard  winter  of  1898-99. 

One  orchard  was  visited  in  which  a  small  number  of  diseased 
branches  had  appeared,  but  which  had  been  promptly  removed  or 
severely  cut  back  early  in  the  spring.  At  this  date,  October  5,  the 


8 


Bulletin  69. 


trees  appeared  to  be  perfect^  healthy  and  had  made  a  vigorous 
growth  which  showed  no  sign  of  disease.  This  experiment  tends  to 
confirm  the  conclusion  that  the  difficulty  is  due  to  local  conditions 
and  not  to  a  specific  organism  which  might  spread  to  other  portions 
of  the  vallev. 

Apparent^  the  same  difficulty  is  figured  and  described  in  a 
recent  California  bulletin  in  which  the  author  ascribes  the  cause  to 
the  presence  of  alkalies  in  the  soil.  He  states  that  apple  trees  are 
injured  “  by  1,200  pounds  of  carbonate  and  3,000  pounds  of  common 
salt  per  acre  distributed  through  four  feet  depth.” 

The  particular  soil  on  Rogers  Mesa  that  was  examined  con¬ 
tained  1,820  pounds  of  common  salt  per  acre  taken  to  a  depth  of 
one  foot.  While  this  is  a  much  larger  amount  of  salt  than  the  trees 
are  said  to  be  able  to  endure  in  California,  most  of  the  trees  do  not 
show  any  sign  of  the  affection,  though  they  have  been  planted  nine 
years.  This  statement  is  confined  to  the  first  foot  of  soil,  because  it 
is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  portion  of  the  orchard  where  the  soil  is 
four  feet  deep.  Moreover,  the  subsoil  is  a  marl  into  which  the 
trees  had  thrown  very  few  roots. 

The  amount  of  sodic  carbonate  in  this  soil  was  not  determined. 
However,  we  have  had  occasion  to  observe  a  nursery  that  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  a  soil  in  which  the  sodic  carbonate  content  was  determined 
and  found  to  be  2,800  pounds  per  acre,  taken  to  a  depth  of  four  feet. 
The  trees  made  an  excellent  growth  for  three  years  and  showed  no 
sign  of  the  rosette  affection. 

While  these  observations  do  not  prove  that  this  condition  of 
apple  trees  may  not  be  produced  by  the  action  of  alkalies,  they 
point  to  the  conclusion  that  such  an  effect  is  improbable  under  our 
conditions. 

Treatment. — Apple  trees  should  not  be  planted  on  soil  where 
the  marl  substratum  comes  close  to  the  surface,  as  it  will  result  in 
shallow-rooted  trees  with  its  attendant  evils.  In  other  portions  of 
the  district  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  make  the  soil  deeper  and 
to  add  to  it  substance  and  fiber.  Many  Colorado  soils  are  deficient 
in  vegetable  matter,  consequently  they  become  compact  and  dry  out 
rapidly.  Depth  may  be  gained  by  plowing  deeply  before  the  orch¬ 
ard  is  planted,  and  vegetable  matter  added  by  turning  under  strawy 
stable  manure  or  green  manure.  For  the  latter  purpose  some  form 
of  clover,  vetch  or  rye  may  be  used,  preferably  in  the  form  of  a  cover 
crop,  which  should  be  sown  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  and  plowed 
under  during  the  following  spring.  If  water  for  fall  irrigating  is 
available  the  crop  will  make  growth  sufficient  to  afford  considerable 
protection  to  the  roots  against  the  action  of  frost  and  from  drying 
out  by  winter  winds.  Finally,  by  a  judicious  use  of  water,  of  which 


*Laughridge,  R.  H.  “Tolerance  of  Alkali  by  Various  Cultures.”  Calif.  Agri. 
Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  133:14. 


COLORADO 

experiment 

'Station 


PLATE  IV. 

Fig.  1.  Cherry  tree  injured  by  mound  parasite. 
Fig.  2.  Detail  of  apple  limbs  shown  in  Plate  II. 


Colorado  Ekperiment^tation. 

PLATE  V. 


Fig.  1.  Spore  pustules  of  rust  fungus  on  branch  of  Asparagus.  Enlarged. 

Fig.  2.  Aster  killed  by  Fusarium. 

Fig.  3.  Raspberry  leaves  curling  at  edges.  The  result  of  an  attack  of  Rhizoc- 
tonia  on  the  roots. 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


9 


an  abundance  is  promised  the  Mesa  for  the  coming  season,  it  is  not 
likely  that  this  disease  will  be  very  injurious  on  soils  that  are  of  suf¬ 
ficient  depth  to  make  suitable  orchard  land. 


APPLE  INJURY  FROM  SPRAYING  WITH  BORDEAUX 

MIXTURE. 

Complaints  were  received  from  correspondents  at  Canon  City 
and  Montrose  that  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  had  seriously 
injured  the  fruit  of  certain  varieties  of  apple  trees.  The  injury  pro¬ 
duced  is  well  shown  in  the  illustration  in  Plate  VIII.,  Fig.  3,  which  is 
from  a  photograph  of  a  Ben  Davis  apple  that  is  so  disfigured  as  to  be 
unsalable.  This  variety  appears  to  be  very  susceptible  to  such 
injury,  though  a  number  of  other  kinds  were  injured  more  or  less. 
All  degree  of  disfigurement  occurred,  from  a  slight  russeting  of  the 
skin  to  the  malformation  shown  in  the  figure. 

That  the  corrosive  action  of  Bordeaux  mixture  is  responsible  for 
this  condition  there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  subject  has  attracted  con¬ 
siderable  attention  in  the  Eastern  States,  where  it  has  been  found 
that  such  injuries  are  much  more  common  in  some  seasons  than  in 
others.  Just  what  the  conditions  are  that  favor  this  action  of  the 
mixture  have  not  been  determined  and  the  subject  is  still  in  an 
experimental  stage.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  arid  regions, 
since  fungicides  are  just  beginning  to  be  used  here  on  fruit  trees. 

In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge,  it  can  only  be  recom¬ 
mended  that  great  care  be  taken  to  see  that  the  mixture  is  properly 
made.  The  formula  on  a  subsequent  page  has  been  found  to  be  suf¬ 
ficiently  strong  for  combating  fruit-tree  diseases  as  they  occur  in  other 
States.  Further  experience  with  spraying  in  Colorado  may  show 
the  necessity  of  modifying  the  formula  to  suit  our  conditions.  And, 
finally,  Bordeaux  mixture  should  not  be  used  unless  it  is  needed. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Canon  City  it  is  said  that  the  bitter  rot  of  apples 
is  abundant  and  the  orchardists  sprayed  their  trees  with  the  mixture 
for  the  purpose  of  combating  this  disease.  But  in  the  majority  of 
the  fruit  growing  districts  apple  trees  are  not  yet  affected  to  any 
extent  by  such  plant  diseases  as  can  be  controlled  with  Bordeaux 
mixture. 


BLACKBERRY  ROOT  DISEASE. 

( Rhizoctonia .  Sp.) 

% 

There  was  a  noticeable  amount- of  light  green  or  yellowish  foli¬ 
age  on  the  blackberry  and  raspberry  plants  in  the  College  plantation 
last  spring,  which  did  not  regain  its  normal  color.  Later  in  the 
season  leaves  on  occasional  plants  began  to  curl  and  shrivel  as 
though  suffering  for  moisture,  and  some  of  the  plants  died.  Appar- 


10 


Bulletin  69. 


ently  healthy  plants  exhibited  this  latter  symptom.  (See  Plate  V.,  Fig. 
3).  Upon  examination,  the  bushes  were  found  to  be  attacked  by  a 
root  fungus  which  is  closely  related  to  the  one  which  is  so  destruct¬ 
ive  to  potatoes.  (See  Bulletin  No.  70  of  this  Station).  All  parts  of 
the  plant  below  ground  were  attacked,  but  the  greatest  injury 
occurred  on  the  canes  above  the  crown.  Here,  as  shown  in  the  illustra¬ 
tion  in  Plate  III.,  the  bark  was  discolored  and  shrunken  from  the 
crown  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  a  short  distance  above.  The  fungus 
grows  on  and  within  the  bark,  destroying  the  tissues,  and  thus  inter¬ 
fering  with  the  movement  of  plant  food.  The  injury  commonly 
extends  around  the  cane,  and  when  it  becomes  deep  enough  to  cut 
off  the  supply  of  moisture  and  food,  the  plant  dies. 

The  presence  of  the  yellowish  foliage  was  probably  due  to  a 
badly  diseased  root  system  at  the  beginning  of  the  season.  An 
excess  of  moisture  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  was  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  the  fungus,  which  made  rapid  inroads  on  the  plant’s 
vitality.  That  they  were  poorly  nourished,  was  indicated  by  the 
yellow  appearance  of  the  leaves. 

The  drying  up  of  leaves  on  apparently  healthy  canes  may  have 
been  due  to  a  vigorous  attack  of  the  fungus  which,  because  of  favor¬ 
able  conditions,  was  able  to  seriously  injure  the  plant  in  a  short 
time. 

This  fungus,  Rhizodonia,  is  destructive  to  a  great  variety  of 
plants,  and  it  is  widely  distributed  in  the  State.  There  are  possibly 
several  species  of  the  fungus,  which  may  be  destructive  to  different 
plants.  Little  is  known  about  the  disease,  and  some  investigators 
regard  it  as  a  sterile  fungus,  or  one  that  produces  no  spores.  But 
our  investigations  indicate  that  Rhizoctonia  is  but  a  stage  in  the 
development  of  a  fungus  of  which  some  species  are  well  known  under 
another  name. 

There  is  no  way  of  curing  diseased  plants,  nor  a  practical 
means  of  preventing  the  disease  from  spreading  after  it  makes  its 
appearance  in  a  plantation.  It  is  a  wise  precaution  to  destroy  all 
affected  plants,  but  even  this  severe  measure  will  not  rid  the  soil 
of  the  fungus.  New  plants  filled  in  such  vacancies  are  liable  to  be¬ 
come  diseased  in  a  short  time.  It  has  not  been  determined  how 
long  the  fungus  will  persist  in  the  soil,  but  a  new  plantation  should 
not  be  set  on  land  where  diseased  plants  have  stood  for  at  least  four 
years. 

It  is  undoubtedly  the  same  fungus  which  attacks  both  black¬ 
berries  and  raspberries,  hence  raspberries  should  not  be  set  on  land 
where  diseased  blackberries  have  recently  been  grown,  or  vice  versa. 

Finally,  when  setting  a  new  plantation,  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  get  plants  from  stock  that  is  known  to  be  free  from  the 
disease. 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


11 


CHERRY  TREE  WOUND  PARASITE. 

Mr.  Hankins,  Horticultural  Inspector  for  Larimer  County,  called 
my  attention  to  a  disease  of  cherry  trees  in  an  orchard  at  Berthoud, 
where  about  fifty  trees  in  a  young  orchard  of  sour  cherries  had  been 
destroyed.  All  of  the  badly  diseased  trees  then  remaining  were 
found  to  be  injured  on  the  trunks,  similar  to  those  shown  in  the  il¬ 
lustration  in  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  1.  Large  areas  of  bark  had  been 
destroyed  which  were  still  clinging  tenaciously  to  the  wood.  The 
larger  wounds  were  conspicuous,  and  when  the  dead  bark  was  re¬ 
moved,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  the  left,  it  was  plain  that  these 
injuries  were  the  cause  of  the  death  of  the  trees.  In  some  instances, 
the  trees  were  nearly  girdled,  but  where  the  injury  was  of  less  ex¬ 
tent,  the  loss  of  the  bark,  together  with  the  drying  out  of  the  ex¬ 
posed  wood,  had  interfered  with  the  nutrition  enough'  to  kill  the 
tree.  All  other  parts  were  in  normal  condition. 

The  owner  informed  me  that  the  orchard  had  been  neglected 
and  the  trees  bruised  by  careless  hands  while  it  was  in  charge  of  a 
renter.  It  is  likely  that  such  wounds  afforded  entrance  to  some 
fungus  which  belongs  to  a  class  known  as  wound  parasites.  These 
fungi  are  unable  to  penetrate  living  bark,  but  when  they  gain  ac¬ 
cess  to  the  tissues  through  a  wound  they  are  able  to  entend  the  in¬ 
jury.  On  examining  closely,  an  abundance  of  white  hypha  was 
found  beneath  the  dead  bark,  but  what  part  the  fungus  took  in  the 
injury,  if  any,  has  not  been  determined. 

Some  neglected  trees  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  were  found 
which  showed  similar  symptoms.  These  trees  had  been  torn  by 
wind  and  bruised  by  hail,  thus  producing  wounds  through  which 
fungi  could  enter  readily. 

The  loss  of  trees  in  the  younger  orchard  would  probably  not 
have  occurred  if  greater  pains  had  been  taken  in  cultivating.  When 
wounds  are  accidentally  or  necessarily  made  they  should  immedi¬ 
ately  be  protected  by  a  coat  of  thick  paint  or  grafting  wax.  By  tak¬ 
ing  such  precautions  it  is  not  likely  that  this  disease  of  cherry  trees 
will  cause  much  damage. 


ASPARAGUS  RUST. 

( Puccinia  asparcigi), 

A  portion  of  an  asparagus  plant,  as  shown  in  Plate  V.,  Fig.  1, 
affected  with  rust,  was  received  in  October  from  a  gentleman  at 
Rockyford.  This  is  probably  the  first  time  that  this  fungus  has 
been  reported  from  this  State,  and  while  it  has  done  but  little 
damage  as  yet,  its  presence  here  is  of  importance,  as  it  has  done  a 
large  amount  of  injury  to  asparagus  plantations  in  other  States.  In 
some  localities,  where  many  acres  of  asparagus  were  formerly  grown, 


12 


Bulletin  69. 


the  crop  has  been  practically  abandoned  because  of  the  ravages  of 
this  disease. 

The  fungus  has  three  stages  in  its  development  which  appear 
at  different  times  during  the  season.  The  form  which  usually 
attracts  attention  first  comes  on  the  canes  rather  late  in  the  season, 
when  numerous  dark  brown  pustules  are  pushed  out  through  the 
bark.  These  pustules  are  composed  of  masses  of  spores,  as  are  also 
the  dark  streaks  and  patches  of  a  still  later  stage,  which  also  form 
on  the  canes. 

These  last  spores  remain  on  the  brush  or  fall  to  the  ground, 
where  they  are  ready  to  spread  the  disease  by  attacking  the  new 
shoots  the  following  season.  The  lungus  lives  within  the  tissues  of 
the  plant,  and  where  badly  affected  the  plant  is  so  weakened  that 
but  little  food  is  stored  for  the  succeeding  crop.  This  results  in  a 
reduced  yield,  and  if  the  disease  is  not  checked  the  bed  becomes  un¬ 
profitable  and  many  of  the  plants  are  killed. 

By  way  of  prevention  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  tops  of  the 
plants  be  cut  off  and  burned  early  in  the  fall  before  the  spores  fall 
to  the  ground.  This  method  has  the  disadvantage,  however,  of  be¬ 
ing  injurious  to  the  plants,  as  in  order  to  be  effective  the  tops 
must  be  removed  before  the  plants  are  matured.  This  process  may 
injure  the  plants  nearly  as  much  as  the  fungus. 

*  Sirrine  reports  flattering  results  in  combating  the  disease  on 
Long  Island  by  spraying  with  a  resin-Bordeaux  mixture.  (See 
formulas).  He  expresses  doubt,  however,  whether  this  method 
will  always  pay,  since  the  applications  must  be  frequent  and 
very  thorough,  thus  involving  considerable  expense.  In  these  expe¬ 
riments  from  three  to  five  sprayings  were  given,  beginning  in  July 
after  the  cutting  season  was  over.  In  the  case  of  small  beds  it  will 
no  doubt  be  a  better  plan  to  destroy  the  plants  and  start  anew  on 
uninfested  soil. 


ASTER  WILT. 

( Fusarium .  Sp.) 

The  asters  on  the  College  campus  were  nearly  all  destroyed  last 
season  by  a  species  of  Fusarium.  (See  Plate  V.,  Fig.  2).  The 
plants  appeared  vigorous  and  gave  promise  of  abundant  bloom  up 
to  the  time  the  blossoms  were  beginning  to  open,  when  many  of 
them  began  to  wilt  and  in  a  few  days  were  dead.  In  no  instance, 
so  far  as  noticed,  were  isolated  plants  affected;  in  some  beds  all  of 
the  plants  were  killed,  while  in  others  only  those  in  certain  areas 
died. 

On  examination  the  stalks  were  found  to  be  discolored  for  a 
space  of  one  to  three  or  four  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


*N.  Y.  State  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  188. 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


13 


The  light  pink  spore  masses  of  the  fungus  were  very  abundant  on 
this  area.  It  is  likely  that  the  disease  was  in  the  soil  when  the 
plants  were  set  out  and  that  it  gained  access  to  the  plants  through 
the  crown  or  upper  roots,  as  the  root  system  was  also  badly  diseased. 

The  fungus  grows  within  the  tissues  and  absorbs  the  nourish¬ 
ment  of  the  plant.  Finally  the  communication  between  root  and 
top  becomes  obstructed  by  the  collapse  of  cells  and  the  filling  up  of 
the  passages  by  the  fungus  hypha. 

The  only  remedy  that  can  be  suggested  for  this  disease,  since 
the  fungus  lives  in  the  ground,  is  to  replace  the  soil  in  the  beds  with 
fresh  earth.  This  would  be  practicable  only  with  small  beds.  But 
it  is  possible  that  the  soil  can  be  freed  of  the  fungus  by  taking 
certain  sanitary  precautions.  Such  measures  would  consist,  first,  in 
burning  all  diseased  plants  as  soon  as  they  are  detected,  thus  pre¬ 
venting  further  dissemination  of  spores;  second,  asters  should  not  be 
grown  for  two  or  three  years  in  beds  where  the  disease  has  appeared; 
the  fungus  will  probably  be  starved  out  during  this  time. 


CURRANT  CANE  DISEASE. 

(. Nectria  cinnabarina). 

Currant  bushes  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  are  seriously 
affected  by  a  fungus  which  attacks  the  canes.  It  is  especially  severe 
on  neglected  bushes  in  back  yards,  but  the  College  plantation,  which 
has  always  been  given  good  care,  was  so  badly  diseased  that  it  was 
thought  best  to  destroy  it.  The  fungus  was  also  found  in  an  active 
condition  on  gooseberry  bushes  that  stood  in  adjoining  rows. 

Yellow  foliage  and  dying  canes  are  characteristics  of  this  dis¬ 
ease,  which  often  occur  on  a  bush  where  a  portion  of  the  plant 
appears  healthy.  As  is  common  with  some  other  plant  diseases, 
many  of  the  canes  die  after  the  fruit  becomes  of  considerable  size 
and  both  fruit  and  foliage  shrivel  and  cling  to  the  stems.  Badly 
diseased  plants  are  frequently  killed.  The  reproductive  bodies  of 
the  fungus  occur  in  great  abundance  on  the  dead  canes  in  the  form 
of  brick-red  masses  or  tubercles,  which  are  shown  natural  size  in 
Plate  VI.,  Fig.  2. 

*  Spraying  with  fungicides  is  not  likely  to  prove  practical  as  a 
preventive  of  this  trouble,  as  spores  may  be  produced  at  any  time 
during  the  season.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  remove  the  entire 
plant  and  burn  it  as  soon  as  any  part  shows  evidence  of  the  disease. 
If  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  the  affected  parts  may  mature  spores 
and  spread  the  disease  toother  plants.  It  has  been  determined  that 
the  fungus  lives  from  year  to  year  within  the  tissues  of  the  currant 
plant,  and  that  a  plant  may  be  infested  for  some  time  without  show- 


*Durand,  E.  J.  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  125. 


14 


Bulletin  69. 


ing  any  evidence  of  disease.  Therefore  cuttings  should  not  be  taken 
from  a  plantation  in  which  this  fungus  has  appeared. 


GRAPE  ANTHRACNOSE. 

(. Sphaceloma  ampelinum.  De  By.) 

During  the  month  of  June  the  grape  vines  in  the  College  vine¬ 
yard  were  found  to  be  seriously  diseased  with  anthracnose  as  is 
shown  in  the  illustration  in  Plate  VII.  Numerous  dark  colored  pits 
or  depressions  occurred  on  the  young  canes  and  on  the  stems  of  the 
leaves  and  fruit  clusters.  Many  of  the  spots  grew  into  each  other 
as  the  disease  progressed,  thus  forming  continuous  depressions  which 
in  some  cases  nearly  girdled  the  affected  parts.  The  centers  of  the 
depressions  also  took  on  a  whitish  color,  and  finally  very  minute 
raised  points  or  pustules  appeared,  in  which  the  spores  are  born. 

The  first  effect  seen  on  the  leaf  blade  was  in  the  form  of  fine, 
irregular  cracks  with  brown  edges.  Later  in  the  season  the  leaves 
presented  a  torn  and  ragged  appearance  where  two  or  more  cracks 
ran  together.  Leaves  attacked  when  quite  young  were  severely  in¬ 
jured  and  their  surface  materially  reduced,  as  shown  in  the  plate. 

The  characteristic  appearance  of  diseased  fruit  is  well  shown  in 
the  illustration  where  one  fruit  is  attacked  and  a  seed  exposed 
through  a  circular  wound.  The  diseased  berries  do  not  decay,  but 
the  affected  portions  become  hard  and  shrivelled. 

In  Europe,  as  well  as  in  many  portions  of  the  Eastern  States, 
this  fungus  has  proven  difficult  to  combat.  When  once  well  estab¬ 
lished  in  a  vineyard  it  has  usually  taken  two  or  three  years  of  most 
thorough  treatment  to  get  it  under  control.  Fortunately,  however, 
the  disease  does  not  spread  rapidly. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  vines  be  sprayed  thoroughly  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  beginning  early  in  the  spring  at  the  time  when 
the  buds  are  commencing  to  swell.  This  treatment  should  be  fol¬ 
lowed  bv  four  or  five  others  made  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks. 


PEA  ROOT  DISEASE. 

During  the  season  of  1900  Mr.  C.  H.  Potter,  assistant  in  Horti¬ 
culture,  gave  considerable  attention  to  a  destructive  pea  disease 
which  made  its  appearance  in  the  vicinity  of  Longmont.  The 
trouble  was  not  generally  distributed,  but  was  confined  to  certain 
fields.  In  these  fields  where  the  disease  was  most  severe  a  majority 
of  the  plants  were  killed  before  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Different  fields  presented  all  variations  in  the  amount  of  injury,  from 
partial  to  complete  failures  of  the  crop. 

The  disease  was  not  so  destructive  last  season,  as  only  a  few 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


15 


fields  showed  evidence  of  its  presence.  I  examined  one  tract  of  land 
that  had  been  sown  to  peas  at  the  usual  time  in  the  spring.  Most 
of  the  seed  failing  to  grow,  the  ground  was  plowed  and  again  sown 
to  peas.  At  the  time  of  my  visit  the  field  had  the  appearance  of 
fallow  land,  as  only  an  occasional  pea  plant  was  to  be  seen. 

The  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  Longmont  is  well  adapted  to  pea 
growing,  about  2,500  acres  being  grown  there  annually  to  supply 
the  canning  factory,  which  makes  a  specialty  of  this  product.  The 
fields  in  which  the  disease  made  its  appearance  have  always  pro¬ 
duced  good  crops  of  other  kinds.  A  good  crop  of  wheat  grew  the 

vear  before  on  the  one  that  I  examined. 

-«/ 

My  attention  wTas  called  to  this  disease  first  in  September  of 
1900,  when  I  took  up  the  work  of  this  department,  but  no  investi¬ 
gations  could  be  undertaken  at  that  time.  During  the  following 
winter  some  soil  was  secured  from  an  infected  field,  which  was 
placed  in  flats  in  the  greenhouse  and  sown  to  peas. 

The  plants  grown  in  this  soil  were  nearly  all  attacked  by  fungi 
on  the  roots  and  on  the  stems  below  ground.  The  injury  was  not 
severe  enough,  however,  to  kill  them,  and  as  the  vines  grew  and 
bent  over  they  were  attacked  at  the  point  where  they  came  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  earth.  These  diseased  areas  were  soon  overrun  by 
various  saprophytic  fungi,  so  it  was  difficult  to  tell  what  was  the 
real  cause  of  the  trouble.  However,  there  was  a  large  colored  hypha 
constantly  present  in  the  diseased  parts  and  the  same  hypha  was 
found  to  be  abundant  in  specimens  collected  in  the  field  by  Mr. 
Potter  the  summer  before  and  preserved  in  formalin. 

All  attempts  to  cultivate  the  fungus  artificially  failed,  since 
it  produced  no  spores  and  the  diseased  areas  on  the  stems 
were  so  contaminated  with  other  forms  that  efforts  to  secure 
cultures  by  other  means  failed.  The  distinctive  character  of  the 
hypha  showed  that  it  belonged  to  a  group  of  fungi  commonly  known 
&s  Rhizodonia,  and  that  it  was  closely  related  to  if  not  identical  with 
the  disease  that  is  so  destructive  to  potatoes  in  this  State. 

The  soil  was  then  turned  over  to  Mr.  Rolfs  to  determine  whether 
it  was  infested  with  this  potato  fungus  with  which  he  was  working. 
A  part  of  it  was  placed  in  pots  and  planted  to  potatoes.  Eight  pots 
were  planted  with  clean  potatoes  that  had  been  treated  with  corros¬ 
ive  sublimate  to  free  them  from  disease.  The  soil  in  another  lot  of 
eight  pots  was  sterilized  with  steam  for  three  days,  two  hours  a  day, 
to  kill  all  plant  life  that  it  contained.  These  pots  were  planted  with 
clean  potatoes  treated  as  above.  In  the  first  series  all  the  plants 
were  affected  with  Rhizodonia.  In  the  second  all  of  the  plants,  with 
one  exception,  were  free  from  the  disease.  The  presence  of  the 
fungus  in  the  one  pot  may  easily  have  been  due  to  carelessness  in 
watering,  as  it  stood  by  the  side  of  the  others  that  contained  the  un¬ 
sterilized  soil. 


16 


Bulletin  69. 


Inoculation  experiments  were  undertaken  with  potato  Rhizoc- 
tonia,  both  with  pure  cultures  and  with  the  sclerotia  as  they  occur  on 
potato  tubers.  Peas  were  germinated  in  the  laboratory  and  when 
the  caulicle  was  about  an  inch  long  the  inoculation  was  made. 
Some  of  the  fungus  from  the  cultures  was  placed  between  the 
caulicle  and  the  cotyledons ;  then  the  peas  were  planted  in  coarse 
river  sand  in  the  greenhouse.  Peas  that  were  not  inoculated  were 
planted  at  the  same  time  to  serve  as  a  check  on  the  work.  The  re¬ 
sult  of  the  experiment  shows  that  the  fungus  occuring  on  the  potato 
is  parasitic  on  the  pea,  as  the  roots  of  all  inoculated  plants  were 
badly  diseased  and  in  some  instances  the  caulicle  of  the  young  plant 
was  cut  off.  But  in  no  instance  were  the  plants  killed,  as  they 
threw  out  new  roots  above  the  injury  and  were  able  in  a  measure  to 
overcome  the  disease.  Roots  of  the  pea  plants  that  were  injured  by 
the  fungus  in  these  inoculation  experiments  are  shown  in  Plate  VI., 
Fig.  1.  The  check  plants  grown  under  the  same  conditions,  but 
not  inoculated,  showed  no  signs  of  disease.  These  experiments  were 
repeated  and  varied  by  placing  portions  of  the  fungus  under  both 
caulicle  and  plumule.  Rhizodonia  sclerotia  taken  from  potatoes  and 
started  into  vigorous  growth  by  placing  them  in  a  moist  chamber 
over  night  were  used  in  the  same  way;  the  results  were  the  same  as 
before. 

These  experiments  do  not  prove  conclusively  that  the  so-called 
Rhizodonia  disease  of  potatoes  is  the  cause  of  this  trouble  with  peas, 
but  the  indications  point  strongly  to  this  conclusion.  It  is  known 
that  this  fungus  is  destructive  to  a  great  variety  of  plants  and  these 
experiments  show  that  it  may  injure  peas.  That  it  did  not  kill  the 
pea  plants  in  the  inoculation  experiments  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  conditions  in  the  greenhouse  were  not  suitable  for  the  best 
development  of  the  fungus.  The  failure  of  the  fungus  to  kill  the 
peas  that  were  grown  in  the  greenhouse  in  soil  from  an  infested  field 
must  also  have  been  due  to  unfavorable  conditions. 

As  a  result  of  these  observations  and  experiments  it  is  safe  to 
conclude  that  the  pea  disease  is  due  to  a  fungus  that  is  in  the  soil 
when  the  peas  are  planted.  There  is  no  practical  way  of  detecting 
its  presence  until  its  effects  are  seen  on  the  pea  plants,  consequently 
the  discovery  of  a  method  of  treatment  would  seem  to  be  a  difficult 
matter;  some  suggestions,  however,  obtained  from  the  study  of  other 
plant  diseases  may  be  of  value. 

First — The  heavier  soils  should  be  avoided  for  pea  growing,  as 
root  diseases,  especially  the  fungus  that  attacks  potatoes  as  mentioned 
above,  is  much  more  severe  on  such  soils. 

Second — By  deep  plowing  the  diseased  surface  soil  may  be 
buried  so  deeply  that  the  fungus  will  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
young  roots.  After  the  pea  plants  are  thoroughly  established  it  is 
probable  that  the  fungus  will  have  only  a  slightly  injurious  effect, 


Colorado 

Ex  PE  R I H  ENT 

•Stati  on 


PLATE  VI. 

Fig.  1.  Pea  roots  injured  by  inoculating  with  Rhizoctonia  from  potato. 

Fig.  2.  Fruiting  bodies  of  Nectria  cinnabarina  on  currant  canes.  Both  figures 
natural  size. 


PLATE  VII. 

Anthracnose  of  the  grape.  Showing  injury  to  cane,  leaf,  leaf  stem,  fruit  and 

stem  of  fruit  cluster.  Natural  size. 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


17 


as  the  experiments  indicate  that  the  disease  is  most  destructive  when 
the  plants  are  small. 

Third — As  little  water  should  be  used  in  irrigating  as  can  be 
gotten  along  with,  since  root  fungi  in  general  thrive  best  in  a  wet 
soil. 

Fourth — It  is  within  the  range  of  possibilities  to  secure  a  va¬ 
riety,  or  strain  of  some  variety,  of  peas  that  will  resist  the  attacks  of 
this  fungus.  Recent  reported  advances  made  in  plant  breeding  en¬ 
courages  us  to  believe  that  such  a  strain  may  be  secured,  and  we 
hope  to  undertake  work  of  this  nature  the  coming  season. 


PLUM  LEAF  BLIGHT,  OR  SHOT-HOLE  FUNGUS. 

A  common  disease  of  plum  and  cherry  trees,  known  as  leaf 
blight  or  shot-hole  fungus,  is  illustrated  in  Plate  IX.,  Fig.  1.  A 
common  effect  of  the  fungus  is  to  destroy  small  areas  of  leaf  tissue, 
which  drop  out  and  leave  circular  holes,  thus  suggesting  the  name. 
When  many  of  these  holes  run  together  the  greater  part  of  the  leaf 
is  destroyed.  If  the  fungus  is  severe  in  its  attack  and  the  leaf  sur¬ 
face  is  materially  reduced  during  the  active  growing  season  great 
injury  is  done  to  the  trees. 

Numerous  experiments  have  proven  that  this  leaf  blight  may 
be  easily  controlled  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  *Beach 
recommends  that  three  sprayings  be  made  as  follows :  The  first 
about  ten  days  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen;  the  second  about 
three  weeks  after  the  first,  and  the  third  about  four  weeks  after  the 
second. 

This  disease  is  reported  as  being  quite  abundant  in  some  sea¬ 
sons  in  sections  of  Colorado.  In  such  localities  it  will  undoubtedly 
pay  to  give  the  treatment  recommended  a  trial. 


POTATO  DISEASES. 

Potato  diseases  are  being  made  the  subject  of  special  investiga¬ 
tion  at  this  Station,  as  mentioned  on  another  page,  and  a  report  of  prog¬ 
ress  of  the  work  is  soon  to  be  published  in  bulletin  form.  Whether 
the  fungus  that  has  been  found  to  be  so  destructive  to  this  crop  can 
be  entirely  overcome  has  not  been  determined,  but  much  good  can 
be  done  by  treating  seed  potatoes. 

It  is  our  purpose  merely  to  call  attention  to  the  subject  at  this 
time,  and  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  formulas  for  disinfecting  seed 
potatoes  are  given  on  the  following  page. 


♦Beach,  S.  A.  Rep.  N.  Y.  State  Exp.  Sta.  1896,  p.  399. 


18 


Bulletin  69. 


An  extended  discussion  of  this  subject  will  be  found  in  Bulletin 
No.  70  of  this  Station. 

FORMULAS  FOR  TREATING  DISEASED  SEED  POTATOES. 


Corrosive  sublimate . 1  ounce 

Water . 8  gallons 


Dissolve  the  corrosive  sublimate  in  one  gallon  of  hot  water, 
then  dilute  with  seven  gallons  of  cold  water.  Allow  the  potatoes  to 
soak  one  and  one-half  hours.  When  dry  they  may  be  cut  and 
planted,  though  it  has  been  found  to  be  a  good  practice  to  treat  the 
potatoes  a  week  or  more  before  planting,  since  the  treatment  may 
retard  germination  if  done  just  before  planting. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  it  should  be  used 
in  wooden  or  earthen  vessels,  since  it  corrodes  metals. 

Formalin . . 8  ounces 

Water . . .  .15  gallons 

Soak  the  potatoes  two  hours  in  this  solution,  preferably  a  short 
time  before  planting.  This  remedy  is  somewhat  more  expensive 
than  the  corrosive  sublimate  treatment,  but  it  has  the  advantage  of 
being  non-poisonous,  and  it  may  be  used  in  any  kind  of  vessels. 


QUINCE  RUST. 

i 

( Gymnosporangium .  Sp.) 

Last  season  the  quinces  in  some  sections  of  the  Western  slope 
were  quite  generally  attacked  by  a  fungus  that  is  commonly  known 
as  rust.  The  fruits  were  often  much  distorted  and  worthless,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration  in  Plate  VIII.,  Fig.  1.  Any  part  of  the 
fruits  may  be  attacked,  but  in  this  case  the  blossom  end  was  elong¬ 
ated  into  a  hard  knotty  mass,  on  the  surface  of  which  was  many 
fine  tube-like  projections  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  in  which 
spores  were  produced.  Fruits  which  were  attacked  when  quite 
young  were  much  dwarfed  and  so  distorted  that  they  scarcely  re¬ 
sembled  quince  fruits.  The  fungus  may  also  attack  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  quince  trees,  but  on  the  few  trees  that  were  hastily  ex¬ 
amined,  it  was  only  found  upon  the  fruit. 

The  peculiar  and  interesting  life  history  of  this  plant  disease 
was  worked  out  a  number  of  years  ago,  which  is  briefly  as  follows : 
The  fungus  has  two  stages  in  its  development,  which  are  produced 
on  two  distinct  classes  of  plants.  The  first  stage  occurs  on  cedar 
and  juniper  trees,  on  which  it  produces  enlargments  of  the  twigs 
and  branches.  The  fungus  lives  year  after  year  within  the  tissues, 
and  the  injuries  are  gradually  extended  until  the  branch  or  even 
the  tree  may  be  killed.  Spores  are  given  off  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  from  conspicuous  orange-colored  masses  which  grow  out  from 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


19 


the  diseased  parts.  These  masses  are  sometimes  mistaken  for 
blossoms  or  fruit  of  the  tree,  and  in  some  sections  are  known  as 
cedar  apples.  They  are  moist  and  gelatinous  in  texture  during 
damp  weather,  so  that  the  first  spores  readily  germinate  where  they 
are  borne.  These  in  turn  give  rise  to  minute  secondary  spores,  which 
are  readily  blown  about  by  the  wind  and  which  can  only  grow  on 
some  plant  that  is  a  member  of  the  family  to  which  the  quince  be¬ 
longs.  When  they  chance  to  fall  on  a  quince  tree,  and  the  condi¬ 
tions  are  suitable  for  germination,  rust  is  produced.  The  cedar 
apples  become  dry  and  withered  during  sunny  weather,  consequently 
the  dissemination  of  spores  is  stopped  until  another  rain  softens  the 
mass.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  period  of  infection  may  extend 
over  a  considerable  length  of  time. 

The  spores  that  are  borne  on  the  quince  trees  can  only  grow 
when  they  in  turn  are  carried  to  the  cedars,  thus  starting  new 
sources  ot  infection. 

There  are  a  number  of  species  of  this  fungus  and  all  of  them 
pass  the  second  stage  on  some  member  of  the  same  family  of  plants. 
The  apple  is  sometimes  attacked,  and  the  service  berry  that  grows 
in  the  foot  hills  and  mountains  is  often  badly  diseased.  Fig.  2, 
Plate  VIII.,  is  from  a  natural  size  photograph  of  a  pear  that  was  re¬ 
ceived  from  Glenwood  Springs,  Colo.,  August  29.  A  portion  of  its 
surface  was  covered  with  the  spore  bearing  projections  similar  to 
those  on  the  quince.  It  is  an  uncommon  occurrence,  however,  for 
pears  to  be  attacked  by  this  fungus. 

Experimenters  usually  agree  that  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mix¬ 
ture  has  little  effect  in  preventing  this  fungus  from  attacking  fruit 
trees.  They  all  recommend  that  the  cedar  and  juniper  trees  in  the 
vicinity  of  an  orchard  be  destroyed,  which  of  course  is  a  certain 
remedy.  But  since  orchard  trees  have  been  known  to  be  infected 
from  cedars  eight  miles  away,*  this  method  wTould  not  be  practicable 
in  Colorado.  The  quince  growing  sections  of  the  State  are  mostly 
in  close  proximity  to  the  foot  hills  and  mountains,  the  sides  of  which 
are  covered  with  extensive  cedar  forests.  *  Bailey  cites  an  instance 
in  New  York,  however,  where  the  rust  was  much  less  abundant  in 
sprayed  portions  of  an  orchard  than  it  was  on  the  unsprayed  trees. 

There  are  no  records  of  experiments  on  the  treatment  of  this 
disease  in  the  arid  regions,  but  since  the  dissemination  of  spores 
from  cedar  trees  is  dependent  on  the  rain  fall,  it  is  not  probable  that 
the  fungus  will  be  so  difficult  to  control  as  it  is  in  humid  climates. 
For  this  reason,  also,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  disease  will  be  so 
abundant  every  year  as  it  was  last,  since  it  is  likely  that  a  rain 
came  at  the  time  which  was  most  favorable  for  the  development  and 
spread  of  the  spores. 


*  Bailey,  L.  H.,  Cornell  Univ.  Ag’l.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bulletin  80. 


20 


Bulletin  69. 


However,  if  it  is  thought  best  to  try  to  protect  the  quince  crop, 
the  following  line  of  treatment  is  recommended  :  Spray  thoroughly 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  as  soon  as  the  fruit  has  set,  and  follow  this 
with  two  or  three  more  sprayings  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or  two 
weeks.  The  young  fruit  should  be  protected  with  the  mixture  until 
the  season  of  late  spring  and  early  summer  rains  is  passed. 


STRAWBERRY  LEAF  BLIGHT. 

(Sphcerella  fragarice.) 

The  illustration  in  Plate  IX.,  Fig.  2,  is  from  a  natural  size 
photograph  of  a  strawberry  leaf  that  was  attacked  by  the  common 
leaf  blight  or  rust.  This  disease  is  so  common  and  the  characteristic 
spots  which  it  produces  on  the  leaves  are  so  well  shown  in  the  illus¬ 
tration  that  an  extended  discussion  of  the  nature  and  effects  of  the 
fungus  will  not  be  necessary.  It  may  attack  any  portion  of  the  plant 
above  ground,  and  when  the  leaf  surface  is  materially  reduced,  small 
berries  are  the  result.  The  fruiting  stems  may  be  so  injured  by  the 
fungus  that  the  berries  wither  before  they  ripen,  and  when  newly  set 
plants  are  badly  diseased,  the  future  crop  may  be  a  failure.  Some 
varieties  are  much  more  susceptible  to  attacks  of  this  fungus  than 
others,  and  some  valuable  kinds  have  to  be  abandoned  in  certain 
localities  on  this  account. 

The  degree  of  susceptibility  that  a  variety  exhibits  toward  this 
disease  varies  in  different  localities,  but  good  kinds  may  be  found 
for  every  locality  which  are  comparatively  free  from  attacks  of  rust. 
Selection  of  resistant  varieties  is  the  most  practical  method  of  com¬ 
bating  the  disease,  but  it  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  if  it  seems  desirable  to  do  so.  When  setting  new 
plants,  all  diseased  foilage  should  be  removed  and  destroyed,  and 
the  plants  should  be  sprayed  a  few  days  after  setting.  The  new 
growth  must  be  protected  with  the  mixture  during  the  fore  part  of 
the  season.  This  will  require  about  four  sprayings.  The  next  sea¬ 
son  it  is  recommended  that  the  plants  be  sprayed  just  before  they 
blossom  and  again  as  soon  as  the  blooming  period  is  over.  If  the 
plants  are  to  be  fruited  another  season,  the  beds  should  be  mown 
and  burned  over  as  soon  as  the  picking  season  is  passed.  If  the . 
burning  is  properly  done  no  harm  will  result  to  the  plants,  and 
many  spores  of  the  fungus  will  be  destroyed. 


WHEAT  STINKING  SMUT. 

(Tilletia  fcetens.) 

It  is  the  practice  of  the  wheat  growers  in  many  sections  of  the 
State  to  treat  their  seed  wheat  with  copper  sulphate  (blue  vitriol),  for 


PLATE  VIII. 

Fig.  1.  Quince  attacked  by  rust  fungus. 

Fig.  2.  Pear  attacked  by  rust  fungus. 

Fig.  3.  Apple  injured  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixtures.  All  natural  size. 


Fig,  1.  Plum  leaves  injured  by  shot  hole  fungus. 

Fig.  2.  Strawberry  leaf  attacked  by  blight.  Both  natural  size. 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


21 


the  prevention  of  smut.  The  results  of  numerous  experiments  and 
the  experience  of  many  farmers  prove  that  there  is  no  doubt  of  the 
efficacy  of  the  treatment.  However,  occasional  failures  are  re¬ 
ported,  some  growers  claiming  that  they  can  see  no  advantage  in 
the  treated  over  the  untreated  seed.  Such  results  indicate  that  the 
best  methods  of  treatment  are  not  understood  by  all. 

We  intend  to  test  the  different  ways  of  combating  wheat  smut 
in  the  near  future,  to  determine  which  one  is  best  suited  to  our 
conditions.  In  the  mean  time,  the  latest  formulas  recommended  by 
the  best  authorities  are  given  below : 

I. 


Copper  sulphate  (blue  vitriol) . 1  pound 

Water . 4  gallons 


Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  hot  water..  Sprinkle  or  spray 
the  solution  on  the  wheat  that  has  been  placed  in  piles  on  the  floor 
or  on  a  canvas.  Shovel  the  piles  over  while  the  liquid  is  being  applied 
to  insure  the  thorough  wetting  of  every  grain.  Use  no  more  of  the 
solution  than  is  necessary  and  spread  out  the  piles  so  that  the  wheat 
will  not  remain  wet  long  enough  to  become  heated. 


II. 


Corrosive  sublimate . 1  pound 

Water . 50  gallons 


To  be  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  the  solution  of  copper 
sulphate. 


III. 


Formalin . 1  pound 

Water . 50  gallons 


Use  the  same  as  the  other  remedies. 

Prof.  Bolley,  of  North  Dakota,  who  has  experimented  exten¬ 
sively  with  remedies  for  grain  smuts,  prefers  the  formalin  treatment 
to  any  that  he  has  tried. 


FORMULAS. 


BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. 


Copper  sulphate . 4  pounds 

Lime . 4  pounds 

Water . 45  gallons 


The  copper  sulphate  must  be  dissolved  in  hot  water  if  wanted 
for  immediate  use.  It  may  be  dissolved  by  suspending  it  in  a  sack 
in  the  top  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  cold  water,  but  this  method 
requires  a  much  longer  time.  If  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel 
it  will  not  all  dissolve.  The  best  quality  of  stone  lime  should  be 
purchased,  slacked  and  diluted  till  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  thin  white¬ 
wash.  After  the  copper  sulphate  solution  has  been  diluted  to  about 
thirty  gallons,  the  whitewash  is  poured  in,  stirred  thoroughly,  and 
the  mass  diluted  to  the  required  45  gallons.  It  is  essential  that 
both  the  copper  sulphate  solution  and  the  whitewash  be  quite 
dilute  before  they  are  combined,  otherwise  a  coarse  precipitate  is 
formed,  which  does  not  pass  through  the  spray  nozzles  readily. 

Where  large  amounts  of  Bordeaux  are  to  be  used,  it  is  advan¬ 
tageous  to  keep  on  hand  a  stock  of  dissolved  copper  sulphate  and 
of  slacked  lime.  The  stock  of  copper  sulphate  may  be  made  by 
dissolving,  say,  fifty  pounds  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water.  Then 
one  gallon  of  the  solution  will  be  equivalent  to  two  pounds  of  cop¬ 
per  sulphate,  and  two  gallons  will  be  required  for  a  barrel  of  the 
mixture.  The  vessel  containing  the  solution  should  be  kept  closely 
covered  to  prevent  evaporation.  It  should  be  mentioned,  also,  that 
copper  sulphate  corrodes  iron  quickly,  therefore  it  must  not  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  come  in  contact  with  iron  vessels  or  tools. 

The  lime  may  be  slacked  in  quantities,  when  it  will  keep  in 
good  condition  all  summer,  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  become  dry.  A 
chemical  test  for  copper  is  taken  advantage  of  to  determine  the  amount 
of  lime  paste  to  be  used.  This  is  called  the  potassium  ferrocyanide 
test.  The  chemical  comes  in  the  form  of  yellow  crystals,  and  a 
few  cents  worth  will  suffice  for  the  entire  season.  It  should  be  dis¬ 
solved  in  ten  times  its  bulk  of  water  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  A  quan¬ 
tity  of  the  lime  paste  in  the  form  of  a  thin  whitewash  is  added  to  the 
dilute  copper  sulphate  solution,  then  the  mixture  is  stirred  thor¬ 
oughly.  A  drop  of  the  test  is  now  allowed  to  fall  on  the  surface  of 
the  mixture.  It  will  instantly  turn  to  a  dark,  reddish-brown  color 


Plant  Diseases  of  1901. 


23 


if  sufficient  lime  has  been  used.  More  lime  must  be  added  until 
the  test  shows  no  reaction,  when  the  mixture  is  ready  for  use.  A 
slight  excess  of  lime  will  do  no  harm  and  will  be  a  safe-guard 
against  possible  error. 

Bordeaux  mixture  deteriorates  rapidly,  therefore  it  should  be 
used  on  the  same  day  it  is  made. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  apply  poison  to  the  same  plants  that  are 
to  be  sprayed  with  Bordeaux.  Fortunately  the  two  remedies  may 
be  combined  and  both  applied  with  one  operation.  Any  of  the 
arsenical  compounds  may  be  used,  and  at  the  same  rate  when 
mixed  with  water. 

RESIN-BORDEAUX  MIXTURE. 

Recommended  by  *  Sirrine  for  spraying  asparagus,  cabbage 
and  other  plants  to  which  the  common  Bordeaux  mixture  does  not 
readily  adhere.  Also  as  a  poison  carrier  to  make  poison  mixtures 
adhere  to  the  same  class  of  plants. 

Resin . 5  pounds 

Potash  lye . 1  pound 

Pish  oil . 1  pint 

Water . 5  gallons 

Place  the  oil  and  resin  in  a  kettle  and  heat  until  the  ingredients 

are  dissolved.  Then  remove  from  the  fire,  and  when  slightly 

cooled,  add  the  lye  slowly,  while  the  mass  is  being  con¬ 
tinuously  stirred.  The  water  is  now  added  and  the  mixture  is 
boiled  until  it  will  mix  with  cold  water,  when  it  forms  an  amber 
colored  liquid.  Care  should  be  taken  at  all  times  to  keep  the 
materials  from  boiling  over  and  catching  fire. 

The  above  forms  a  stock  mixture  of  which  two  gallons  are 
used  to  forty-eight  gallons  of  Bordeaux  made  in  the  usual  manner. 
It  is  found  best,  however,  to  dilute  the  resin  mixture  with  about 
eight  parts  of  water  before  it  was  added  to  the  Bordeaux. 

The  materials  are  used  in  the  same  proportions  when  Paris 
green  or  other  similar  poisons  are  being  used  on  plants. 


*  New  York  State  Agri.  Expt.  Sta.,  Bulletins  144  and  188. 


/ 


Bulletin  70.  flarch,  1902. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


Potato  Failures. 


A  PRELIMINARY  REPORT. 


F.  M.  ROLFS. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins.  Colorado. 

1902. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

7cm  M 

CXMIRCC 

ft  OK.  3.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW  •  ■  Canon  City  190c 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT,  •  ■  -  Denver,  •  1902 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President,  ....  Denver,  -  -  1905 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  . Fort  Collins,  -  1905 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS,  ....  Denver,  -  -  1907 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS, . Denver,  -  -  1907 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  ....  Gypsum,  -  -  1909 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . Rockyford,  -  1909 


Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN,  )  ^ 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  \  ex'°lJlcl0 


Executive  Committee  in  charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ...  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . Chemist 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S., . Agriculturist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer  and  Meteorologist 

E.  D.  BALL,  M.  S.,  -  ...  Assistant  Entomologist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S„ . Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  Superintendent  Arkansas  Valley  Substation 
J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Superintendent  Plains  Substation 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN., .  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


Potato  Failures. 


By  F.  M.  ROLFS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  following  lines  are  written  to  call  the  attention  of 
Cthe  potato  growers  in  this  state  to  a  destructive  disease  of 
the  potato,  Rhizoctonia  solani  Kuhn.  I  am  aware  of  the  in¬ 
completeness  of  this  report,  but  it  is  hoped  that  a  publica¬ 
tion  at  this  time  may  stimulate  an  interest  in  the  subject 
and  thus  call  forth  suggestions  which  will  be  helpful  in 
^working  out  a  practical  method  of  overcoming  this  disease. 
Undoubtedly  this  fungus  has  been  common  to  the  potato 
fields  of  America  for  years,  and  although  of  considerable 
economic  importance  it  has  been  entirely  overlooked  by 
American  investigators,  and  nothing  of  importance  concern¬ 
ing  its  nature  has  been  recorded.  *Stewart  and  Duggar  in 
19°P  published  the  first  account  of  its  occurrence  in  America. 

European  investigators  have  given  it  considerable  at¬ 
tention  and  European  literature  contains  a  number  of  pub¬ 
lications  on  a  potato  disease  caused  by  Rhizoctonia.  Its 
host  plants  cover  a  wide  range  and  a  number  of  species 
of  the  fungus  have  been  described. 

OCCURRENCE  OF  DISEASE. 

The  stem  rot  of  the  potato  plant  was  first  brought  to 
emy  attention  during  the  summer  of  while  at  the  New 
York  State  Branch  Experiment  Station  on  Long  Island. 
The  potato  growers  in  the  various  sections  of  the  Island, 
complained  of  the  early  wilting  or  drying  of  the  vines  caus¬ 
ed  by  a  stem  rot.  On  visiting  these  sections  and  making 
careful  observations  it  was  noticed  that  the  disease  in  many 
instances  resembled  the  stem  rot  of  carnations,  which  is 
caused  by  the  attack  of  a  species  of  Rhizoctonia . 

A  microscopic  examination  of  plants  that  had  been  re¬ 
cently  killed  invariably  revealed  an  abundance  of  this  fun¬ 
gus  on  the  stems  and  roots.  At  least  thirty  plantations  in 
various  sections  of  the  Island  were  visited  and  a  number  of 
dead  plants  from  each  field  were  carefully  examined.  Al¬ 
though  other  fungi  were  more  or  less  plentiful  on  these 
stems,  Rhizoctonia  was  constantly  present  both  in  the  pith 
and  on  the  outside  of  the  roots  and  stems.  These  observa¬ 
tions  pointed  toward  the  conclusion  that  this  fungus  had 

*  Bulletins  186  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta¬ 
tion,  and  Cornell  Experiment  Station. 


4  BULLETIN  70. 

more  or  less  influence  on  the  death  of  the  plants.  The 
stems  which  had  been  dead  for  sometime  were  so  complete¬ 
ly  overrun  by  other  fungi  that  it  was  often  difficult  to 
identify  the  Rhizoctonia  hyphae. 

This  Department  has  received  many  inquiries  from  po¬ 
tato  growers  in  various  sections  of  this  State  in  regard  to 
failures  of  the  potato  crop.  Many  of  these  inquiries  gave  a 
description  of  a  diseased  condition  which  is  strikingly  simi¬ 
lar  to  the  one  that  was  so  common  on  Long  Island  in  1900. 
After  examining  the  tubers  and  stems  from  various  parts  of 
the  state,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  fungus  is  common  to 
nearly  every  section  of  this  state,  and  especially  abundant 
in  many  parts  where  failures  occur.  This  information  and 
the  previous  observations  led  us  to  believe  that  it  is  a  para¬ 
site  on  the  potato  plant  and  that  it  probably  had  some  in¬ 
fluence  on  the  failures  recorded  in  these  various  sections. 
Accordingly  the  writer  was  detailed  to  take  up  this  work 
and  the  results  of  the  investigations  and  experiments  are 
given  in  the  following  pages. 

Our  experiments  prove  that  Rhizoctonia  is  an  active 
parasite  on  the  potato  plant.  Species  of  this  fungus  or  pos¬ 
sibly  the  same  species  occur  on  a  great  variety  of  plants 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  Beets,  car¬ 
rots,  alfalfa,  red  clover,  onions,  turnips,  peas,  celery,  lettuce, 
beans,  cabbage,  blackberries  and  raspberries.  Usually  it  is 
a  parasite  but  it  is  capable  also  of  existing  on  dead 
organic  matter  in  the  soil  and  when  favorable  opportuni¬ 
ties  occur  it  invade^  and  destroys  the  living  tissues  of 
plants. 

The  annual  loss  to  the  State  from  this  disease  is  con¬ 
siderable.  In  many  localities  where  potato  growing  was 
once  a  paying  industry  the  soil  has  become  so  infected  with 
the  fungus  that  the  crop  is  no  longer  profitable.  Although 
it  is  more  or  less  common  to  many  fields,  it  apparently  de¬ 
velops  most  rapidly  in  heavy  soils  which  are  poorly  drained. 
The  disease  remains  in  the  soil  and  grows  worse  with  each 
succeeding  crop,  consequently  failures  are  most  apt  to  oc¬ 
cur  where  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops  is  not  followed. 

Probably  every  state  in  the  Union  suffers  more  or  less 
injury  to  its  potato  crop  from  this  disease.  It  is  known  to 
be  common  to  the  fields  of  New  York,  Ohio,  Iowa,  Minne¬ 
sota,  Wisconsin,  Florida,  Oklahoma,  Texas,  Colorado,  Cali¬ 
fornia  and  Washington. 

EFFECTS  OF  THE  DISEASE  ON  POTATO  PLANTS. 

In  many  sections  of  the  State  where  potatoes,,  are  not 
successfully  grown  it  is  reported  that  large  vines  are  pro- 


POTATO  FAILURES. 


5 

duced  which  give  promise  of  an  abundant  yield,  but  when 
digging  time  comes  it  is  found  that  so  few  tubers  have  set 
that  it  does  not  pay  to  dig  them.  Many  of  the  thriftiest 
vines  fail  to  produce  a  single  tuber.  (See  Plate  V.)  It  is  a 
less  frequent,  but  by  no  means  uncommon  occurrence,  for 
the  vines  to  set  an  abnormal  number  of  small  potatoes,  or 
'‘Little  Potatoes’'  as  they  are  sometimes  called.  These 
often  occur  in  compact  clusters  and  are  so  small  as  to  be 
worthless.  (See  Plate  IX.)  The  above  conditions  occur 
most  frequently  on  poorly  drained  land  and  especially  on 
the  heavier  soils.  A  third  condition  and  one  which  is 
common  to  the  best  potato  districts  is  the  dying  of  potato 
plants  thus  resulting  in  poor  stands.  Our  experiments 
prove  that  any  of  these  conditions  may  be  produced  by  at¬ 
tacks  of  Rhizoctcnia,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins, 
where  most  of  our  experiments  and  field  work  were  done, 
this  fungus  is  frequently  responsible  for  the  lack  of  success 
in  the  growing  of  this  crop.  So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to 
learn,  one  or  more  of  these  conditions  prevail  in  many  sec¬ 
tions  where  the  potato  crop  is  a  failure. 

The  question  naturally  arises  why  this  fungus  should 
be  so  severe  in  its  attacks  on  the  potato  at  Fort  Collins 
while  the  crop  is  so  successfully  grown  in  the  Greeley  dis¬ 
trict,  twenty  miles  east  and  nearly  the  same  altitude.  Many 
farmers  claim  that  if  they  had  Greeley  soil  they  could  grow 
potatoes  as  successfully  as  those  in  the  favored  section. 
Our  observations  go  to  show  that  the  difference  between 
success  and  failure  in  potato  growing  is  principally  a  differ¬ 
ence  in  soils,  not  that  the  successful  growers  suffer  no  loss 
from  the  attacks  of  this  fungus  but  that  it  finds  less  congen¬ 
ial  surroundings  in  the  lighter  and  better  drained  land. 

NATURE  OF  THE  FUNGUS  AND  ITS  METHODS  OF  ATTACK. 

The  hyphae  or  root-like  organs  of  the  fungus  are  often 
found  growing  on  the  surface  and  in  the  scab  ulcers  of  pota¬ 
toes.  These  hyphae  give  rise  to  irregularly  shaped  dark 
masses  know  as  sclerotia,  which  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a 
mere  speck  to  areas  one-half  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 
(See  Plate  I.  Fig  2.)  The  sclerotia  resemblesmall  bits  of  earth 
so  closely  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  them  from 
particles  of  soil  on  the  tubers,  but  by  placing  the  potatoes 
in  water  these  bodies  become  black  and  quite  conspicuous. 
Many  of  them  adhere  very  firmly.  When  such  potatoes  are 
used  for  seed  the  disease  is  planted  with  them  and  it  is 
ready  to  begin  its  attack  as  soon  as  the  new  plants  start  to 
develop. 


6 


BULLETIN  70. 

This  disease  like  many  other  root  fungi  is  greatly  in¬ 
fluenced  in  its  growth  by  soil  conditions.  It  may  occur 
abundantly  in  the  soil  and  on  the  seed  potatoes  and  yet  if 
the  conditions  are  not  favorable  the  plants  may  escape  seri¬ 
ous  injury.  On  the  other  hand,  a  few  diseased  seed  may 
cause  considerable  damage.  The  hyphae  spread  through 
the  soil  in  various  directions,  hence  a  single  diseased  potato 
plant  may  be  the  means  of  infecting  an  area  of  considera¬ 
ble  size,  since  the  disease  remains  in  the  soil  for  a  number 
of  years. 

Young  plants  are  often  severely  injured  by  this  fungus 
as  shown  in  Plate  III.  Here  two  young  shoots  were  killed 
before  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  others 
were  severely  injured.  Such  wounds  are  usually  character¬ 
ized  by  a  reddish-brown  color  and  vary  in  size  and  shape. 

Infected  plants  frequently  show  no  marked  signs  of  in¬ 
jury  when  first  dug,  but  by  leaving  such  plants  in  the  col¬ 
lecting  can  over  night  the  diseased  parts  take  on  a  brown 
color  and  become  quite  conspicuous.  Experience  also 
shows  that  microscopical  examination  often  fails  to  reveal 
the  presence  of  the  fungus  if  affected  plants  are  not  prop¬ 
erly  cared  for  after  they  are  dug:  therefore  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  plants  in  a  fresh  condition  if  they  are  to  be  suc¬ 
cessfully  studied  in  the  laboratory. 

If  the  fungus  produces  wounds  on  the  young  plant  that 
are  small  and  confined  to  the  outer  tissues,  the  plant  usually 
lives  but  it  is  apt  to  suffer  more  or  less  injury  from  the  dis¬ 
ease  later  in  the  season.  The  appearance  of  affected  plants 
is  familiar  to  many  but  the  injury  is  usually  attributed  to 
such  causes  as  altitude,  dry  weather,  heat,  over-waterings 
insect  attack,  blight  and  frost.  Since  conditions  have  a 
marked  influence  on  the  development  of  the  disease  there 
is  some  variation  in  the  appearance  of  affected  plants. 
Usually,  however,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  its  identification. 
Plants  which  are  attacked  while  young,  if  not  killed  out¬ 
right,  are  often  dwarfed,  take  on  an  unhealthy  appearance 
and  frequently  die  long  before  the  close  of  the  season.  On. 
examining  such  plants  one  usually  finds  that  the  parts  be¬ 
low  ground  are  thoroughly  infected  with  Rhizoctonia  and 
often  the  pith  of  the  stem  is  filled  with  this  fungus.  Such 
infections  apparently  start  from  diseased  seed  potatoes  and 
the  fungus  grows  up  the  stem,  gradually  killing  the  root 
system  and  finally  starving  the  plant.  (See  plate  VII.) 

In  some  cases,  the  disease  attacks  the  plant  just  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  if  conditions  are  favorable 
for  the  development  of  the  fungus,  it  produces  a  stem  rot 


PLATE  III. 


PLATE  IV 


POTATO  FAILURES. 


7 

which  is  known  in  some  sections  as  “Collar  Rot”  or  “Black 
Ring”  of  the  potato  plant.  Badly  affected  plants  wilt  sud¬ 
denly  and  are  soon  dead  and  dry.  Frequently,  however, 
the  attacks  on  the  stem  are  not  so  severe  but  the  wounds 
are  so  situated  as  to  prevent  the  free  transportation  of  plant 
food  to  the  tuber  stems,  thus  cutting  off  the  food  supply  to 
the  growing  potatoes,  which  consequently  remain  small.  If 
the  injuries  prevent  the  assimilated  food  from  being  stored 
in  the  subterranean  parts  of  the  plant,  large  tops  are  pro¬ 
duced,  and  green  tubers  often  form  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  so-called  “Aerial  Potatoes”. 
(See  Plate  VIII.)  When  the  root  system  of  such  plants  is 
more  or  less  injured,  the  leaves  usually  take  on  a  lighter 
color  and  have  a  tendency  to  fold.  The  stems  become 
thicker,  and  grow  prostrate,  giving  the  plants  a  bushy  ap¬ 
pearance. 

A  similar  condition  is  brought  about  by  the  attacks  of 
the  fungus  on  the  tuber-stems.  Young  tubers  are  frequently 
cut  off  by  the  fungus  as  shownin  Plate  XI.  Fig  2.  The  yield  is 
often  materially  reduced  in  this  way  and  it  is  not  uncom¬ 
mon  for  all  of  the  tubers  to  be  cut  off  as  shown  in  Plate  VI. 

When  the  tuber  stems  are  less  severely  injured,  but  the 
wounds  are  severe  enough  to  interfere  with  the  flow  of  plant 
food  to  the  young  potatoes,  the  buds  on  these  stems  just 
above  the  wound  often  develop  tubers.  But  the  fungus 
may  continue  its  work  and  again  injure  or  cut  off  the  stem 
above  the  newly  formed  tubers.  When  the  main  stem  is 
infected  with  the  disease,  the  tuber-stems  are  apt  to  be  cut 
off  before  they  have  made  much  growth.  In  such  cases 
blind  or  adventitious  buds  may  push  out  and  form  on  the 
main  stem  around  the  injured  member  and  develop  short¬ 
stemmed  or  stemless  tubers  as  shown  in  Plate  IX.  where  a 
typical  cluster  of  “Little  Potatoes”  have  formed.  If  the 
root  system  is  also  invaded  by  the  disease,  the  vitality  of 
the  plant  is  reduced  and  it  puts  out  few  or  no  subterranean 
stems.  The  tuber-stems  which  do  grow  are  probably  weak 
and  soon  cut  off  by  the  fungus.  Such  plants  set  few  or  no 
tubers  and  usually  take  on  the  peculiar  top  development  de¬ 
scribed  above. 

INOCULATION  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  following  series  of  inoculation  experiments  was  un¬ 
dertaken  with  cultures  of  Rhizoctonia  to  prove  that  the  dis¬ 
ease  is  parasitic  and  that  its  attack  on  the  potato  plant  may 
produce  the  conditions  described  above.  Pure  cultures  were 
readily  obtained  from  the  sclerotia  on  tubers.  Conditions 
have  a  marked  influence  in  the  growth  of  this  fungus  in  the 


s 


BULLETIN  70. 

laboratory  as  well  as  in  the  field;  dryness  and  exposure  to 
sunlight  are  especially  liable  to  check  its  development. 
Test-tube  cultures  are  very  sensitive,  hence  results  from  in¬ 
oculations  are  apt  to  be  misleading,  since  the  culture  mater¬ 
ial  may  be  weak  or  dead  when  the  inoculations  are  made, 
or  the  conditions  under  which  the  plants  are  growing  may 
be  unfavorable  for  the  best  development  of  the  fungus. 

These  experiments  were  conducted  in  the  field  with 
the  exception  of  No.  2.  *Check  plants  were  used  in  the  experi¬ 
ments  and  all  of  them  remained  in  a  healthy  and  vigorous 
condition. 

No.  1.  On  August  24  placed  pure  cultures  of  this  fungus  on  twenty 
tuber  stems  and  carefully  covered  the  inoculations  with  grafting  wax. 
In  this  experiment  long  young  stems  were  selected  in  order  to  be  able 
to  make  the  inoculations  some  distance  from  the  main  stem.  On  Au¬ 
gust  29  eight  of  these  stems  were  examined.  All  of  them  had  brown- 
colored  areas  on  inoculated  surfaces.  September  10  examined  the  re¬ 
maining  twelve  stems.  Seven  had  deep  scars  under  the  wax  and  five  of 
these  seven  developed  new  tubers  above  the  wound.  The  remaining  five 
inoculations  gave  no  marked  results. 

No.  2.  July  7  inoculated  twenty  green  stems  on  plants  growing  in 
pots  in  the  greenhouse.  Small  incisions  were  made  and  particles  of  the 
culture  material  inserted.  Check  wounds  were  made  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner  but  not  inoculated  and  all  wounds  were  covered  with  grafting  wax. 
August  21  three  of  the  inoculated  stems  were  found  to  be  cut  in  two, 
eleven  were  deeply  scarred  and  six  remained  uninjured.  Plate  XII. 
shows  four  stems  taken  from  this  lot. 

No.  3.  Twenty  inoculations  made  September  18  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner  as  No.  1.  Six  of  the  inoculated  tuber-stems  were  killed  and  the 
plants  produced  stemless  tubers.  Out  of  six  root- inoculations  four  were 
killed  and  two  remained  healthy.  Two  of  the  eight  inoculated  branches 
were  injured  and  six  remained  sound. 

No.  4.  August  31,  inoculated  seven  stems  just  below  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  ground.  The  operation  was  performed  as  in  No.  1.  These 
inoculations  were  examined  September  12.  Three  produced  a  distinct  black 
ring  around  the  stems  and  four  gave  no  marked  results. 

No.  5.  On  the  same  day,  August  31,  fifteen  tuber-stems  and 
five  roots  were  treated  in  the  same  way  as  in  No.  1.  These  inoculations 
were  made  close  to  the  main  stem.  September  12  five  stems  and  the  five 
roots  were  examined.  All  inoculations  produced  brown-colored  areas 
on  the  inoculated  surfaces.  September  22  the  remaining  ten  of  these 
inoculations  were  carefully  examined;  seven  of  these  had  developed 
deep  black  wounds  under  the  wax.  The  remaining  three  were  completely 
cut  off  and  small  stemless  tubers  had  developed  on  the  main  stem 
around  the  injured  tuber  stem.  More  or  less  of  Rhizoctonia  hyphae  were 
found  in  all  of  the  wounds. 

No.  6.  On  August  15th  twelve  green  stems  were  slightly  injured 
with  a  sterilized  knife,  and  pure  culture  of  the  fungus  was  placed  in  the 
wounds  and  the  inoculations  were  covered  with  wax.  A  careful  exam¬ 
ination  of  these  stems  was  made  on  September  6.  Three  of  them  were 
killed.  (See  Plate  XI.  Fig.  1.)  Six  developed  marked  wounds  and  three 
were  healthy.  Hyphae  of  the  fungus  were  more  or  less  plentiful  in  all 
of  the  wounds.  The  five  check  injuries  healed  and  the  stems  remained 
vigorous. 


In  any  inoculation  experiment  it  is  necessary  that  uninoc¬ 
ulated  plants  be  grown  under  the  same  conditions  for  the  sake  of 
comparison.  In  the  following  discussion  such  plants  are  designated  as 
checks. 


PLATE  V. 


POTATO  FAILURES. 


9 

7.  On  August  1st,  pure  culture  of  the  fungus  was  placed  on  five 
tuber-stems  and  the  cultures  were  covered  with  wax.  These  stems  were 
examined  on  August  15th,  and  it  was  found  that  the  fungus  had  pro¬ 
duced  marked  wounds  on  all  of  them.  Two  of  these  stems  which  were 
practically  cut  off  are  shown  in  Plate  XI.  Fig  2.  Two  of  the  five  stems  used 
for  a  check  were  slightly  colored  under  the  wax  but  no  traces  of  the  dis¬ 
ease  were  found. 

These  experiments  show  that  the  attacks  of  the  fungus 
may  produce  the  abnormal  development  of  the  potato  plant, 
so  common  to  many  of  our  fields. 

It  is  evident  if  fungus  injuries  are  responsible  for  such 
peculiar  development  of  the  plant  that  mechanical 
injuries  ought  to  produce  similar  results.  Accordingly  a 
series  of  experiments  was  planned  to  test  these  points. 

Mechanical  Injuries.  On  August  24th,  all  of  the  tubers 
were  removed  from  forty  plants.  September  2d,  the  tubers 
which  had  formed  during  this  time  were  removed  and  many 
of  the  roots  were  injured.  All  the  plants  soon  took  on  the 
peculiar  development  described  above  and  29  of  them  devel¬ 
oped  “  Aerial  Potatoes.”  These  plants  were  dug  Septem¬ 
ber  20  and  it  was  found  that  many  of  them  had  produced 
typical  ‘‘Little  Potatoes.”  (See  Plate  X.)  Examinations 
failed  to  reveal  the  presence  of  Rhizoctonia  on  any  of  these 
plants.  Check  plants  growing  by  the  side  of  those  used 
in  the  experiment  produced  normal  tops  and  tubers. 

On  the  same  day,  a  ring  of  outer  tissue  about  one  half¬ 
inch  wide  was  removed  from  around  the  main  stem  of 
twenty-five  plants.  These  plants  also  took  on  the  peculiar 
top  development  and  all  produced  aerial  tubers.  Plate  IX. 
shows  a  fair  specimen  of  this  lot  of  plants.  Twisting  the 
stem  and  wrapping  a  wire  firmly  around  the  stem  gave 
similar  results. 

THE  SEED. 

During  the  past  spring,  the  Department  made  a  num¬ 
ber  of  observations  on  the  percentage  of  infected  Rhizoc¬ 
tonia  tubers  in  different  lots  of  potatoes  offered  for  sale  as 
seed.  One  lot  examined  contained  805  tubers.  Ninety-one 
per  cent  of  these  were  infected  with  the  disease 
and  were  more  or  less  covered  with  sclerotia. 
While  the  remaining  nine  per  cent  were  free  from  the 
sclerotia,  careful  examination  with  the  microscope  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  eyes  of  most  of  these  tubers  harbored  a 
few  strands  of  the  fungus.  Five  of  the  supposed  clean  pota¬ 
toes  were  placed  in  a  moist  chamber  and  at  the  end  of  two 
weeks,  there  was  an  abundance  of  this  fungus  on  three  of 
them.  The  other  two  were  completely  overrun  with  Fus- 
arium  and  no  traces  of  Rhizoctonia  could  be  found.  The 


IO 


BULLETIN  70. 

amounts  respectively  of  clean  and  diseased  potatoes  in  this 
sack  are  shown  graphically  in  Plate  I.  Fig  1. 

From  another  lot  of  potatoes  which  had  been  in  sacks 
for  some  time  549  pounds  were  carefully  examined.  Fifteen 
per  cent  were  free  from  disease,  so  far  as  could  be  de¬ 
termined,  and  85  per  cent  were  infected.  Many  of  the  sprouts 
had  been  overrun  with  the  hyphae,  and  sclerotia  had  been 
developed  freely  on  both  sprouts  and  tubers.  (See  Plate  IV.) 
Some  of  the  sprouts  had  been  completely  cut  off;  the  tips 
frequently  suffered  most  severely,  and  the  ends  of  many 
of  the  sprouts  were  dead  and  dry.  (See  Plate  II.  Fig.  2.) 

Fifteen  of  the  diseased  tubers  were  placed  in  moist 
chambers.  Five  of  them  developed  sclerotia  on  tubers  and 
sprouts.  The  fungus  on  the  remaining  ten  was  apparently 
dead,  and  no  further  development  took  place.  These  po¬ 
tatoes  were  carefully  watched  and  examined  from  time  to 
time.  Apparently  the  development  of  the  disease  ceased 
soon  after  they  had  been  removed  from  the  sack.  Ex¬ 
posure  to  the  dry  air  and  sunlight  probably  killed  the  fun¬ 
gus.  Experiments  and  observations  indicate  that  excessive 
drying  and  sunlight  kills  the  hyphae  and  sclerotia  which 
grow  on  the  surface  of  potatoes,  and  that  the  hyphae  which 
grow  in  the  deeper  wounds  are  probably  not  much  influ¬ 
enced  by  such  treatment. 

Potatoes  from  these  lots  early  in  the  season  gave  a 
much  lower  percentage  of  infection.  In  neither  case  did  it 
exceed  thirty  per  cent.  In  the  lots  examined  during  the 
winter  before  the  tubers  were  placed  in  sacks,  the  propor¬ 
tion  was  usually  low,  and  seldom  exceeded  twenty  per  cent. 

It  is  evident  that  under  favorable  conditions  infected 
potatoes  develop  hyphae  and  sclerotia  freely  after  being 
stored.  A  few  diseased  potatoes  in  a  bin  or  sack  of  clean 
ones,  under  suitable  conditions  will  spread  the  disease,  and 
in  a  short  time  may  render  the  entire  lot  worthless  for  seed. 

The  cracked  skin  and  rough  surface  on  so  many  pota¬ 
toes  from  diseased  fields,  led  us  to  suspect  that  Rhizoctonia 
had  more  or  less  influence  in  bringing  about  this  condition 
and  the  constant  association  of  this  fungus  with  these  in¬ 
juries  also  pointed  strongly  toward  this  conclusion. 

Observations  show  that  the  hyphae  frequently  enter  the 
lenticells  of  the  tubers  and  produce  corroded  spots,  or  min¬ 
ute  open  pustules.  In  rapidly  growing  tubers  such  openings 
are  often  extended,  producing  numerous  cracks  which  fre¬ 
quently  become  confluent.  These  cracks  are  repaired  by  a 
natural  effort  frequently  producing  a  peculiar  corky,  or  ap- 
oarently  a  double  skin  on  the  potato  as  shown  in  Plate  I.  Fig3. 


PLATE  VII 


PLATE  VIII 


POTATO  FAILURES. 


T  I 

And  if  the  fungus  continues  its  attacks,  or  if  other  fungi  in¬ 
vade  the  injured  parts,  repeated  efforts  are  made  to  repair 
the  damage,  and  the  surface  of  the  potato  may  be  brought 
into  a  rough  or  cracked  condition,  giving  it  an  unsightly  ap¬ 
pearance.  An  extreme  case  of  such  injuries  is  shown  in 
Platell.  Fig  i.  That  Rhizoctonia  is  the  cause  of  this  condition 
is  proven  by  the  following  simple  experiment. 

On  September  11,  1901,  small  amounts  hyphae  from  pure  cultures 
of  the  fungus  were  placed  on  the  surface  of  eighteen  small  growing  po¬ 
tatoes  and  covered  with  sterilized  grafting  wax.  On  September  25th, 
two  of  these  potatoes  were  examined  and  a  number  of  brown  spots 
were  observed  on  the  inoculated  surfaces.  By  a  careful  microscopic 
examination  it  was  found  that  the  hyphae  had  entered  the  lenticells  and 
produced  a  small  rupture  in  the  skin.  On  September  26th,  a  third  in¬ 
oculated  tuber  was  examined  and  a  number  of  cracks  each  starting 
from  a  lenticell  were  observed.  On  October  10th,  the  remaining  fifteen 
tubers  were  examined  and  it  was  found  that  ten  of  these  had  developed 
sclerotia  abundantly,  and  the  entire  covered  surface  was  a 
net-work  of  cracks.  Two  of  the  remaining  five  had  each  a  deep  crack 
extending  across  the  tuber.  All  inoculations  produced  brown  rough 
surfaces.  An  abundance  of  the  fungus  was  found  on  each  tuber,  while 
the  five  checks  which  had  been  treated  in  the  same  way  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  adding  Rhizoctonia  culture,  remained  free  from  cracks. 


METHODS  OF  TREATMENT. 

It  is  difficult  to  treat  this  disease,  since  the  external 
characters  usually  do  not  appear  until  the  tissues  of  the 
plant  are  thoroughly  invaded  with  the  fungus.  Applica¬ 
tions  of  fungicides  to  affected  plants  would  have  little  or  no 
influence  on  the  disease.  Under  favorable  conditions 
the  fungus  spreads  rapidly  through  the  soil  in  various  direc¬ 
tions.  There  is  no  practical  method  of  checking  its  spread 
after  it  is  once  introduced  into  the  soil.  The  only  way  of 
dealing  with  it  is  by  preventive  means.  From  the  nature 
of  this  fungus,  it  is  evident  that  diseased  seed  potatoes  are 
frequently  the  means  of  introducing  the  disease  into  clean 
fields;  hence,  too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  select¬ 
ing  clean  seed.  But  even  then,  the  potatoes  are  apt  to  har¬ 
bor  the  fungus  if  they  have  been  in  contact  with  infected 
tubers.  Danger  from  this  source  may  be  largely  overcome 
by  the  treatment  given  on  page  12. 

The  disease  may  be  carried  on  beet  roots,  or  dead  po¬ 
tato  stems  or  on  the  dead  stems  of  many  of  the  weeds 
which  grow  in  the  potato  fields.  Infected  potato  and  weed 
stems  often  find  their  way  into  the  barn-yard  and  compost 
heap,  thus  manure  may  become  a  source  of  general  infec¬ 
tion  to  clean  fields.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  dis¬ 
eased  plants  and  tubers  out  of  the  manure.  The  burning 
of  all  vines  and  weeds,  as  soon  as  the  potatoes  are  harvest¬ 
ed,  is  an  excellent  practice. 


12 


BULLETIN  70. 

Some  fields  seem  to  be  more  favorable  for  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  this  fungus  than  others.  A  heavy  poorly  drained 
field  seems  to  be  of  the  favoring  class.  A  thorough  drain¬ 
age  of  the  land  would  probably  do  much  good.  Potatoes 
grown  on  heavy  soils  with  good  bottom  drainage  usually 
suffer  less  severely  from  the  disease  than  those  grown  on 
poorly  drained  soils.  It  is  not  definitely  known  how  long 
this  disease  will  remain  in  a  field  when  it  once  becomes 
thoroughly  established,  but  it  is  quite  evident  that  land 
on  which  diseased  potatoes  have  been  grown  usually  har¬ 
bors  the  fungus  a  number  of  years,  hence,  it  is  important  to 
follow  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops,  and  it  will  probably 
be  necessary  to  follow  a  five-year  rotation  in  order  to  ob¬ 
tain  good  results. 

“Prunet  *  believes  that  the  fungus  remains  in  the  soil 
three  years,  and  recommends  that  diseased  fields  should 
not  be  cropped  with  lucern  or  clover  for  several  years. 
Evidences  indicate  that  root  crops  should  be  avoided.  Cere¬ 
als  which  are  probably  not  attacked  by  Rhizoctonia  should 
be  sown  in  the  infected  ground,  and  all  weeds  should  be 
kept  down.  This  is  probably  the  only  means  by  which  the 
fungus  can  be  destroyed.” 

Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment.  Corrosive  sublimate  or 
bichloride  of  mercury  is  sold  in  form  of  white  crystals.  It 
may  be  bought  at  any  drug  store  for  about  fifteen  cents  an 
ounce.  The  cost  of  material  for  treating  the  seed  for  an 
acre  will  not  exceed  fifty  cents.  The  solution  is  made  by 
placing  one  ounce  of  this  chemical  in  an  earthen  or 
wooden  dish  containing  one  gallon  of  hot  water.  As  soon 
as  it  is  all  dissolved  pour  the  contents  of  the  dish  into  a 
wooden  vessel  containing  seven  gallons  of  water.  Put  the 
potatoes  into  this  solution,  and  let  them  remain  an  hour 
and  a  half.  The  solution  maybe  used  a  number  of  times. 
The  disinfection  may  be  done  at  any  time.  Experiments 
indicate,  however,  that  treating  the  tubers  about  a  week 
before  planting,  and  spreading  them  on  the  floor  or  ground 
where  they  will  be  fully  exposed  to  the  sunlight,  greatly 
facilitates  their  growth  after  planting.  Corrosive  sublimate 
is  a  deadly  poison  to  both  man  and  animal  when  taken  inter¬ 
nally ,  but  the  solution  and  treated  potatoes  may  be  handled 
freely  without  experiencing  any  ill  results. 

FORMULA. 


Corrosive  Sublimate .  1  ounce 

Water .  8  gallons. 

Soak  Potatoes .  1£  hours. 


*(Prunet  “Sur  le  Rhizoctonia  de  la  Lucerne”.  Compt.  rend. 
Paris  1893. 


PLATE  IX 


POTATO  FAILURES. 


13 

Formalin  Treatment.  Formalin  is  sold  in  the  form  of 
a  liquid  at  about  fifty  cents  a  pint.  It  is  a  little  more 
expensive  than  corrosive  sublimate  but  has  the  advantage 
of  not  being  poisonous,  comes  in  form  of  a  liquid,  and 
can  be  used  in  any  kind  of  a  vessel.  The  solution  is  made 
by  adding  one  half-pint  of  formalin  to  fifteen  gallons  of 
water.  The  tubers  are  placed  in  this  solution  for  two  hours. 
This  treatment  does  not  retard  the  sprouting  of  the  tubers, 
and  it  may  be  used  at  any  convenient  time  before  planting. 
If  the  tubers  are  treated  during  the  winter,  they  should  be 
dried  and  carefully  stored  avoiding  all  danger  of  reinfection 
from  infected  sacks-  and  bins.  The  solution  loses  strength 
on  standing,  and  must  be  kept  in  a  closed  receptacle  if  it 
is  to  be  used  a  number  of  times.  It  is  probably  not  best  to 
use  the  solution  for  more  than  four  successive  treatments. 

FORMULA. 

Formalin .  8  ounces  (I  pint.) 

Water .  15  gallons. 

Soak  Potatoes . . .  2  hours. 

Keeping  Seed  Potatoes.  It  is  evident  that  the  success  of 
the  potato  crop  depends  much  upon  the  vigor  and  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  seed  potatoes.  Some  growers  have  adopted  the 
following  practice  with  excellent  results:  When  the  pota¬ 
toes  are  dug,  those  which  are  to  be  used  for  seed  are  stored 
in  a  dry,  dark  shed  or  barn  until  about  the  10th  of  Novem¬ 
ber.  Just  before  freezing  weather  sets  in,  the  potatoes  are 
carefully  sorted,  and  those  which  show  the  slightest  signs  of 
decay  are  rejected.  A  layer  of  straw  from  eight  to  ten 
inches  thick  is  spread  on  the  ground  and  the  tubers  placed 
upon  this  straw.  The  piles  should  not  be  made  too  large. 
The  best  resuits  are  usually  obtained  from  mounds  three 
feet  wide  at  the  base  and  piled  up  in  ridges  as  high  as  con¬ 
venient.  A  covering  of  straw  is  placed  over  the  potatoes, 
and  this  is  followed  by  a  layer  of  soil  from  six  to  eight 
inches  thick,  but  before  severe  weather  sets  in  more  soil  is 
added,  and  when  the  severest  weather  is  at  hand,  more 
straw,  or  strawy  barn  manure  is  added.  The  aim  is  to  cover 
gradually  as  the  cold  increases.  This  method  of  storing 
potatoes  seems  to  winter  them  much  better  for  seed  than 
when  they  are  placed  in  root  cellars,  or  when  they  are  stor¬ 
ed  in  mounds  immediately  after  they  are  dug.  About  the 
last  of  April  they  are  taken  from  the  pit  and  again  stored 
in  a  dark  shed  or  barn  until  about  ten  days  before  planting¬ 
time  when  they  are  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate,  as 
given  in  formula  on  page  12.  After  this  treatment  they 
are  placed  where  they  will  be  freely  exposed  to  the  sun. 
Seed  should  not  be  cut  until  shortly  before  planting.  If 


14  BULLETIN  70. 

planting  is  delayed,  the  cut  pieces  should  be  placed  in  a 
moist,  cool  place. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  TREATING  SEED  POTATOES. 

Greenhouse  Experiments.  The  following  experiments 
were  conducted  in  the  greenhouse  to  get  some  hints  on  the 

value  of  treating  infected  tubers  with  corrosive  sublimate: 

Experiment  1.  The  first  experiment  was  with  sixteen  pots  filled 
with  sandy,  clayey  soil  which  was  thoroughly  infected  with  the  disease. 
The  soil  in  eight  of  these  pots  was  sterilized  two  hours  a  day  for  three 
consecutive  days,  and  planted  with  apparently  healthy  seed  which  had 
been  placed  in  a  solution  of  one  ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  eight 
gallons  of  water  for  one  and  one-half  hours.  All  tubers  produced 
healthy  and  quite  vigorous  plants  which  lived  until  the  experiment  was 
closed.  Careful  examinations  showed  that  all  but  one  of  these  plants 
were  free  from  disease.  This  infection  was  probably  due  to  careless¬ 
ness  in  watering  the  plants  with  a  hose,  since  pots  containing  treated 
and  untreated  soils  stood  side  by  side.  The  soil  in  the  other  eight  pots 
was  not  sterilized,  and  planted  with  clean  tubers,  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  in  the  first  lot.  The  potatoes  all  grew,  but  the  plants 
did  not  do  so  well  as  those  in  the  first  lot,  and  three  of  them  died  shortly 
before  the  experiment  was  closed.  On  examination,  it  was  found  that 
all  the  plants  were  infected  with  the  disease.  A  number  of  sclerotia 
were  found  on  four  of  the  tubers. 

Experiment  II.  The  second  experiment  contained  twelve  pots  of 
heavy  black  loam  which  had  been  used  in  growing  Alternanthera  in  the 
greenhouse  during  the  preceding  winter.  The  soil  in  the  first  four  pots 
was  not  sterilized  and  was  planted  with  tubers  on  which  there  were 
numerous  sclerotia.  These  tubers  were  treated  with  One  ounce  of  cor¬ 
rosive  sublimate  to  eight  gallons  of  water  for  one  and  one-half  hours. 
The  plants  did  quite  well,  but  careful  examination  showed  that  all  were 
more  or  less  affected  with  the  disease.  The  soil  in  the  next  four  pots 
was  sterilized  two  hours  a  day  for  three  consecutive  days,  and  planted 
with  seed  treated  in  the  same  way  as  those  in  the  preceding  lot.  These 
plants  made  good  growth  and  lived  until  the  experiment  closed.  Crit¬ 
ical  examination  failed  to  reveal  any  traces  of  the  disease.  The  soil  in 
the  last  four  pots  was  treated  as  in  the  second  lot,  but  was  planted  with 
infected  tubers.  One  tuber  failed  to  grow.  Two  produced  weak  plants 
which  died  prematurely  and  the  fourth  plant  did  poorly,  but  lived  until 
the  experiment  closed.  All  plants  were  infected  with  Rhizoctonia. 

Experiment  III.  In  the  third  experiment,  thirty  diseased  tubers 
were  planted  in  a  bench  containing  three  inches  of  potting  sand  on  the 
bottom  and  four  inches  of  sandy  clay  loam  on  top.  The  first  lot  con¬ 
tained  fifteen  tubers  which  were  treated  with  one  ounce  of  corrosive 
sublimate  to  eight  gallons  of  water  for  one  and  one-half  hours,  and 
planted  twelve  inches  apart.  These  plants  were  slow  in  reaching  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  but  otherwise,  they  did  nicely,  and  remained 
green  until  the  close  of  the  experiment.  Thirteen  of  these  hills,  con¬ 
taining  fifty-seven  plants,  were  free  from  the  disease,  and  only  one 
plant  in  each  of  the  other  two  hills,  containing  eight  plants,  was  in¬ 
fected.  It  is  possible  that  this  was  due  to  soil  infection.  In  the  second 
lot  used  in  this  experiment,  the  tubers  were  not  treated,  otherwise  the 
conditions  were  much  the  same  as  in  the  preceding.  Some  of  the 
plants  soon  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground;  others,  however,  were 
considerably  delayed,  and  a  number  were  killed  before  reaching  the  sur¬ 
face.  Those  which  finally  became  established  did  quite  well  apparently, 
but  twelve  of  the  hills,  sixty  plants,  died  two  weeks  before  the  experi¬ 
ment  was  closed,  and  all  were  covered  with  an  abundance  of  Rhizoctonia 
hyphae.  The  other  three  hills,  fifteen  plants,  lived,  but  a  careful  examina¬ 
tion  showed  that  all  of  them  were  more  or  less  affected  with  the  disease. 

These  experiments  show  that  diseased  potatoes  may  be 
readily  disinfected  with  the  corrosive  sublimate.  But  in  or- 


POTATO  FAILURES.  I  5 

der  to  obtain  good  results  the  treated  seed  must  be  planted  in 
soil  which  is  free  from  the  disease. 

Field  Experiments.  Encouraged  by  the  promising  re¬ 
sults  in  the  greenhouse  experiments,  although  somewhat 
late  in  the  season,  we  concluded  to  try  the  treatment  on  a 
larger  scale.  Accordingly  arrangements  were  made  with 
Mr.  J.  G.  Coy  of  Fort  Collins,  to  carry  on  an  experiment  on 
his  farm,  in  which  he  kindly  consented  to  assist  us.  The 
soil  of  the  field  selected  for  the  experiment  was  of  heavy 
black  loam  on  the  river  bottom.  It  was  afterwards  found 
that  the  level  of  the  soil  water  was  comparatively  close  to 
the  surface.  It  had  been  flooded  by  late  rains,  and  was 
too  wet  to  get  in  shape  for  planting  before  June  6th.  Most 
of  the  ground  had  been  planted  alternately  with  cabbage 
and  onions  during  the  past  five  years.  It  is  quite  probable 
that  the  soil  contained  more  or  less  of  the  fungus  since 
onions  which  remained  in  the  field  from  last  year’s  crop 
were  badly  infected.  Potatoes  grown  on  this  place  have 
suffered  more  or  less  from  early  blight  for  a  number  of 
years. 

This  field  was  divided  into  four  plots.  The  rows  were 
twelve  rods  long  and  planted  in  the  usual  way.  All  four  plots 
were  planted  with  Wisconsin  seed  of  the  Pearl  variety. 
These  tubers  were  infested  with  Rhizoctonia.  Plots  I.,  III. 
and  IV.  were  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  and  Paris 
green  on  July  7th,  17th,  31st  and  August  15th.  The  seed  of 
Plots  III.  and  IV.  was  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  as 
given  on  page  12.  The  seed  of  Plots  I.  and  II.  was  not 
treated.  The  rains  during  the  fore  part  of  the  season  kept 
the  ground  sufficiently  moist  for  the  growth  of  the  plants 
and  the  field  received  its  first  irrigation  on  August  13th. 
From  this  time  on  the  ground  was  kept  quite  moist.  T  he 
potatoes  were  dug  October  10th. 

Plot  I.  This  plot  occupied  the  lowest  and  most  poorly  drained 
part  of  the  field.  The  seed  of  this  lot  was  not  treated,  but  the  plants 
came  up  nicely,  and  most  of  them  looked  promising  during  the  early 
part  of  the  season.  They  were  sprayed  thoroughly  four  times,  and  re¬ 
mained  green  until  killed  by  frost.  Joining  this  plot  was  a  garden 
patch  of  potatoes  which  was  badly  infected  with  the  Rhizoctonia. 
The  leaves  of  these  diseased  plants  soon  took  on  a  lighter  green  color, 
had  a  tendency  to  fold,  the  stems  became  heavier,  their  internodes  re¬ 
mained  short,"  and  in  many  of  the  plants,  grew  prostrate.  These  tops 
were  soon  invaded  and  completely  ruined  by  early  blight.  During  the 
later  part  of  July,  it  was  observed  that  a  number  of  the  plants  in  the 
rows  joining  the  garden  patch  were  taking  on  an  abnormal  top  develop¬ 
ment.  After  the  first  watering,  this  peculiarity  became  prominent  on 
many  other  plants,  and  at  the  close  of  the  season,  it  is  doubtful  if  there 
was  a  single  plant  in  the  entire  plot  which  had  a  normally  developed 
top.  On  August  10th,  a  careful  examination  was  made  of  fifty  plants 
taken  from  various  parts  of  this  plot,  and  it  was  found  that  the  hyphae 
of  Rhizoctonia  occurred  most  abundantly  on  the  plants  in  the  first  three 


1 6  BULLETIN  70. 

rows  joining  the  infected  patch.  Apparently  the  disease  gradually 
spread  from  the  infected  soil.  Most  of  the  plants  in  this  plot  developed 
small  tubers  and  some  of  them  grew  no  tubers  at  all.  From  eight  rows 
one  hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  rough,  corky  potatoes  were  gathered. 
In  some  cases  the  plant  apparently  failed  to  put  out  tuber  stems,  while 
in  others,  the  stems  which  were  put  out  had  been  injured  or  completely 
cut  off,  producing  Little  Potatoes,  and  a  number  of  the  plants  produced 
Aerial  Potatoes.  On  October  10th,  it  was  impossible  to  find  a  plant  in 
the  plot  which  was  not  more  or  less  affected  with  the  disease.  The 
root  system  was  also  abnormally  developed.  It  too  showed  the  effects 
of  the  disease.  The  younger  roots  and  root  tips  suffered  most.  Many 
of  them  were  dead,  and  a  careful  examination  of  the  living  and  recently 
killed  parts  showed  the  presence  of  an  abundance  of  Rhizoctonia  hyphae. 

Plot  II.  was  used  for  check.  The  seed  of  this  plot  was  not  treat¬ 
ed,  and  the  plants  were  not  sprayed.  They  came  up  nicely,  but  some  of 
these  blighted  early  and  many  of  them  were  killed  fully  two  weeks  be¬ 
fore  frost.  It  was  found  on  examination,  that  many  of  these  plants 
were  more  or  less  affected  with  Rhizoctonia.  Nine  rows  yielded  1128 
pounds  of  tubers,  which  averaged  94  pounds  per  sack. 

Plot  III.  was  planted  with  the  roughest  and  poorest  tubers  of 
this  lot  of  seed.  They  were  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  one  day  before 
planting  but  only  about  three-fourths  of  the  tubers  grew,  and  the  plants 
were  unusually  slow  in  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  plot 
was  sprayed  four  times.  Diseased  plants  were  less  plentiful 
in  this  plot  than  in  the  preceeding.  Seven  rows  produced  910  pounds  of 
tubers,  giving  a  gain  of  4  per  cent  over  check.  These  tubers  averaged 
102  pounds  per  sack. 

Plot  IV.  The  seed  of  this  lot  was  treated  with  corrosive  subli¬ 
mate  one  day  before  planting.  The  plants  were  fully  five  days  later  in 
reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground  than  those  of  Plot  II,  but  fourweeks 
later  there  was  very  little  difference  in  the  size  of  the  plants  between 
the  two  lots.  These  plants  were  sprayed  four  times  which  kept  their 
foliage  in  an  excellent  condition,  until  injured  by  frost.  Fifteen  rows 
yielded  2,625  pounds  of  clean,  smooth  tubers,  giving  again  of  40percent 
over  check.  It  is  quite  evident  that  this  gain  would  have  been  consid¬ 
erable  more  had  the  frost  been  a  month  later.  The  tubers  averaged  106 
pounds  per  sack. 

For  the  sake  of  comparison,  the  methods  of  treatment 
and  the  yields  of  the  different  plots  are  given 
the  following  table. 


TABLE  I.  RESULTS  IN  TREATING  SEED  POTATOES. 

Plot. 

No.  of  Treatment 

No.  times 

Yield  per 

Gain  over 

Average  lbs 
per  sack. 

rows.  of  seed. 

sprayed. 

row  in  ibs. 

plot  No. 2. 

No.  1 

8  None. 

4 

17* 

861  loss. 

No.  2 

9  None. 

None. 

125* 

94. 

No.  3 

7  Corrosive 

4 

130 

4 

102. 

sublimate. 

No.  4 

15  Corrosive 

sublimate. 

4 

175 

40 

106. 

The  results  of 

these  experiments  may 

be  briefly 

explained  as  follows:  The  poor  yield  in  experiment 

No.  t,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  plot  was 
situated  by  the  side  of  a  badly  infected  garden,  where  pota¬ 
toes  had  been  grown  for  several  years.  It  is  probable  that 
the  disease  spread  through  the  soil  from  the  infested  patch. 
(The  result  of  this  experiment  cannot  be  considered  for 
this  reason.) 


PLATE  XI. 


POTATO  FAILURES. 


17 

In  Plot  No.  III.  poor  seed  was  selected  which  was  treat¬ 
ed  with  corrosive  sublimate.  That  only  three-fourths  of  a 
stand  was  secured  was  undoubtedly  due  to  weak  seed.  The 
slight  gain  over  the  untreated  seed  indicated  that  in  any 
method  of  treatment,  it  will  pay  to  carefully  select  the  seed 
potatoes. 

The  seed  potatoes  used  in  Plot  No.  IV.  were  of  the 
same  quality  as  those  used  in  Nos.  1  and  2,  and  were  treat¬ 
ed  with  corrosive  sublimate.  The  plants  were  sprayed  four 
times.  The  results  show  a  gain  of  40  per  cent  over  the  un¬ 
treated  seed  in  Plot  No.  II. 

The  difference  in  the  average  weight  of  sacks  of  pota¬ 
toes  of  the  same  size  from  different  plots  is  interesting;  the 
potatoes  from  Plot  No.  4  averaging  12  pounds  more  to  the 
sack  than  those  grown  in  check  Plot  No.  II.  No  explana¬ 
tion  for  this  difference  is  offered  at  this  time. 

These  experiments  show  that  early  blight  can  be  held 
in  check  with  Bordeaux  mixture  if  the  spraying  is  com¬ 
menced  early,  and  done  thoroughly,  but  it  is  probably  a 
waste  of  time  and  material  to  spray  plants  badly  infected 
with  Rhizoctonia. 

FUTURE  INVESTIGATIONS. 

Different  varieties  of  potatoes  vary  considerably  in  their 
susceptibility  to  disease  when  grown  under  the  same  condi¬ 
tions.  It  has  been  observed  frequently  that  of  plants  of 
different  varieties  grown  in  the  same  hill,  and  probably 
equally  exposed  to  infection,  some  will  die  early  in  the  sea¬ 
son,  and  produce  no  tubers  at  all,  while  the  others  will  live 
to  the  end  of  the  summer  and  produce  a  fair  yield.  Even 
plants  of  the  same  variety  often  show  considerable  differ¬ 
ence  in  power  of  resisting  the  disease.  The  cause  of  such 
resistance  will  be  studied,  and  it  is  hoped  that  in  time  a 
number  of  hardy  or  disease  resistant  varieties  may  be  pro¬ 
duced. 

The  best  method  of  treating  and  wintering  the  seed  is 
receiving  careful  attention,  and  it  is  believed  that  bin  and 
sack  infections  can  be  largely  prevented. 

Some  sections  seem  to  have  much  trouble  with  the  run¬ 
ning  out  of  potatoes.  The  indications  are  that  this  condi¬ 
tion  may  be  overcome,  in  some  cases  at  least,  but  it  will  be 
necessary  to  repeat  the  experiments  another  year  before 
making  a  report. 

Field  observations  indicate  that  Rhizoctonia  frequently 
produces  a  rot  of  potato  tubers.  However,  only  two  tu¬ 
bers  out  of  more  than  one-hundred  inoculated  in  the  labora¬ 
tory  gave  marked  results,  but  many  were  slightly  decayed. 


1 8  BULLETIN  70. 

These  negative  results  may  have  been  due  to  unsuitable 
conditions.  A  thorough  study  of  this  phase  of  the  disease 
will  be  made  during  the  coming  season. 

From  a  number  of  observations  during  the  year,  it  is 
quite  evident  that  the  Alternaria  which  infest  the  onions  of 
this  section  may  also  invade  the  foliage  and  produce  early 
blight  of  potatoes.  Hence  it  was  found  necessary  in  the 
field  experiments  to  spray  the  plants  with  Bordeaux  mix¬ 
ture  as  a  preventive  of  this  disease.  Further  observations 
may  show  that  early  blight  is  an  important  factor  in  pro¬ 
ducing  potato  failures  in  some  sections.  Should  this  prove 
to  be  true  it  may  be  controlled  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Onions  also  frequently  harbor  Rhizoctonia.  This  probably 
explains  why  potatoes  so  frequently  do  poorly  when  planted 
in  onion  ground. 

Experiments  during  the  past  year  indicate  that  sulphur 
has  very  little  or  no  value  in  treating  this  disease.  Lime 
may  prove  helpful.  Both  sulphur  and  lime  will  be  given  a 
thorough  test  during  the  coming' season. 

Preliminary  experiments  in  rejecting  all  infected  seed 
potatoes  gave  excellent  results. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . 

In  conclusion  I  wish  to  offer  my  sincere  thanks  to  Prof.  Paddock 
who  has  made  many  helpful  suggestions  in  this  work.  The  illustra¬ 
tions  of  this  bulletin  were  all  taken  and  arranged  by  him.  I  am  also 
indebted  to  Mr.  J.  G.  Coy  of  Fort  Collins,  for  his  co-operation  in  the 
field  experiments. 

SUMMARY. 

Rhizoctonia  solani  (Kuhn)  is  the  name  given  to  a  fun¬ 
gus  which  occurs  on  the  underground  parts  of  the  potato 
plant.  Our  experiments  show  that  this  fungus  is  an  active 
parasite  on  the  potato  and  that  it  is  one  of  the  principal 
causes  of  potato  failures  in  many  parts  of  the  state. 

Many  potato  growers  are  familiar  with  one  or  more  of 
the  following  conditions  which  have  usually  been  thought 
to  be  due  to  the  influence  of  altitude  or  climate;  abnormally 
large  vines  which  produce  few  or  no  potatoes,  (See  Plate 
V.)  vines  which  though  vigorous  in  appearance,  bear  a 
large  number  of  small,  worthless  tubers,  (See  Plates  IX.  and 
X.)  The  failure  of  much  of  the  seed  to  grow  or  the  dying  of 
plants  during  the  fore  part  of  the  season  resulting  in  a  poor 
stand,  (See  Plate  III.)  This  fungus,  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort 
Collins  at  least,  frequently  produces  all  of  these  conditions. 

The  fungus  lives  over  winter  on  the  potatoes  in  the 
form  of  dark  patches  which  resemble  bits  of  soil  (See  Plate 
I.  Fig  2.)  When  such  potatoes  are  planted  the  fungus  devel¬ 
ops  with  the  plant  and  begins  its  attacks  at  once. 


POTATO  FAILURES. 


IQ 

When  a  field  has  become  thoroughly  infected  with  the 
disease  it  will  remain  in  the  soil  a  number  of  years. 

The  nature  of  the  disease  indicates  that  it  may  be  com¬ 
batted  by  preventive  means  which  consist  in  planting  clean 
seed  in  clean  soil.  Seed  potatoes  should  be  carefully  sort¬ 
ed,  disinfected  and  planted  on  land  that  is  well  underdrain¬ 
ed.  Then  by  practicing  a  long  and  systematic  rotation  of 
crops,  the  soil  may  be  prevented  from  becoming  badly  in¬ 
fected  with  the  disease. 

The  fungus  may  spread  from  a  few  diseased  potatoes 
in  a  sack  or  bin  and  in  a  short  time  render  the  entire  lot 
worthless  for  seed. 

In  our  experiments  diseased  seed  potatoes  treated'with 
corrosive  sublimate  and  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  mixture 
gave  an  increase  in  yield  [of  forty  per  cent  over  untreated 
seed  and  unsprayed  plants.  The  soil  used  in  the  experi¬ 
ments  was  heavy,  poorly  drained  and  infected  wifh  Rhizoc- 
tonia.  A  lighter,  well  drained  soil  free  from  the  disease 
undoubtedly  would  have  given  still  better  results.  The 
formalin  treatment  also  gave  encouraging  results. 


20 


BULLETIN  70. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 

PLATE  I.  Fig.  1.  Sack  of  potatoes  examined  June  3.  Large  pile 
contains  badly  diseased  potatoes,  slightly  diseased  in  the  center,  while 
the  smallest  pile  contains  the  clean  potatoes. 

Fig.  2.  Sclerotia  of  Rhizoctonici  on  potato.  Very  common  on  seed 
potatoes. 

Fig.  3.  Surface  of  potato  covered  by  net  work  of  fine  cracks 
caused  by  attacks  of  Rhizoctonici.  Figs.  2  and  3  natural  size. 

PLATE  II.  Fig.  1.  Potato  badly  scarred  by  Rhizoctonici.  Much 
of  the  so-called  scab  is  undoubtedly  due  to  this  disease. 

Fig.  2.  Potato  sprouts  killed  in  the  sack  by  the  fungus.  From 
the  sack  shown  in  Plate  I.  Both  figures  natural  size. 

PLATE  III.  Showing  how  Rhizoctonici  attacks  young  plants  in 
the  field.  Two  on  the  right  were  killed  before  reaching  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  The  others  badly  injured.  Natural  size. 

PLATE  IV.  Potato  sprouts  from  sack.  Some  killed  by  and 
others  showing  sclerotia  of  Rhizoctonia.  Enlarged. 

PLATE  V.  Plant  from  which  potatoes  were  all  cut  off  by  Rhi¬ 
zoctonia,  producing  an  abnormally  large  top. 

PLATE  VI.  Large  vine  from  which  all  but  a  few  small  potatoes 
were  cut  off  by  the  fungus. 

PLATE  VII.  Potato  plant  infected  from  diseased  seed;  the  root 
system  badly  injured. 

PLATE  VIII.  Potato  plant  from  which  the  tuber  stems  were  all 
cut  off  by  the  fungus.  As  a  result  a  large  top  was  produced  and  tubers 
formed  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

PLATE  IX.  “Little  Potatoes”  and  “Aerial  Potatoes”  produced 
by  ringing  the  main  stem.  August  24. 

PLATE  X.  “  Little  Potatoes  ”  and  “Aerial  Potatoes”  produced 
by  removing  all  potatoes  twice  during  the  season.  August  24  anti  Sep¬ 
tember  2. 

PLATE  XI.  Fig.  1.  Three  green  potato  stems  inoculated  with 
cultures  of  Rhizoctonici.  One  completely  cut  off,  the  others  nearly  girdled. 

Fig.  2.  Two  tuber  stems  inoculated  as  above.  Both  cut  off  by 
the  fungus  at  the  discolored  point.  All  natural  size. 

PLATE  XII.  Green  stems  inoculated  with  cultures  of  Rhizoc¬ 
tonia.  One  cut  in  two,  the  others  badly  injured.  Natural  size. 


EXPRESS  BOOK  PRINT 
FORT  COLLINS,  COLO 


Bulletin  71.  April,  1902. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 

— BY— 


C.  P.  GILLETTE. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1902. 


The  Agriealtural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Term 


Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS,  - 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  - 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE,  . 

Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN, 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


Canon  City,  - 

Expires 

-  1903 

Denver, 

1903 

Denver, 

-  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

1905 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Denver, 

1907 

Gypsum, 

1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

ex-officio. 


Executive  committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 


L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director, 
C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S., 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S., 

E.  D.  BALL,M.  S., 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  - 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S,, 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S., 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S., 


Irrigation  Engineer 

. Entomologist 

. Chemist 

Agriculturist 

. Horticulturist 

-  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 
Assistant  Entomologist 
Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 
-  Assistant  Horticulturist 
-  Assistant  Chemist 

. Assistant  Chemist 

Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 
Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . -  Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN,  - . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


CONTENTS. 


INSECTS. 


Introductory  Note. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Apple: 

Attacking  the  Fruit. 

Codling  Moth,  Carpocapsa pomonella  Linn. 

Attacking  the  Foliage. 

Leaf-roller,  Cacoecia  argyrospila  Walk. 

Tent  Caterpillar,  Clisiocampa  fragilis  Stretch. 

Fall  Web-worm,  Hyphantria  cunea  Dru. 

Apple  Flea-beetle,  Haltica  sp. 

Brown  Mite,  Bryobia  pratensis  Garm. 

Apple  Plant-louse,  Aphis  mali  Fabr. 

Scale  Insects  (mostly  on  bark). 

Grasshoppers. 

Attacking  Trunk  and  Branches. 

Borers,  Flat-headed,  Chrysobothris  femorata  Fabr. 
Borers,  Twig,  Amphicerus  bicaudatus  Say. 

Buffalo  Tree-hoppers,  Ceresa  sp. 

San  Jose  Scale,  Aspidiotus  per niciosus  Comst. 
Putnam’s  Scale,  Aspidiotus  ancylus  Putnam. 

Scurvy  Bark-louse,  Chionaspis  furfurus  Fitch. 
Oyster-shell  Bark-louse,  Mytilaspis  pomorum  Bousche. 
Woolly  Plant-louse,  Schizoneura  lanigera  Hausm. 
Attacking  the  Roots. 

Woolly  Plant-louse,  Schizoneura  lanigera  Hausm. 

Insects  Attacking  the  Pear: 

Insects  in  General. 

Pear-tree  Slug  Eriocampa  cerasi  Peck. 

Pear  Leaf-blister,  Pliytoptus  pyri. 

Howard’s  Scale,  Aspidiotus  liowardi  Cockerell. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Plum: 

Attacking  the  Fruit. 

Plum  Gouger,  Coccotorus  prunicida  Walsh. 

Plum  Curculio,  Conotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst. 
Attacking  the  Foliage. 

Fruit-tree  Leaf -roller,  Cacoecia  argyrospila  Walk. 
Slugs,  Eriocampa  cerasi  Peck. 

Brown  Mite,  Bryobia  pratensis  Garm. 

Plant-lice,  several  species. 

Attacking  Trunk  and  Branches. 

Peach  Borer,  Sannina  exitiosa  Say. 

Flat-headed  Borer,  Chrysobothris  femorata  Fabr. 

Scale  Insects,  several  species. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Cherry: 

Several  .species  referred  to. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Peach: 

Peach  Twig-borer,  Anarsia  lineatella  Zell. 

Peach  Borer,  Sannina  exitiosa  Say. 

Plant-lice. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Grape: 

Achemon  Sphinx,  Philampelus  achemon  Drury. 
Eight-spotted  Forester,  Alypia  octomaculata  Fabr. 
Stem  Borer,  Amphicerus  bicaudatus  Say. 

Tree  Crickets,  (Ecantlius  sp. 

Cottony  Scale,  Pulvinaria  innumerabilis  Rath. 

Grape  Flea-beetle,  Graptodera  chalybea  Ill. 

Grape  Leaf-hoppers,  Typhlocyba  sp. 

Grasshoppers. 


4 


Bulletin  71. 


Insects  Injurious  to  the  Currant  : 

Imported  Currant-borer,  Sesia  tipuliformis  Clerk. 
Currant  Saw-fly,  Pristiphora  grossularice  Walsh. 

Insects  Injurious  to  the  Strawberry  : 

Strawberry  Leaf-roller,  Phoxopteris  fragarice  W.  &  R. 
Strawberry  Crown-borer,  Tyloderma  fragarice  Riley. 


INSECTICIDES. 

Insecticides.  (Preparation  and  Use). 

Substances  that  Kill  by  Being  Eaten. 

1.  White  Arsenic. 

2.  Arsenic  Bran-mash. 

3.  Paris  Green. 

4.  Scheele’s  Green  (Green  Arsenoid). 

5.  Arsenate  of  Lead. 

6.  Arsenite  of  Lime. 

7.  London  Purple. 

8.  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

9.  White  Hellebore. 

10.  Borax. 

Substances  that  Kill  by  External  Contact. 

11.  Soap. 

12.  Whale-oil  Soap. 

13.  Fish-oil  Soap. 

14.  Kerosene  Emulsion. 

15.  Kerosene-milk  Emulsion. 

16.  Kerosene  and  Crude  Petroleum. 

17.  Gasoline. 

18.  Turpentine. 

19.  Lye  and  Washing  Soda. 

20.  Lime. 

21.  Lime,  Salt,  and  Sulphur  Wash. 

22.  Resin  Soap  (Summer  Wash). 

23.  Resin  Soap  (Winter  Wash). 

24.  Pyrethrum  or  Buhach. 

25.  Tobacco. 

26.  Sulfur. 

27.  Hot  Water. 

28.  Carbon  Bisulfide-“Fuma.” 

29.  Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. 

Substances  that  Repel. 

30.  Napthaline,  Gum-camphor  and  Moth-balls. 

31.  Tobacco. 

32.  Ashes. 

33.  Lime,  Plaster,  and  Road  Dust. 

Insect  Traps. 

34.  Lights. 

35.  Sweetened  Water,  Cider,  Vinegar,  Etc. 

36.  Bandages. 

37.  Hopper-dozers  or  Hopper-pans. 

38.  Sticky  Substances. 

The  Application  of  Insecticides: 

In  the  Dry  Way. 

In  the  Wet  Way. 

Pumps. 

How  to  Spray. 


INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES. 


C.  P.  Gillette. 


Bulletin  47,  treating  of  “  Colorado’s  Worst  Insect  Pests  and 
Their  Remedies,”  is  out  of  print.  As  there  is  much  demand  for  a 
bulletin  of  a  general  nature  treating  of  the  insects  that  are  most 
injurious  in  Colorado,  and  the  methods  by  which  they  may  be 
destroyed  or  kept  in  check,  the  present  publication  has  been 
prepared.  In  the  first  part  of  the  bulletin,  dealing  with  insects 
injurious  to  Colorado  fruits,  it  has  been  the  plan  to  treat  the  more 
common  insects  only,  and  to  treat  each  as  briefly  as  possible  and 
still  give  the  necessary  information  to  enable  the  farmer  or  horti¬ 
culturist  to  decide  what  insect  is  doing  the  injury  in  a  particular 
case,  and  what  remedies  he  should  use.  The  object  of  the  second 
part  of  the  bulletin,  treating  of  the  “Preparation  and  Use  of  the 
More  Important  Insecticides,”  is  well  stated  in  the  title.  Many  sub¬ 
stances  that  are  rarely  used,  and  others  which  are  of  little  or  no 
value,  are  not  mentioned. 

The  insecticides  are  numbered  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
taken  up.  They  are  also  referred  to  by  number  in  the  first  part  of 
the  bulletin,  which  makes  it  easy  to  refer  to  them.  When  more 
than  one  remedy  is  mentioned,  they  are  given  in  the  order  of  their 
preference. 


PART  I. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  APPLE. 

ATTACKING  THE  FRUIT. 

CODLING  MOTH. 

Flesh-colored  larvae  eating  into  the  fruit  and  causing  wormy 
apples.  The  first  brood  of  larvae  (worms)  begin  eating  into  the 
fruit  when  early  apples  are  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  brood 
is  not  very  numerous,  but  it  develops  into  a  second  brood  about 
seven  weeks  later  which  is  very  much  more  numerous.  The  moth 
and  its  eggs  are  shown  at  Plate  I.,  Figs.  3  and  4. 

Remedies. — The  arsenical  poisons  are,  by  far,  the  best  remedies  we  have 
for  this  insect.  See  remedies  4,  3,  6,  8,  7,  5. 

The  combination  of  Bordeaux  mixture  (8)  with  the  arsenites  is  very  popu¬ 
lar  farther  east  where  fungus  diseases  are  prevalent.  The  writer  believes  there 
is  no  occasion  as  yet  to  use  Bordeaux  mixture  upon  apple  trees  in  Colorado 
except  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the  poison  to  adhere  better  to  the  foliage. 

Make  the  first  application  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  have  faded  and  nearly 
all  fallen.  Continue  the  application  till  every  calyx  (blossom)  is  filled  with  the 
liquid.  Repeat  the  application  in  one  week.  If  heavy  storms  follow  to  wash  out 
the  poison,  make  a  third  application  as  soon  as  the  storm  is  over.  Upon  the 
thoroughness  of  the  first  and  second  applications  the  success  will  chiefly  depend. 
Just  what  degree  of  success  may  be  expected  from  later  applications  has  not 
been  thoroughly  determined.  *Professor  Cordlev,  of  Oregon,  seems  to  have  proven 
that  late  spraying  is  very  important  in  that  State. 

Bandages  (36)  are  also  of  considerable  service  if  carefully  attended  to. 
Lights  to  trap  the  moths  are  valueless.  Screen  cellar  windows  and  doors  where 
fruit  is  kept. 

Plate  II.,  Fig.  1,  shows  blossoms  from  which  the  petals  have 
fallen  and  also  small  apples  with  their  blossoms  (calyces)  tightly 
closed,  so  that  little  or  no  spray  could  be  forced  into  them,  all  upon 
a  single  spur  of  a  Duchess  tree  at  one  time.  The  blossoms  at  (a) 
are  in  just  the  right  condition  to  receive  and  hold  the  poison.  The 
two  apples  should  have  received  the  spray  a  full  week  earlier. 

ATTACKING  THE  FOLIAGE. 

LEAF-ROLLERS. 

The  fruit-tree  leaf-roller  ( Cacoecia  argyrospila)  is  a  green  larva 
with  a  black  head  and  measuring  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in 
length  when  fully  grown.  The  larvae  begin  to  hatch  with  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  buds  of  the  apple  trees  in  the  spring.  They  attack  at 


*Bull.  69,  Or.  Exp.  Station. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


7 


once  the  tenderest  leaves  and  fold  them  about  themselves  for  protec¬ 
tion.  When  abundant  they  may  completely  defoliate  the  trees. 
They  disappear  during  June  and  do  not  appear  again  until  the 
following  spring.  In  the  meantime  the  eggs  may  be  found  in  little 
gray  patches  anywhere  upon  the  bark  of  trunk  or  limbs.  See 
Plate  I,  Fig.  5. 

Remedies. — Crush  as  many  as  possible  of  the  egg-patches  during  winter 
and  early  spring.  The  best  remedy  is  to  spray  thoroughly  with  one  of  the 
arsenites  (4,  3,  6,  8,  5)  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  are  out.  Repeat  in  one  week. 
Make  a  third  application  in  another  week  or  ten  days  if  it  seems  necessary. 

Protect  the  toads  and  insectiverous  birds,  as  both  feed  freely  upon  the 
rollers.  The  blackbirds  are  especially  destructive  to  them. 

fall  web-worm.  ( Hyphantria  cunea.) 

This  insect  is  often  mistaken  for  the  next  species.  The  webs  are 
larger  and  loose  or  open  and  the  caterpillars  stay  in  them  to  feed. 


Fig.  1. — Fall  Web-worm:  a  and  b ,  caterpillars;  c,  chrysalis;  d,  moth. 

(Howard,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dep.  of  Agriculture,  1895.) 

When  the  leaves  within  the  tent  are  devoured,  the  web  is  extended  so 
as  to  take  in  more  foliage.  These  tents  also  appear  later  in  the  season 
than  those  of  the  following  species.  They  will  seldom  be  noticed 
before  the  middle  of  July.  The  adult  insect  is  a  white  moth,  some¬ 
times  speckled  with  black.  See  Fig.  1. 


8 


Bulletin  71. 


Remedies. — The  same  as  for  the  following  species  except  that  it  is  not 
practical  to  collect  the  eggs  which  are  deposited  upon  the  leaves. 

tent  caterpillar.  (Clisiocampa  fragilis) 

This  insect  also  hatches  as  soon  as  the  leaf  buds  open,  and 
builds  small  webs  in  the  forks  of  the  branches.  A  large  number  of 
caterpillars  inhabit  a  web  or  tent,  which  is  increased  as  necessity 
requires.  See  Plate  I.,  Fig.  1. 

Remedies. — While  the  foliage  is  off,  collect  the  large  egg-clusters  which 
are  stuck  to  small  limbs.  They  are  covered  with  a  dark,  spongy  material  and  are 
quite  readily  seen,  appearing  as  galls  or  swellings  of  the  limbs.  If  this  remedy 
has  been  neglected,  spray  with  the  arsenical  mixtures  (4,  3,  6,  8,  5).  While  the 
tents  are  small  they  may  be  cut  out  and  burned  if  on  small  limbs.  If  on  large 
limbs  they  may  be  burned  out  with  a  torch. 

APPLE  FLEA-BEETLE.  ( Halticd  Sp.) 

The  apple  flea-beetle  is  a  small  metalic- green  insect,  about  an 
eight  of  an  inch  in  length,  which  jumps  or  drops  from  the  foliage 
when  disturbed.  It  is  most  abundant  on  young  trees  or  nursery 
stock  or  sprouts. 

Remedies. — Any  of  the  arsenical  mixtures  (3  to  8)  are  effectual  in  destroy¬ 
ing  this  insect  or  driving  it  from  the  foliage.  It  can  usually  be  driven  from  the 
leaves  by  the  application  of  dry  substances,  such  as  lime,  ashes,  plaster, 
etc.  (32,  33). 


brown  mite.  ( Bryobia  pratensis.) 

The  brown  or  clover  mite  is  extremely  small  and  its  presence 
is  usually  first  detected  by  the  faded,  sickly  appearance  of  the 
foliage.  See  Plate  III.,  Fig.  1.  The  trees  appear  to  need  more 
water.  The  mites  feed  upon  the  leaves  but  deposit  their  rust-colored 
eggs  upon  trunk  and  limbs.  When  very  abundant,  these  eggs  color 
the  bark  red,  which  is  most  often  noticed  during  winter. 

Remedies. — To  destroy  the  eggs  while  the  trees  are  dormant  (during 
winter),  use  lime,  salt  and  sulfur  mixture  (21);  kerosene  emulsion  (14),  quad¬ 
ruple  strength;  whale-oil  soap  (12),  quadruple  strength,  or  crude  petroleum  (16). 
To  kill  the  mites  during  summer  use  kerosene  emulsion  or  whale-oil  soap  of  ordi¬ 
nary  strengths.  It  is  far  better  to  treat  the  eggs. 

APPLE  PLANT  LOUSE.  ( Aphis  TYiali.) 

A  green  aphis  curling  the  leaves  of  apple  trees,  most  abundant 
late  in  the  season,  after  the  middle  of  July.  See  eggs  on  apple 
twig,  Plate  III.,  Fig.  4. 

Remedies  — For  the  destruction  of  the  eggs,  proceed  as  for  the  destruction 
of  the  eggs  of  the  brown  mite  above.  To  destroy  the  lice,  apply  kerosene 
emulsion  (14),  or  whale-oil  soap  (12),  thoroughly  and  in  a  manner  to  bring  the 
liquid  in  contact  with  the  bodies  of  the  lice. 

SCALE  INSECTS. 

For  the  treatment  of  scale  insects  it  is  advisable,  in  each  case, 
to  write  to  the  Experiment  Station  for  specific  directions.  Specimens 


PLATE  I. 


Fig.  1— Western  Tent-caterpillar:  A,  female  motli;  B,  C,  males.  D,  apple  twig  with  egg 
masses  (M).  F,  cocoon.  3,  egg-mass  of  American  Tent-caterpillar.  Life  size, 

Fig.  2  -  Cottony  Maple  scam:  A,  scales  mostly  hidden  by  secretion.  Life  size. 

Fig.  3— Codling  moth:  A,  wings  closed  ;  B,  open.  Enlarged  about  M. 

Fig.  t— Apple  showing  white  egg  of  Codling  Moth  (under  letter  F>.  Life  size. 

Fig.  5— Fruit  tree  leaf  roller:  A,  moth,  wings  open;  B,  closed.  C,  D,  egg  patches,  hatched. 
All  life  size. 

Fig.  6— Pear  with  Howard’s  Scale.  The  young  appear  as  minute  white  specks.  Life  size. 
Figures  from  photos  by  the  author. 


PLATE  2. 

Fig.  1 — Blossoms  from  which  the  petals  have  fallen  and  still  in  good  condition  to  receive  the 
spray.  Also  apples  with  the  calyces  closed. 

Fig.  2— Spraying  scenein  orchard  of  Mr.  Bergher,  Palisade,  Colo.  Photos  by  the  author. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


9 


of  the  scale  should  also  be  sent.  Otherwise,  use  the  treatment  rec¬ 
ommended  for  San  Jose  scale.  See  further  on. 

GRASSHOPPERS. 

Several  species.  Those  that  fly  from  tree  to  tree  can  probably 
be  managed  best  by  means  of  arsenical  sprays  (3  to  8),  when  safe  to 
use  them. 

Those  that  crawl  up  the  trunks  into  the  trees  and  jump  to  the 
ground  when  disturbed,  can  be  quite  largely  kept  out  of  the  trees 
by  arsenic  bran-mash  (2)  used  freely  about  the  border  of  the 


Fig.  2. — Hopper-dozer  or  Hopper-pan.  (After  Riley.) 


orchard,  and  by  sticky  bands  (38)  of  Raupenleim  or  printer’s  ink,  or 
even  cotton  batting,  about  the  trunks  of  the  trees.  If  the  Raupenleim 
or  printer’s  ink  is  used,  it  should  be  spread  upon  a  strip  of  cardboard 

which  has  first  been 
wrapped  about  the  trunk. 

Grasshoppers  that 
injure  orchards  usually 
come  from  adjoining  al¬ 
falfa  or  grass  fields.  In 
such  cases  the  free  use  of 
the  hopper-pan  (37)  in 
the  alfalfa  or  grass  field 
is  the  best  remedy.  One 
of  the  hopper  -  pans  is 
shown  at  Fig.  2.  At 
Fig.  3  female  grasshop- 

Fig.  8. — Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  laying  eggs  in  the  PeIS  are  ?h°W“  in  the  aCt 
ground:  a,a,  females  with  their  abdomens  in  the  of  deDOSitinP'  fiP'P’S  ill  the 
ground;  6,  an  egg-pod  broken  open;  c,  scattered  eggs;  V ®  && 

d,  egg-packet  in  the  ground.  (After  Riley.)  ground. 


10 


Bulletin  71. 


ATTACKING  TRUNK  AND  BRANCHES. 


BORERS,  FLAT- HEADED. 

( Chrysobothris  femorata.) 

A  whitish  grub  boring  be¬ 
neath  the  bark  of  apple  and  other 
trees  and  peculiar  in  appearance 
in  seeming  to  have  a  greatly  en¬ 
larged  flat  head.  Fig.  4. 

p*  Remedies. — Remove  with  a  pocket 
knife  whenever  found.  Protect  the 
south  side  of  the  trunks  of  the  trees 
from  the  sun’s  heat,  either  by  shading 
or  white  washing  during  late  winter  and 
spring. 


Fig.  4.— Flat-headed  Apple-tree  Borer:  a, 
flat-headed  larva;  b ,  the  mature  beetle;  c, 
head  of  mature  beetle ;  d,  pupa.  All  twice 
natural  size.  (Chittenden,  Circular  32, 
U.  S.  Dep.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Entomology.) 


apple  twig-borer.  ( Amphicerus  bicaudatus.) 

A  cylindrical,  mahogany-colored  beetle,  about  one-third  of  an 
inch  long,  boring  holes  in  twigs  of  apple,  pear,  cherry  and  other 
trees  and  grapevines.  See  Fig.  5. 


Fig.  5.— Apple  Twig-borer:  a,  beetle  dorsal  view;  a',  beetle  side  view;  6,  pupa  fmm  beneath; 
c,  grub,  side  view ;  d,  apple  twig  showing  burrow ;  e,  burrow  in  tamerisk  with  pupa  at 
bottom ;  /,  stem  of  grape  showing  burrow.  All  enlarged  except  stems  showing  burrows. 
(Marlatt,  Farmer’s  Bulletin  70,  Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dep.  of  Agr.) 

Remedy. — Cut  out  the  infested  stems  and  destroy  the  borers. 


Insects  and  Insectjcides. 


11 


BUFFALO  TREE-HOPPERS.  (CereSCL  Sp.) 

Three-cornered,  greenish  to  brownish  insects,  about  a  third  of 
an  inch  in  length.  They  jump  when  disturbed  and  puncture  twigs 
of  trees  and  stems  of  plants  for  the  deposition  of  their  eggs.  From 
these  punctures  oval  scars  result.  See  Plate  III.,  Fig.  3. 

Remedies—  Infested  twigs  may  be  pruned  away  and  burned.  Probably 
clean  culture  is  the  best  remedy.  Keep  down  all  weeds  and  unnecessary  vegeta¬ 
tion  in  and  about  the  orchard. 

san  jose  scale.  ( Aspidiotus  perniciosus.)  ’ 

This  insect  is  very  easily  overlooked  and  may  be  present  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  kill  trees  before  its  presence  is  discovered  by 
the  orchardist.  The}^  may  infest  trunk,  twig,  fruit,  or  foliage.  The 
scale  is  nearly  circular,  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
dark  gray  in  color  with  a  rust-red  spot  at  the  center.  Anyone  find¬ 
ing  such  scales  upon  any  tree  should  send  examples  at  once  to  the 
Experiment  Station  for  examination,  as  there  are  several  species 
closely  resembling  each  other  in  outward  appearance.  As  yet  this 
scale  is  unknown  in  Colorado  orchards.  See  Plate  I.,  Fig.  6,  which 
shows  a  closely  related  species  on  pear. 

Remedies. — Spray  with  lime,  sulfur,  and  salt  mixture  (21)  while  the  trees 
are  dormant.  Or,  spray  with  whale-oil  soap  (12)  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds 
to  a  gallon  of  water,  or  with  crude  petroleum  (16)  during  winter.  If  trees  are 
very  badly  infested,  it  will  often  be  best  to  cut  and  burn  them. 

putnam’s  scale.  ( Aspidiotus  ancylus.) 

Very  closely  resembling  the  preceding  species.  Remedies 
the  same. 

SCURVY  BARK-LOUSE. 

( Chionaspis  furfurus.) 

Small  white  scales  resem¬ 
bling  scurf  or  dandruff  on  the 
trunk  or  branches.  There  are 
two  sizes,  the  females  are  larger 
and  oval,  and  the  males  are 
very  small  and  slender.  See 
Fig.  6. 

Remedies  same  as  for  the 
San  Jose  scale. 


oyster-shell  bark-louse.  ( Mytilaspis  pomorum.) 

Scales  of  the  same  color  as  the  bark  of  the  tree,  about  one- 


Fig.  6. — Scurvy  Bark-louse:  a,  twig  showing 
scales  of  semale  louse;  6,  twig  showing  scales 
of  male  louse ;  r,  scale  of  female  greatly  en¬ 
larged;  d.  scale  of  male  greatly  enlarged. 
[Howard,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dep.  of  Agr.,  1894.] 


12 


Bulletin  71. 


eighth  of  an  inch  long,  curved  and  small  at  one  end.  Very  easily 
overlooked.  See  Fig.  7. 

Remedies  the  same  as  for  the  San  Jose  scale. 


Fig.  7. — Oyster-shell  Bark-louse:  a,  female  scale  from  below,  showing  eggs 
greatly  enlarged;  6,  the  same  from  above;  c,  female  scale  on  twig,  natural 
size;  d,  male  scale  enlarged.  [Howard,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dep.  of  Agr.,  1894.] 

woolly  plant-louse.  ( Schizoneura  lanigera.) 

Small  dark  lice  more  or  less  densely  covered  with  a  white 
flocculent  secretion.  If  the  lice  are  crushed  in  the  hand  they  leave 
a  red  stain.  The  lice  attack  chiefly  tender  bark  about  wounds  or 
on  tender  growing  shoots. 

Remedies. — Early  in  the  sea¬ 
son,  when  the  white  patches  begin 
to  appear  on  trunk  and  branches, 
paint  them  over  with  pure  kero¬ 
sene  (16),  crude  petroleum,  or  a 
very  strong  kerosene  emulsion  (14), 
or  whale-oil  soap  (12)  mixture.  If 
the  lice  become  abundant  late  in 
the  season,  apply  kerosene  emul¬ 
sion  or  whale-oil  soap  in  ordinary 
strengths  but  with  a  great  deal  of 
force  and  a  coarse  spray  in  order 
to  wet  through  the  waxy  secretion 
which  covers  them. 

This  insect  also  attacks 
the  roots.  See  Fig.  8. 


Fig.  8. — Woolly  Aphis,  root  form  :  a,  small  root 
showing  swellings  caused  by  the  lice ;  6,  wing¬ 
less  louse  showing  woolly  secretion  ;  c,  winged 
louse.  (After  Saunders.) 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


13 


ATTACKING  THE  ROOTS. 

woolly  plant-louse.  ( Schizoneura,  lanigera.) 

This  insect  attacks  the  roots  as  well  as  the  trunk  and  brancnes. 
It  causes  warty  excrescences  and  often  the  destruction  of  the  greater 
portion  of  the  smaller  roots  (Fig.  8).  The  description  of  the  louse 
is  the  same  as  for  the  trunk  form  mentioned  above. 

Remedies. — Remove  the  earth  about  the  crown  for  a  distance  of  about  two 
feet,  put  in  four  to  six  pounds  of  tobacco  dust  (or  double  this  amount  of  stems) 
and  cover  again;  then  irrigate.  If  tobacco  can  not  be  procured,  use  kerosene 
emulsion  (14)  or  whale-oil  soap  (12)  of  the  ordinary  strengths  in  its  place,  pouring 
in  a  liberal  quantity. 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  THE  PEAR. 

Any  of  the  insects  mentioned  above  as  attacking  the  apple  may 
be  found  attacking  the  pear,  except  the  woolly  plant-louse,  and  the 
same  remedies  should  be  employed. 

pear-tree  slug.  ( Eriocampa  cerasi ) 

Slimy  dark-colored  larvae 

with  the  head  end  much  the 

larger,  somewhat  resembling 

snails,  resting  upon  the  upper 

surface  of  the  leaves,  which 

they  skeletonize.  See  Fig.  9. 

Remedies.  —  Apply  white 
hellebore,  or  any  of  the  arsenical 
mixtures  (3-8),  by  dusting  or 
by  spraying.  Freshly  slaked  lime 
(20)  or  wood  ashes  (32)  freely 
dusted  upon  the  larvae  will  kill 
many  of  them. 

This  is  an  easy  insect  to 
control  and  should  not  be 
allowed  to  continue  the  seri¬ 
ous  injuries  to  the  pear,  plum 
and  cherry  in  this  State  that 
it  has  been  doing  the  past 
few  years. 


Fig.  9. — Pear-tree  Slug:  a,  adult  fly;  b,  larva  or 
slug  with  the  slimy  covering  removed ;  c,  same 
as  preceding  in  natural  condition ;  d,  leaves 
showing  slugs  and  their  injuries.  (Marlatt,  Cir¬ 
cular  2t5,  Second  Series,  U.  S.  Dep.  of  Agr.,  Div. 
Entomology. 


PEAR  LEAF- BLISTER.  (PJiytoptUS  pyH.) 

Small  dark  spots  upon  the -leaves,  sometimes  very  abundant 
and  involving  the  greater  portion  of  the  surface.  The  diseased 
portion  is  thickened  also  and  at  first  is  green  like  the  rest  of  the 
leaf.  The  leaves  often  fall  prematurely. 


14 


Bulletin  71. 


Remedies. — Spray  the  trees  while  dor¬ 
mant  with  kerosene  emulsion  (14),  treble 
strength:  whale-oil  soap  (12),  one  pound  to  two 
gallons  of  water;  or  with  lime,  salt  and  sulfur 
mixture.  Gather  and  burn  as  many  of  the 
fallen  leaves  as  possible. 

Howard’s  scale.  ( Aspidiotus  howardi.) 

Was  found  attacking  pears  badly 
in  an  orchard  near  Delta,  Colo.,  last 
summer.  This  is  a  close  relative  of 
the  pernicious,  or  San  Jose  scale,  but, 
so  far,  has  been  known  only  upon  plum 
and  pear.  Pears,  or  any  fruit  affected 
with  scales,  should  be  reported  prompt¬ 
ly  to  the  Experiment  Station.  See 
Plate  I.,  Fig.  6. 

Remedies. — The  same  as  for  San  Jose 
scale  mentioned  under  apple  insects. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  PLUM. 

ATTACKING  THE  FRUIT. 

plum  gouger.  (Coccotorus  prunicida.) 

A  small  but  rather  robust  snout-beetle  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length ;  color  a  leaden  gray  with  head  and  thorax  och- 
erous  yellow ;  wing  covers  smooth  without  prominent  humps 
on  them.  The  beetle  eats  pin-holes  in  the  growing  plums  in 
which  it  lays  its  eggs.  The  larva  or  grub  eats  into  the  pit  and 
flesh  on  the  kernel  and  later  eats  a  hole  out  through  both  pit  and 
flesh  of  plum  just  before  the  plum  matures  (Fig.  10).  Attacks  the 
red,  or  Americana  varieties  only.  Only  insect  in  Colorado  injuring 
the  fruit  of  the  plum  to  any  extent. 

Remedies.  —  Jar  the  trees  early  every  morning,  or  in  the  evening,  from 
the  time  the  blossoms  are  out  till  very  few  beetles  can  be  obtained,  catching 
them  on  a  sheet  spread  beneath.  It  only  takes  a  very  few  beetles  to  do  a 
great  amount  of  harm,  as  I  have  found  by  actual  count  that  a  single  female 
may  lay  as  many  as  450  eggs.*  Gathering  and  destroying  all  stung  plums  during 
the  early  part  of  July  would  nearly  exterminate  this  insect.  Spraying  with  an 
arsenical  poison  (4,  3,  6,  7,  5,  8)  once,  a  few  days  before  the  trees  blossom,  and 
once  or  twice  after,  will  give  considerable  protection.  Use  the  poisons  in  two- 
thirds  ordinary,  or  standard  strengths.  Arsenate  of  lead  (5)  is  probably  the  safest 
to  use  on  the  foliage  of  the  plum. 

plum  curculio.  ( Conotrachelus  nenuphar.) 

This  beetle  is  often  confused  with  the  preceding.  As  yet  it  has 
not  been  reported  in  Colorado.  It  is  liable  any  year  to  appear  in 


*Insect  Life,  III.,  p.  227. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


15 


our  orchards  and  all  should  be  on  the  look  out  for  it  so  as  to  do  all 
possible  to  stamp  it  out  or  prevent  its  rapid  spread.  It  is  to  the 
European  varieties  of  plums  what  the  codling  moth  is  to  the  apples, 
only  worse.  The  beetle  is  brown  to  blackish  in  color,  is  about  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch  long  and  has  two  prominent  humps  and  numerous 
smaller  ones  upon  its  wing  covers.  The  beetle  makes  a  crescent¬ 
shaped  cut  in  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  where  an  egg  is  deposited  and 
the  grub  does  not  enter  the  pit  but  feeds  on  the  flesh  outside  of  it, 
causing  the  fruit  to  fall. 

Remedies . — Jarring  and  spraying  as  in  case  of  the  preceding  species. 

Should  anyone  find  what  he  thinks  to  be  the  work  of  this 
insect  in  his  orchard,  it  is  hoped  he  will  notify  the  Experiment 
Station  at  once. 


ATTACKING  THE  FOLIAGE. 

fruit-tree  leaf-roller.  ( Cacoscia  drgyrospild) 

See  under  apple  insects.  Use  the  poisons  only  two-thirds  as 
strong  on  the  plum  as  on  the  apple.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  probably 
least  likely  to  injure  the  foliage. 

SLUGS. 

Skeletonizing  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  See  pear-tree 
slug.  Use  the  same  remedies. 

BROWN  MITE. 

See  under  apple  insects.  Remedies  the  same. 

PLANT  LICE. 

Two  or  three  species  attack  the  foliage  of  the  plum  badly  in 
Colorado.  Remedies  the  same  as  for  apple  plant-louse. 

Other  insects  attacking  apple  foliage  may  be  found  on  plum, 
where  they  are  destroyed  by  the  same  treatment  in  either  case. 

ATTACKING  TRUNK  AND  BRANCHES. 

the  peach  borer.  ( Sdnnind  exitiosd.) 

This  insect  often  attacks  the  plum.  For  its  treatment  see 
peach  enemies. 

flat-headed  borer. 

See  under  apple  enemies. 

SCALE  INSECTS. 

See  under  apple  enemies.  When  scales  are  found  it  will  be 
well  to  send  specimens  to  the  Experiment  Station  for  identification 
and  advice.  Howard’s  scale  and  Putnam’s  scale  both  occur  on 
plum  in  the  State.  They  have  been  injuriously  abundant  in  a  few 
isolated  cases  only. 


16 


Bulletin  71. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  CHERRY. 

The  insects  attacking  the  cherry  in  Colorado  are  the  Fruit-tree 
Leaf-roller,  Tent  Caterpillar,  Fall  Web-worm,  Brown  Mite,  Plant 
Lice,  Scale  Insects,  Grasshoppers,  Flat-headed  Borer,  Twig  Borer, 
Buffalo  Tree-hoppers  and  Pear  Slug  mentioned  above. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  PEACH. 

peach  twig-borer.  (Anarsia  lineatella.) 


This  is  the  worst  peach  enemy  in  Colorado  at  the  present  time. 
As  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  open  in  the  spring,  a  small  brownish 
larva  with  a  black  head  eats  into  the  buds  and  destroys  them. 
When  the  new  shoots  start,  the  borer  eats  into  them  causing  them 
to  wilt  and  die.  Many  of  the  second  brood  of  this  borer  eat  into 
the  peaches,  causing  a  gummy  exhudation  and  ruining  them  for 
market.  The  larvae  that  appear  in  the  spring  spent  their  winter  in 
little  excavations  which  they  made  in  the  fall  in  the  bark  of  the 
trees.  See  Figs.  11  and  12. 

Remedies.  —  Early  in  the  spring,  just  before  the  buds  open,  spray  the 
trees  with  lime,  salt  and  sulfur  wash  (21),  whale-oil  soap  (12)  in  the  proportion 
of  a  pound  to  two  gallons  of  water;  fish-oil  soap  (13)  diluted  once  with  water,  or 
kerosene,  will  doubtless  do  the  work  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as  the  lime, 
sulfur  and  salt.  Many  of  the  larvse  may  be  caught  under  bandages  (36)  used 
as  for  the  codling  moth. 


Fig.  11.— Peach  Twig-borer:  a,  twig  of 
peach  showing  little  masses  of  chewed 
bark  above  the  larval  burrows;  b ,  the 
same  enlarged ;  c,  larva  in  winter  burrow, 
enlarged;  d,  hibernating  larva  greatly 
enlarged.  (Marlatt,  Bulletin  10,  N.  S., 
U.  S.  L)ep.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Entomology). 


Fig.  12.— Peach  Twig  and  Borer:  a,  young 
shoot  wilting  from  attack  of  borer;  0, 
adult  larva  enlarged;  c,  chrysalis  en¬ 
larged;  d,  tail  end  of  chrysalis  showing 
hooks.  (Marlatt,  Bulletin  10,  N.  S.,  U.  S. 
Dep.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Entomology.) 


THE  PEACH  BORER. 

A  yellowish  white  borer  attaining  the  length  of  about  one 
inch,  boring  beneath  the  bark  of  the  lower  trunk  and  larger  roots. 
See  Plate  IV. 


PLATE  3. 

Fig.  1— Grape  leaf  showing  bleached  appearance  due  to  grape-leaf  hopper  ( Typhlocijba 
comes). 

Fig.  2—  Eight-spotted  Forester  ( Alypia  8-maculata) :  A,  moth;  B,  larva.  Nearly  life  size. 
Fig.  3— Apple  twigs  injured  by  Buffalo  Tree-hopper  ( Ceresa  sp.)  Life  size.  Photos  by  author- 


Fig.  1— Moths  of  Peach  Borer. 


Fig.  2— Peach  tree  bandaged  with  paper. 


Fig.  3— Peach  tree  with  wire  screen. 
All  after  Slingerland,  (Bull.  176,  Cor¬ 
nell  Expt.  Station.) 


PLATE  4, 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


17 


Remedies. — Carefully  inspect  the  trees  every  fall  and  spring,  remove  some 
of  the  earth  next  the  crown,  and  search  for  and  remove  the  borers  with  the  aid 
of  a  pocket  knife.  Their  presence  is  usually  indicated  by  the  exhudation  of  a 
gummy  material  upon  the  bark.  Shields  of  stout  paper  or  wire  screen  placed 
about  the  trunks  and  left  there  from  the  1st  of  May  till  the  10th  of  July  will 
serve  as  a  means  of  protection  from  egg-laying.  The  paper  screen  is  the  better. 
(See  Plate  IV.,  Figs.  2  and  3. 

PLANT  LICE. 

The  plant  lice  that  attack  the  foliage  of  the  peach  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  apple  plant-louse  mentioned  above. 
The  black  peach  aphis,  which  does  its  chief  injury  to  the  roots, 
should  be  handled  in  the  same  manner  as  the  woolly  louse  of 
the  apple. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  GRAPE. 

the  achemon  sphinx.  ( Philampelus  achemon .) 

Hairless  caterpillars  devouring  the  leaves.  When  small,  the 
caterpillar  have  each  a  long  dorsal  spine  on  the  last  segment  of  the 
body.  When  nearly  grown,  the  spine  is  represented  by  a  shining 
black  spot.  These  larvae  resemble  the  large  tomato  “worm.” 

Remedies.- — Any  of  the  arsenical  poisons  may  be  used  as  recommended  for 
apple  leaf-rollers.  Pyrethrum  (24)  may  also  be  used  as  a  powder  or  spray,  but  to 
kill  it  must  come  in  contact  with  the  caterpillars.  Hand  picking  is  the  best 
remedy  in  a  small  vineyard. 

This  insect  is  also  bad  on  Virginia  creeper. 

THE  EIGHT-SPOTTED  FORESTER.  ( Alypid  OCtomaCulatd.) 

A  dark  colored  caterpillar,  about  one  and  one-half  inches  long 
when  fully  grown.  A  close  examination  will  reveal  numerous 
small  black  and  white  cross  lines  and  a  few  red  ones  to  each  body 
segment.  See  Plate  III.,  Fig.  2. 

Remedies. — The  same  as  for  the  preceding  species. 

This  insect  also  infests  the  Virginia  creeper. 

BORER. 

See  apple  twig-borer,  which  also  attacks  the  grape. 

TREE  CRICKETS.  [ CEcdUtllUS  Sp.] 

The  female  cricket  punctures  stems  of  grape  and  other  plants 
and  in  each  puncture  deposits  a  long  cylindrical  egg.  The  punc¬ 
tures  are  usually  in  rows  lengthwise  of  the  stem  and  look  like 
needle  thrusts. 

Remedies. — Cut  out  badly  infested  stems.  Keep  the  vineyard  clean  of  all 
weeds. 

cottony  scale.  \_Pulvindrid  innumerdbilis.'] 

This  scale,  commonly  found  infesting  soft  maple,  sometimes 
attacks  grapevines.  See  Plate  I.,  Fig.  2. 

Remedies. — When  the  little  lice  first  hatch  from  the  scales,  about  the  last 
of  June,  the  ordinary  sprays  of  kerosene  emulsion  (14)  or  whale-oil  soap  (12)  will 


18 


Bulletin  71. 


destroy  them.  If  the  spraying  is  delayed  till  a  heavy  scale  has  formed  over  the 
lice,  stronger  applications  will  be  required. 

grape  flea-beetle.  [ Graptodera  chalybdea.~\ 

A  small  steel-blue  beetle  appearing  early  in  the  spring  and 
again  in  midsummer  and  feeding  upon  the  foliage.  The  beetles 
deposit  eggs  which  soon  hatch  into  small  dark-colored  larvse  which 
also  eat  holes  in  the  leaves. 

Remedies.— Arsenical  poisons  (3-8)  sprayed  or  dusted  upon  the  foliage.  If 
unsafe  to  use  poisons,  dust  freely  with  Pyrethrum  (24). 

grape  leaf-hoppers.  [Typhlocyba  sp.] 

Small  jumping  and  flying  insects,  often  called  “grape  thrips.” 
The  insects  often  fly  out  from  the  vine  in  great  numbers  when  the 
latter  is  jarred  and  return  quickly  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 
As  a  result  of  the  punctures  and  the  extraction  of  the  sap,  the 
leaves  lose  their  dark  green  color  and  at  first  are  minutely  specked 
and  freckled  with  white,  as  shown  at  Plate  III.,  Fig.  I.  Later  the 
leaves  shrivel  and  die.  The  red  spiders,  brown  mites  and  thrips 
cause  a  similar  appearance  of  the  foliage  they  attack. 

Remedies. — Spray  forcibly  with  kerosene  emulsion  (14),  kerosene  and  water 
(16),  or  whale-oil  soap  (12)  very  early  in  the  morning  while  the  insects  are 
dormant  and  drop  readily  from  the  leaves.  Burn  dry  leaves,  dead  grass  and 
other  rubbish  in  the  vicinity  of  the  vineyard  during  winter  or  early  spring,  on  a 
cold  day. 

GRASSHOPPERS. 

Remedies. — Use  arsenical  spray  (3-8)  where  safe.  If  not  safe  to  spray,  use 
the  arsenic-bran  mash  (2)  freely  about  the  borders  of  the  vineyard  and  about  the 
vines.  Make  free  use  of  hopper-pans  (37)  in  adjoining  fields  to  reduce  the  num¬ 
ber  of  hoppers  before  they  reach  the  vineyard.  Plow  or  thoroughly  harrow  the 
ditch  banks  and  the  borders  of  the  field  late  in  the  fall  to  destroy  as  many  of 
the  eggs  as  possible. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  CURRANT. 

imported  currant-borer.  [Sesia  tipuliformis^] 

Yellowish  white  larvse  burrowing  in  stems,  giving  rise  to  wasp¬ 
like  moths  in  June.  The  moths  closely  resemble  those  of  the  peach 
borer,  shown  at  Plate  IV.,  Fig.  1. 

Remedies. — Cut  out  the  infested  stems  and  burn  them  during  winter  or 
early  spring.  Also  keep  the  old  wood  well  trimmed  out  of  the  bushes. 

currant  saw-fly.  [ Pristiphora  grossularias .] 

A  green  larva,  about  half  an  inch  long  when  fully  grown, 
feeding  upon  the  leaves  of  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes.  Appear¬ 
ing  late  in  June  and  again  about  the  last  of  August.  The  adult 
insect  is  a  black  four-winged  fly  about  the  size  of  a  house-fly.  The 
eggs  are  deposited,  one  in  a  place,  under  the  epidermis  of  the 
leaves. 

Remedies.— The  best  remedy  for  this  pest  is  white  hellebore  (9)  dusted 
ightly  over  the  foliage  in  the  evening.  If  this  is  carefully  done,  nearly  every 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


19 


larva  can  be  found  dead  under  the  bushes  next  morning.  Arsenical  sprays  (3-8) 
may  be  used  either  dry  or  in  water,  as  for  other  leaf-eating  insects.  These  poisons 
should  not  be  used  before  the  currants  are  picked.  Pyrethrum  (24)  may  bet 
safely  used  at  any  time. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  THE  STRAWBERRY. 


STRAWBERRY  LEAF-ROLLER. 


Fig.  13. — Strawberry  Leaf-roller:  a,  larva,  nat¬ 
ural  size ;  6,  head  end  of  larva  enlarged ;  c, 
moth  about  twice  natural  size ;  d,  tail  end 
of  larva  enlarged.  (After  Saunders.) 


Remedies.  —  When  the 
fruit  has  been  gathered,  scatter 
straw  over  the  vines  and  burn 
it.  Arsenical  sprays  (3-8)  may 
be  used,  but  the  worms  are  so 
protected  in  the  folded  leaves 
that  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  poi¬ 
sonous  dose  to  them.  The 
vines  will  put  up  a  good  growth 
of  tops  after  the  burning,  if  it 
is  not  done  too  late. 


[Phoxopteris  frag  arias .] 

Small  brownish  or  green¬ 
ish  larvae  attaining  a  length  of 
nearly  half  an  inch  and  having 
the  habit  of  folding  the  leaves 
of  the  strawberry.  In  these 
folds  the  larva  lives  and  feeds 
and  finally  changes  to  a  small 
rust-colored  moth  with  white 
markings  on  the  wings.  See 
Figs.  13,  14. 


STRAWBERRY  CROWN  BORER 


[ Tyloderma  fragarise.~\ 

A  small  yellowish 
white  grub  boring  into 
the  crown  of  the  plant 
during  summer. 

Remedies.  —  Burning  as 
for  the  preceding  species  will 
destroy  a  large  proportion  of 
the  borers.  Do  not  allow  the 
plants  to  become  very  old,  but 
plow  frequently  as  soon  as  the 
berries  are  picked  and  start  a 
new  bed  at  some  distance  from 
the  old  one.  Poisons  are  of 
doubtful  value. 


Fig.  14. — Strawberry  leaves  showing  their  appearance 
after  being  folded  by  the  roller.  (After  Weed.) 


PART  II. 


INSECTICIDES. 

THEIR  PREPARATION  AND  USE. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  apply  insecticides  intelligently  and  with 
success,  it  is  important  to  understand  something  of  the  habits  of  the 
particular  insects  to  be  destroyed  and  also  of  the  nature  of  the  rem¬ 
edies  to  be  used.  Many  insects,  like  grasshoppers  and  the  potato 
beetle,  devour  the  surface  tissue  of  plants,  while  others,  like  plant- 
lice,  squash-bugs,  and  scale  insects,  insert  sharp  tubular  beaks  into 
the  tissues  of  plants  and  suck  the  sap  from  beneath  the  surface. 
Insects  of  the  first  class  may  nearly  always  be  destroyed  by  means 
of  food-poisons,  such  as  arsenic,  Paris  green,  hellebore,  etc.,  while 
those  of  the  latter  class  are  unaffected  by  food-poisons  and  have  to 
be  killed  by  substances  that  come  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  their 
bodies,  or  in  some  other  manner.  It  is  not  necessary  to  be  a  skilled 
entomologist  in  order  to  determine  which  class  of  insects  are  doing 
injury  to  the  plants  in  question.  If  the  leaves  are  ragged  or  eaten 
full  of  holes,  it  is  practically  certain  that  the  injury  is  being  done 
by  an  insect  with  biting  mouth-parts.  If  the  leaves  simply  wilt 
and  dry  up  without  having  the  tissue  eaten  away,  the  insect  doing 
the  injury  is  of  the  second  type  mentioned.  The  most  common 
remedies  for  this  class  of  insects  are  kerosene  emulsion,  whale-oil 
soap,  crude  petroleum,  and  lime-sulfur  and  salt  washes. 

In  many  cases  it  is  impossible  to  get  an  insecticide  upon  the 
insect  that  it  is  desired  to  kill,  or  upon  its  food,  and  then  other 
means  have  to  be  used  to  prevent  the  injuries.  Borers,  under¬ 
ground  feeders  upon  roots,  and  weevil  living  in  seeds,  are  examples 
of  such  insects. 

In  the  pages  that  follow  I  shall  not  attempt  to  treat  of  all  the 
methods  used  to  destroy  insects  or  avoid  their  injuries,  but  the  more 
important  ones  only. 

SUBSTANCES  THAT  KILL  BY  BEING  EATEN. 

Nearly  all  the  food-poisons  have  for  their  active  principle 
arsenious  acid,  or  white  arsenic  (  AS2  03 ).  White  hellebore  and 
borax  are  about  the  only  exceptions. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


21 


1.  WHITE  ARSENIC. 

While  this  is  the  cheapest  of  the  arsenical  poisons,  it  is  used  but 
little,  except  for  the  purpose  of  making  arsenical  compounds  with 
other  substances,  such  as  lime,  copper  and  lead.  Because  some 
States  have  passed  laws  requiring  a  high  percentage  of  arsenic  in 
Paris  green,  arsenic  has  been  used  as  an  adulterant  of  Paris  green 
and  thereby  working  an  injury  to  the  purchaser  if  not  a  benefit  to 
the  manufacturer  of  it,  because  arsenic  is  much  cheaper  than  Paris 
green,  and  when  it  is  mixed  with  the  latter  it  greatly  increases  its 
liability  to  burn  foliage.  The  reason  that  white  arsenic  burns 
foliage  badly  is  it  dissolves  in  water  and,  when  in  solution,  it  pene¬ 
trates  the  leaves  and  kills  the  living  tissue.  Arsenical  mixtures 
must  never  be  in  solution ,  but  only  in  suspension ,  in  the  water  that  is 
used  to  distribute  them  upon  foliage. 

2.  ARSENIC  BRAN-MASH. 

Prepared  by  mixing  one  pound  of  arsenic  and  six  to  ten  pounds 
of  bran  together,  with  just  water  enough  to  thoroughly  moisten  the 
mass.  Some  prefer  to  add  a  pound  of  sugar  to  the  above  in  order 
to  cause  the  particles  of  bran  to  adhere  to  each  other,  so  that  it  may 
be  distributed  in  little  balls  pressed  together  with  the  hands  or  with 
a  paddle.  This  poisoned  bran  is  used  for  the  destruction  of  grass¬ 
hoppers  in  orchards  and  vineyards  where  it  is  not  possible  to  use  a 
hopper-pan. 

3.  PARIS  GREEN. 

This  poison  in  a  pure  state  is  said  to  be  composed  of  three  sub¬ 
stances — arsenious  acid,  acetic  acid,  and  copper  oxide — united  in  a 
chemical  combination.  The  percentage  of  arsenic  may  vary  con¬ 
siderably,  as  these  substances  do  not  always  combine  in  exactly  the 
same  proportions.  The  range  is  nearly  always  between  55  and  60 
per  cent  arsenic,  with  an  average  of  about  58  per  cent.  *Mr.  J.  K. 
Haywood,  one  of  the  chemists  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  says  that  the  chemical  composition  of  Paris 
green  should  be : 

Per  cent. 


Arsenious  acid . 58.65 

Copper  oxide . 31.29 

Acetic  acid . 10.06 


Pure  Paris  green  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  the  arsenical  com¬ 
pounds  for  the  destruction  of  insects,  and  the  reports  of  many 
analyses  in  different  States  do  not  indicate  that  this  poison  is  often 
found  greatly  adulterated  upon  the  market.  If  adulteration  is  sus¬ 
pected,  or  if  the  poison  is  being  purchased  in  any  considerable 
quantity,  it  is  advisable  to  test  its  purity  in  some  way.  Pure  Paris 


^Farmer’s  Bull.  No.  146,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr. 


22 


Bulletin  71. 


green  is  entirely  soluble  in  ammonia,  giving  a  clear  blue  liquid.  If 
any  particles  can  be  seen  floating  through  the  liquid  or  settling  to 
the  bottom,  the  article  is  not  pure.  If  the  ammonia  dissolves  all, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  pure.  This  is  a  test  that  anyone 
can  make.  The  particles  of  Paris  green  are  entirely  bright  green  in 
uolor  and  globular  in  form,  and  the  presence  of  an  adulterant  can 
be  most  easily  detected  under  a  microscope  of  moderate  power. 
Prof.  Woodworth  of  the  University  of  California  explains  another 
method  by  which  impurities  can  usually  be  detected  in  Paris  green. 
It  is  by  placing  a  small  amount  of  the  poison  on  a  clean  piece  of 
glass  and  then  slanting  the  glass  and  jarring  it  so  as  to  cause  the 
powder  to  slide  to  the  lower  side.  If  this  is  done  carefully  the 
adulterants,  which  are  not  green  in  color,  will  fall  behind  and  can 
be  detected  with  the  unaided  eve. 

Where  there  are  several  persons  in  the  same  neighborhood 
wanting  this  poison,  it  is  best  for  all  to  order  together  and  then  send 
a  sample  to  a  chemist  for  analysis.  If  a  good  number  unite  in  this 
way  the  Station  chemist,  most  likely,  would  be  willing  to  make  the 
test  free. 

Application  of  Paris  Green  to  Plants. — The  arsenical  mixtures 
are  usually  applied  in  a  watery  spray,  and  the  most  common 
strength  is : 


Paris  green .  1  pound 

Water . 160  gallons 

Lump  lime  (freshly  slaked) .  2  pounds 


On  very  sensitive  foliage,  like  that  of  the  peach,  apricot,  nec¬ 
tarine  and  bean,  it  would  be  safer  to  use  200  gallons  of  water  to  a 
pound  of  the  poison.  A  pound  to  100  gallons  is  quite  safe  for  appli¬ 
cations  upon  apple,  cherry,  cabbage,  beets,  potatoes,  and  most  other 
trees  and  plants  in  the  dry  atmosphere  of  Colorado.  The  poison 
always  should  be  placed  in  a  small  quantity  of  water  first  and 
thoroughly  stirred  in  and  then  poured  into  the  full  amount  of 
water  to  be  used. 

The  chief  objection  to  the  use  of  Paris  green  as  an  insecticide 
is  its  high  specific  gravity,  which  causes  it  to  settle  rapidly  in 
water.  Pumps  used  to  apply  this  poison  always  should  have  some 
means  of  keeping  the  water  well  stirred. 

Dry  applications  may  be  made  in  various  ways.  Sometimes 
the  poison  is  used  pure,  in  which  case  the  lightest  possible  dusting 
is  made  over  the  plants.  It  is  usually  better  to  dilute  the  poison 
with  about  twenty  times  its  own  weight  of  flour,  plaster  or  lime, 
when  a  more  liberal  dusting  may  be  made.  This  method  is  more 
economical  of  the  poison  and  enables  one  better  to  tell  when 
all  parts  of  the  plant  have  been  treated.  A  good  proportion  is  * 

Paris  green . . .  1  pound 

Common  flour . . . 20  pounds 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


23 


The  advantages  of  flour  over  lime  or  plaster  are,  it  helps  better 
to  stick  the  poison  to  the  leaves  and  is  not  distasteful  to  insects. 
Particles  of  poison  imbedded  in  a  mass  of  plaster  or  lime  would 
probably  be  avoided  by  most  insects.  Filling  the  blossom  ends  of 
apples  with  lime  mixed  with  poison  will  drive  the  worms  to  eat 
their  way  into  the  apple,  where  they  will  probably  escape  the  poison 
entirelv. 

The  methods  of  applying  dry  poisons  are  chiefly  two.  If  low 
plants,  like  cabbages  and  tomatoes,  are  to  be  treated,  and  the  area 
to  be  covered  is  not  too  great,  a  very  satisfactory  method  is  to  make 
a  small  sack — about  ten  inches  long  by  five  inches  in  diameter — 
of  strong  cheesecloth  or  other  light  muslin,  fill  half  full  with  the 
mixture  of  poison  and  flour  and  then  shake  or  jolt  the  sack  over 
the  plants. 

Where  large  areas  are  to  be  treated,  or  where  it  is  necessary  to 
make  the  application  to  trees  or  high  bushes,  some  kind  of  dust  gun 
or  bellows  is  an  advantage.  Powder  guns  of  different  kinds  are 
upon  the  market  and  some  of  them  are  being  extensively  advertised 
at  this  time.  These  instruments  have  an  important  place  to  fill,  but 
I  doubt  very  much  if  they  can  take  the  place  of  the  watery  spray 
for  large  trees,  and  particularly  for  the  application  of  poisons  for  the 
destruction  of  the  codling  moth. 

4.  scheele’s  green  (green  arsenoid). 

Scheele’s  green,  also  sold  as  “  green  arsenoid,”  differs  very  little 
from  Paris  green  in  chemical  composition,  except  in  lacking  the 
acetic  acid.  It  is  considered  as  effectual  as  an  insect  destroyer,  and 
has  a  great  advantage  over  Paris  green  in  being  much  more  finely 
divided,  so  that  it  remains  in  suspension  in  water  for  a  much  longer 
time.  It  is  also  cheaper  in  price.  Dr.  Marlatt,  of  the  Division  of 
Entomology,  says  it  should  replace  Paris  green  as  an  insecticide. 

Apply  either  wet  or  dry,  as  recommended  for  Paris  green. 

5.  ARSENATE  OF  LEAD. 

This  compound  contains  only  about  25  per  cent,  of  arsenic 
acid,  but  has  some  advantages  over  the  other  arsenical  compounds. 
It  is  so  completely  insoluble  in  w~ater  that  it  may  be  used  in  almost 
any  strength  without  injuring  foliage  and  consequently  is  least 
likely  to  injure  plants  that  are  most  sensitive  to  arsenical  poisons. 
When  suspended  in  water  this  poison  takes  the  form  of  a  flocculent 
precipitate  that  remains  suspended  a  long  time  without  settling,  and 
consequently  can  be  more  evenly  distributed  than  most  arsenical 
mixtures.  Its  third  point  of  superiority  is  in  its  adhesive  qualities 
when  applied  to  foliage.  Applications  made  to  foliage  in  the  latter 
part  of  May  at  this  Station  could  plainly  be  seen  upon  the  leaves  the 
first  of  September.  The  disadvantage  of  the  poison  is  in  its  not 
being  as  destructive  to  the  insects  that  eat  it  as  are  the  other 


24 


Bulletin  71. 


arsenites,  consequently  it  is  necessary  to  use  it  in  stronger  mixtures. 

To  prepare  arsenate  of  lead,  dissolve  in  water  arsenate  of  soda 
and  acetate  of  lead  (white  sugar  of  lead)  in  the  proportion  of  three 
pounds  of  the  former  to  seven  pounds  of  the  latter.  Then  use  not 
less  than  two  or  three  pounds  of  the  combined  chemicals  to  each 
hundred  gallons  of  water.  Three  or  four  times  this  strength  will  do 
no  harm  to  foliage. 

6.  ARSENITE  OF  LIME. 

White  arsenic  and  lime  may  be  made  to  combine,  forming  an 
arsenite  of  lime  that  is  practically  insoluble  in  water.  The  poison 
may  be  prepared  in  either  of  two  ways.  What  is  known  as  the 
Kedzie  formula  is  as  follows : 

“Boil  two  pounds  of  white  arsenic  and  eight  pounds  of  sal- 
soda  for  fifteen  minutes  in  two  gallons  of  water.  Put  into  a  jug 
and  label  ‘  poison ,’  and  lock  it  up.  When  ready  to  spray,  slake 
two  pounds  of  lime  and  stir  it  into  forty  gallons  of  water,  adding 
a  pint  of  the  mixture  from  the  jug.” 

The  other  method  is  to  boil  together  arsenic,  lime  and  water 
for  a  full  half  hour  in  the  following  proportions : 


White  arsenic . 1  pound 

Lump  lime . 2  pounds 

Water  . 3  gallons 


Then  dilute  to  200  gallons  of  water  before  applying  to  foliage. 

These  preparations  have  become  very  popular  in  the  past  two 
years  and  deservedly  so.  White  arsenic  is  cheap  and  consequently 
is  in  very  little  danger  of  adulteration,  so:  hat  one  is  almost  certain 
of  the  strength  of  his  mixture  when  using  this  poison.  Care  must 
be  taken,  however,  to  use  fresh,  unslaked  lime  of  good  quality. 

Before  being  diluted  for  use,  the  mixture  should  be  passed 
through  a  coarse  cloth  or  sieve,  to  take  out  the  lumps  that  would 
otherwise  clog  the  spraying  nozzle. 

7.  LONDON  PURPLE. 

London  purple  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline 
dyes  and  has  for  its  active  principle  arsenite  of  lime.  It  also  con¬ 
tains  some  free  arsenic,  lime,  coloring  matter  and  other  impurities. 
The  amount  of  arsenic  present  is  subject  to  considerable  variation, 
but  will  usually  range  between  40  and  55  per  cent.  As  there  is 
often  considerable  soluble  arsenic  present,  it  is  always  best  to  use  a 
pound  or  two  of  freshly  slaked  lime  with  every  pound  of  the  poison 
if  used  in  water. 

This  poison  is  finely  divided  and  remains  in  suspension  in 
water  much  longer  than  does  Paris  green,  and  it  usually  sells  at 
about  two-thirds  the  price  of  that  poison.  It  seems  to  be  going  into 
disfavor  because  of  its  variable  composition  and  the  danger  of  its 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


25 


burning  foliage.  It  is  also  considered  somewhat  less  effectual  in 
killing  insects  than  is  Paris  green  or  Scheele’s  green.  It  should 
compare  favorably,  however,  with  the  prepared  arsenite  of  lime  in 
its  power  to  kill  insects,  and  there  is  little  danger  that  it  will  be 
adulterated,  as  it  is  a  waste  product. 

Apply  either  wet  or  dry  in  the  manner  and  in  the  same  pro¬ 
portions  as  are  previously  recommended  for  Paris  green,  being  sure 
to  add  a  pound  or  two  of  freshly  slaked  lime  for  each  pound  of 
poison  if  used  as  a  spray. 

8.  BORDEAUX  MIXTURE  AND  THE  ARSENITES. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  fungicide  and  is  the  substance  most 
often  used  for  the  destruction  of  fungi  that  attack  the  surface  of 
plants.  It  has  been  found  to  be  of  value  for  use  against  flea-beetles, 
and  the  writer  also  demonstrated  its  value  a  number  of  years  ago  as 
a  medium  in  which  to  spray  Paris  green  or  London  purple.  These 
poisons  can  be  used  very  strong  in  this  mixture  without  injury  to 
foliage  and  they  do  not  in  the  least  lessen  its  effect  as  a  fungicide. 
Such  a  mixture  will  destroy  both  insects  and  fungi  with  one  appli¬ 
cation. 

Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  prepared  as  follows :  Take  of 

Copper  sulfate .  4  pounds 

Quicklime .  4  pounds 

Water  .  45  gallons 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulfate  in  a  gallon  of  hot  water,  slake  the 
lime  in  another  gallon  of  water,  and  then  add  the  milk  of  lime 
slowly  to  the  copper  sulfate  solution  while  the  latter  is  being  con¬ 
stantly  stirred.  Then  add  43  gallons  of  water. 

If  insects  are  to  be  killed  at  the  same  time,  add  to  the  above 
quantity  of  Bordeaux  mixture  one-third  pound  of  London  purple, 
Paris  green  or  Scheele’s  green. 

9.  WHITE  HELLEBORE. 

Hellebore,  as  obtained  from  drug  stores,  is  a  light,  yellowish- 
brown  powder.  It  is  a  vegetable  poison  and  is  obtained  by  pulver¬ 
izing  the  roots  of  a  European  plant,  Veratrum  album.  It  is  not  as 
poisonous  as  the  arsenites  and  consequently  is  not  as  effective  in  the 
destruction  of  most  insects,  but  it  has  its  special  uses.  Slugs,  which 
are  the  young  of  saw-flies,  are  particularly  susceptible  to  its  effects. 
The  poisonous  property  is  an  alkaloid  and  it  loses  its  virtue  after 
being  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  days.  For  this  reason  it  can  not 
be  used  where  it  is  likely  to  remain  long  before  being  eaten,  and  it 
must  be  kept  in  tight  receptacles  and  must  not  be  kept  too  long 
before  using.  It  is  often  useful  for  the  destruction  of  insects  upon 
plants  containing  fruit  that  will  soon  be  used  for  food. 

Dry  applications  are  easily  made  upon  low  plants  by  making  a 


26 


Bulletin  71. 


small  cheesecloth  sack,  through  which  the  dust  may  be  sifted  lightly 
over  the  foliage.  The  best  time  to  apply  is  in  the  evening. 

In  the  wet  way  use 

White  hellebore . 1  ounce 

Water . 3  gallons 

Apply  as  a  spray  in  the  evening. 

10.  BORAX. 

Used  chiefly  for  the  destruction  of  cockroaches.  Spread  the 
powdered  borax  upon  bread,  sweet  potato  or  banana  peelings,  or 
mix  with  sweetened  chocolate,  and  place  the  bait  where  the  cock¬ 
roaches  can  get  at  it. 

SUBSTANCES  THAT  KILL  BY  EXTERNAL  CONTACT. 

Substances  in  this  group  are  chiefly  used  against  insects  that 
take  liquid  food  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  plant  by  means  of 
a  tubular  rostrum  or  beak,  but  they  may  be  used  against  many 
other  soft-bodied  insects  with  success.  Insects  having  a  hard  outer 
crust  to  their  bodies  resist  these  substances  and  are  not  easily  killed 
by  them.  If  insects  are  covered  with  a  powdery  or  cottony  material, 
the  insecticide  will  have  to  be  applied  with  considerable  force  to 
cause  it  to  penetrate  to  the  bod}L  Applications  must  always  be 
thorough,  because  only  those  insects  will  be  killed  that  have  the 
substances  thrown  unon  them. 

JL 

11.  SOAP. 

The  ordinary  soft  soaps  and  laundry  soaps  have  long  been 
used  for  the  purpose  of  killing  vermin  on  plants  and  animals,  and 
they  have  considerable  insecticidal  value,  particularly  for  the 
destruction  of  very  tender  insects,  like  plant  lice.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  soap  that  are  specially  useful  for  the  destruction  of  insects, 
and  these  are  whale-oil  soap  and  fish-oil  soap. 

12.  WHALE-OIL  SOAP. 

For  ordinary  plant  lice  one  pound  of  the  soap  to  eight  or  ten  gal¬ 
lons  of  water  is  sufficient  if  the  application  is  thorough.  Double 
this  strength  will  not  injure  most  plants  and  is  often  required  to 
destroy  more  resistent  insects.  For  scale  lice,  like  the  San  Jose 
scale  for  example,  it  is  used  as  strong  as  a  pound,  or  even  two 
pounds,  to  a  gallon  of  water.  These  strongest  applications  can  only 
be  used  in  the  winter  or  early  spring  when  the  trees  are  dormant. 
The  soap  is  more  effectual  if  applied  when  quite  hot. 

13.  FISH-OIL  SOAP. 

Lodeman  in  his  “  Spraying  of  Plants  ”  gives  the  following  for¬ 
mula  for  the  preparation  of  fish-oil  soap : 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


27 


Potash  lye . 1  pound 

Fish-oil . . 3  pints 

Soft  water . 3  gallons 

Dissolve  the  lye  in  boiling  water  and  then  add  the  oil  and  boil 
for  two  hours  longer.  Before  using  dissolve  a  pound  of  this  soap  in 
from  six  to  ten  gallons  of  water.  Use  for  the  same  purposes  as 
whale-oil  soap,  and  in  the  same  strengths. 

14.  KEROSENE  EMULSION. 

This  preparation  is  probably  the  best  general  purpose  insecti¬ 
cide  for  the  destruction  of  insects  by  external  contact.  The  mate¬ 
rials  composing  it  are  always  at  hand  and  it  is  not  difficult  to 
prepare  after  one  has  had  a  little  experience.  Soft  water  should  be 
used,  if  possible.  If  very  bard  water  is  used  it  may  be  necessary  to 
“  break  ”  it  first  by  adding  washing  soda  or  potash  lye. 

To  make  the  emulsion  use  the  ingredients  in  the  following  pro¬ 
portions: 

Soap .  1  pound 

Kerosene .  2  gallons 

Water . 27  gallons 

Prepare  by  dissolving  the  soap  in  a  gallon  of  water,  then, 
while  the  soapy  water  is  boiling  hot,  remove  from  the  fire  and 
immediately  add  two  gallons  of  kerosene  and  agitate  briskly  for  a 
few  minutes.  If  a  large  amount  is  being  made  use  a  force  pump 
and  forcibly  pump  the  mixture  back  into  the  receptacle  that  con¬ 
tains  it  until  all  is  a  frothy,  creamy  mass.  If  such  a  mixture  is  not 
obtained  in  a  very  few  minutes,  put  the  whole  over  the  fire  again 
until  it  boils  and  then  repeat  the  pumping,  and  the  emulsion  will 
almost  surely  form.  When  put  back  for  reheating  watch  every 
moment  to  see  that  it  does  not  boil  over  and  take  fire.  This  work 
should  be  done  out  of  doors.  After  the  emulsion  is  made,  add  the 
remaining  27  gallons  of  water  and  all  is  ready  for  use. 

Small  quantities  may  be  emulsified  with  a  rotary  egg-beater. 

Whale-oil  soap,  or  any  cheap  laundry  soap,  may  be  used. 

Clean  dishes  and  clean  water  should  be  used.  Every  particle 
of  dirt  in  the  emulsion  serves  as  a  center  of  attraction  about  which 
the  oil  droplets  will  collect  and  then  rise  to  the  top  to  form  a  film 
of  oil  on  the  surface. 

The  strength  above  given  is  suitable  for  most  insects.  Most 
plant  lice  may  be  killed  with  an  emulsion  of  half  the  above 
strength. 

15.  KEROSENE-MILK  EMULSION. 

Kerosene  will  emulsify  with  milk,  also,  and  when  small  quan¬ 
tities  are  wanted  it  is  often  less  trouble  to  use  the  milk  than  to  pre¬ 
pare  the  soapy  water.  The  proportions  are : 

Milk  (sour) . • . 1  gallon 

Kerosene . . . 2  gallons 


28 


Bulletin  71. 


Dilute  with  water  as  in  the  preceding  formula.  If  sweet  milk 
is  used  add  a  little  vinegar.  Otherwise  it  may  be  impossible  to  form 
a  stable  emulsion. 

16.  KEROSENE  AND  CRUDE  PETROLEUM. 

These  oils  are  used  pure,  and  also  diluted  with  water,  tor  the 
destruction  of  scale  and  other  insects.  Experiments  in  the  Eastern 
States  seem  to  indicate  that  the  safest  time  to  apply  is  early  in  the 
spring,  just  before  the  buds  swell,  and  on  a  bright,  windy  day  when 
the  oil  will  evaporate  rapidly.  It  seems  that  when  applied  in  mod¬ 
eration,  in  the  proporiion  of  40  parts  of  the  oil  to  60  of  water,  these 
substances  will  seldom  injure  apple,  cherry  or  pear  trees,  but  can 
hardly  be  applied  to  tenderer  trees,  such  as  peach  and  plum,  with¬ 
out  farther  dilution. 

When  diluted  with  water  in  the  form  of  a  spray  they  may  be 
used  upon  foliage  of  most  plants,  without  injury,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  of  the  oil  to  five  or  six  of  water.  Most  plant  lice  are  killed 
in  mixtures  as  weak  as  one  to  fifteen  or  twenty. 

Pumps  are  now  made  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  the  oil  and 
water  in  the  form  of  a  spray,  and  so  doing  away  with  the  need  of 
preparing  an  emulsion.  The  one  who  has  the  insecticides  to  apply 
must  decide  whether  or  not  he  will  go  to  the  extra  trouble  of  mak¬ 
ing  the  emulsion  or  whether  he  will  go  to  the  extra  expense  of 
purchasing  a  special  and  somewhat  more  costly  pump. 

17.  GASOLINE. 

This  oil  is  also  destructive  to  insect  life.  Its  chief  use  is  for  the 
destruction  of  bed-bugs.  It  is  applied  pure  by  means  of  an  oil-can 
or  hand  atomizer.  To  be  effectual  the  bugs  must  be  thoroughly 
treated  with  it.  As  it  is  inflammable,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
bring  fire  near  until  the  apartments  where  it  is  used  are  well  aired. 

18.  TURPENTINE. 

Turpentine  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  gasoline  and  the 
same  precaution  applies. 

19.  LYE  AND  WASHING  SODA. 

These  substances  are  in  considerable  popular  favor  for  the 
destruction  of  insects,  but  the  writer’s  experience  with  them  has  not 
been  encouraging.  In  the  proportion  of  a  pound  to  three  gallons  of 
water  they  may  be  used  upon  the  trunks  of  trees  and  will  kill  soft- 
bodied  insects  that  might  be  wet  by  them.  To  be  used  upon 
foliage  they  should  be  diluted  to  a  pound  to  forty  gallons  of  water, 
and  in  this  strength  they  will  only  destroy  the  tenderest  of  insects. 
Kerosene  emulsion  or  whale-oil  soap  are  much  more  effectual 
insecticides. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


29 


20.  LIME. 

Lime,  either  wet  or  dry,  may  be  used  freely  upon  foliage 
without  fear  of  injury.  It  is  of  very  little  value  as  an  insecticide. 
When  freshly  slaked  and  freely  dusted  upon  the  slugs  that  infest 
pear,  cherry  and  plum  trees  it  is  said  to  be  very  effectual  in 
destroying  them.  Experiments  at  this  Station  have  not  succeeded 
very  well  in  killing  slugs  this  way.  As  a  coating  upon  the  bodies 
of  fruit  trees  it  undoubtedly  does  much  to  prevent  sun-scald  late  in 
winter  and  early  in  spring.  The  addition  of  a  liberal  amount  of 
skim-milk  or  salt,  or  both,  to  the  preparation  will  greatly  increase 
its  adhesive  qualities.  The  following  formula  is  printed  in  the  1899 
report  of  the  Canada  Experimental  Farm  : 

Skim-milk .  6  gallons 

Water . 30  gallons 

Lime . 60  pounds 

Salt  . 10  pounds 


21.  LIME,  SALT  AND  SULFUR  WASH. 

This  wash,  when  properly  made,  is  one  of  the  most  effectual 
applications  for  the  destruction  of  scale  insects  and  eggs  of  the 
brown  mite,  particularly  in  dry  climates,  like  that  of  Colorado.  It 
should  be  used  only  in  the  winter  or  spring,  while  the  trees  are 
dormant.  The  ingredients  are  used  in  the  following  proportions : 

Lump  lime . 30  pounds 

Sulfur . 20  pounds 

Salt . 15  pounds 

Water . 60  gallons 

Put  all  together  in  a  barrel  or  other  receptacle  and  boil  for  four 
or  five  hours.  If  a  wooden  receptacle  is  used,  steam  boil.  Strain 
through  a  coarse  cloth  to  take  out  coarse  lumps,  and  apply  as  a  spray 
wThile  hot. 


22.  RESIN  SOAP  (SUMMER  WASH). 

A  resin  soap  for  summer  use  may  be  prepared  in  the  following 
proportions : 

Resin . . 2  pounds 

Caustic  soda . 1  pound 

Tallow .  1  pound 

Dissolve  the  soda  in  one  and  one-half  gallons  of  wrater ;  then 
add  the  resin  and  tallow  and  dissolve  them  also  by  applying  a 
moderate  degree  of  heat,  adding  water  enough  to  make  three  gal¬ 
lons.  Before  using,  dilute  one  part  of  the  soap  with  sixteen  parts 
of  water. 

Used  for  the  same  insects  as  are  whale-oil  soap  and  kerosene 
emulsion. 


30 


Bulletin  71. 


23.  RESIN  SOAP  (WINTER  WASH). 


*Resin  . 30  pounds 

Caustic  Soda  (70  per  cent.) . .  9  pounds 

Fish-oil  .  434  pints 

Water . 100  gallons 


Place  the  first  three  ingredients  in  an  iron  kettle  and  cover  with 
five  or  six  inches  of  water.  Boil  for  an  hour  or  two  until  the  liquid 
has  a  dark  brown  color,  after  which  the  remainder  of  the  water  may 
be  added. 

Other  formulae  for  the  preparation  of  resin  soaps  have  been 
given,  but  as  they  are  not  much  used,  I  will  not  take  space  to  give 
them  here. 


24.  PYRETHRUM,  OR  BUHACH. 

This  substance  is  a  vegetable  powder  and  is  obtained  by  pul¬ 
verizing  the  dried  blossoms  of  plants  of  the  genus  Pyrethrum.  It 
may  be  obtained  at  almost  any  drug  store,  and  is  peculiar  in  its 
power  to  kill  insects  while  it  is  not  poisonous  to  the  higher  animals. 
It  may  be  used  either  wet  or  dry.  If  applied  in  water,  use  in  the 
proportion  of: 

Pyrethr.um . 1  ounce 

Water . 3  gallons 

If  applied  dry,  use  pure  and  make  a  very  light  application,  or 
dilute  with  flour  and  apply  more  freely. 

If  thoroughly  disseminated  in  the  air  of  a  room  it  will  soon 
bring  to  the  floor  all  the  flies  and  mosquitoes  therein.  A  good  way 
to  rid  a  room  of  flies  is  to  make  the  application  and  close  the  room 
tightly  for  the  night.  Then  in  the  morning  sweep  up  the  flies  and 
burn  them.  If  they  are  not  destroyed  in  this  way  after  being  stupe¬ 
fied,  many  will  finally  overcome  the  action  of  the  powder  and  live. 

25.  TOBACCO. 

Tobacco  has  long  been  used  in  one  way  or  another  for  the 
destruction  of  insects.  Its  chief  use  seems  to  be  for  the  destruction 
of  animal  and  plant  lice.  When  slowly  burnt  the  smoke  may  be 
utilized  for  the  destruction  of  lice  on  plants  in  greenhouses  or  win¬ 
dow  gardens.  In  the  form  of  a  fine  dust  it  is  often  effectual  in 
ridding  plants  of  flea-beetles,  and  in  the  form  of  dust  or  stems  is 
probably  the  best  remedy  we  have  for  woolly  aphis  on  the  roots  of 
apple  trees. 

A  decoction  made  by  boiling  tobacco  stems  in  an  amount  of  water 
sufficient  to  cover  them  is  destructive  to  plant  lice  (Aphididse)  and  to 
lice  upon  cattle.  Tobacco,  very  finely  powdered,  in  the  form  of 


*  This  formula  and  directions  are  copied  from  “  The  Spraying  of  Plants 
by  Lodeman. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


31 


snuff,  may  also  be  used  dry  against  the  same  insects.  It  is  best  to 
first  spray  the  insects  with  water. 

26.  SULFUR. 

Everyone  knows  of  the  use  of  sulfur  fumes  for  the  destruction 
of  animal  life.  Sulfur  is  specially  destructive  to  “  red  spiders  ”  and 
“brown  mites,”  and  may  be  applied  as  flowers  of  sulfur,  dry, 
through  a  blow-gun  of  some  sort,  or  mixed  in  water  or  soap  solu¬ 
tions  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  to  a  gallon  of  the  liquid  and 
applied  as  a  spray. 

27.  HOT  WATER. 

Water  heated  to  125  to  135  degrees  Far.  kills  very  quickly  any 
insect  that  is  put  into  it,  but  is  harmless  to  plants  unless  they  are 
kept  submerged  for  a  long  time.  Lice,  especially  those  on  roots, 
may  often  be  killed  conveniently  with  hot  water. 

SUBSTANCES  THAT  KILL  BY  BEING  INHALED. 

There  are  two  insecticides  of  this  sort  that  are  of  special 
importance.  As  both  are  destructive  to  vegetable  life  also,  care 
must  be  had  in  their  use  that  they  are  not  applied  in  strengths  that 
will  destroy  the  plants.  It  is  important  that  tents,  rooms,  or  other 
receptacles  in  which  objects  are  placed  for  fumigation,  be  as  nearly 
air  tight  as  possible. 

28.  CARBON  BISULFIDE ;  “  FUMA.” 

This  is  a  clear,  extremely  volatile  liquid  with  a  very  disagree¬ 
able  odor.  The  fumes  are  heavier  than  air,  so  that  it  is  always  best 
to  expose  the  liquid  in  the  upper  part  of  a  building,  or  other 
receptacle,  containing  objects  to  be  treated.  The  fumes  are  explosive 
also  when  mixed  with  air,  so  that  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
bring  fire  near  them. 

For  the  purpose  of  fumigating  a  building  or  other  inclosed 
space  containing  growing  plants,  not  over  one  pint  of  the  liquid  to 
1,000  cubic  feet  of  space  should  be  used.  For  the  destruction  of 
insects  in  seeds,  carpets  or  clothing  it  may  be  used  much  stronger. 

To  destroy  ant  hills,  thrust  a  sharp  stick  down  into  the  hill  to 
a  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches  and  then  remove  it  and  pour  in  two 
or  three  ounces  of  the  carbon  bisulfide ;  fill  the  hole  with  earth  by 
stamping  on  it,  and  then  throw  over  the  hill  a  wet  blanket  to  hold 
down  the  fumes.  Allow  the  blanket  to  remain  for  a  half  hour  at 
least,  and  the  ants  will  be  dead.  If  the  hill  is  a  very  large  one  it 
would  be  well  to  make  two  or  three  holes  for  the  carbon  bisulfide. 

To  kill  prairie  dogs,  pour  three  or  four  ounces  of  the  liquid  on 
a  ball  of  cotton  and  roll  the  latter  down  the  prairie  dog  hole  and 
quickly  fill  the  mouth  of  the  hole  with  dirt. 


32 


Bulletin  71. 


For  the  destruction  of  the  woolly -louse  of  the  apple,  thrust  a 
crow-bar  or  other  sharp  instrument  into  the  ground  to  the  depth  of 
one  foot  and  at  a  distance  of  twx>  feet  from  the  crown  of  the  tree  and 
upon  three  sides  of  the  tree.  In  each  of  these  holes  pour  one  ounce 
of  the  carbon  bisulfide  and  close  the  holes  quickly  with  damp  earth. 
This  is  a  cheap  and  effectual  remedy  and,  if  care  is  taken  to  have 
the  holes  made  two  feet  from  the  tree  and  to  have  only  about  an 
ounce  of  the  liquid  put  in  a  hole,  there  will  be  no  danger  of  killing 
the  trees. 

This  substance  is  expensive  when  purchased  in  small  quantities 
at  a  drug  store.  It  may  be  obtained  quite  cheaply  if  purchased  in 
50-pound  lots,  from  Mr.  Edward  R.  Taylor,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Write 
for  prices. 

29.  HYDROCYANIC  ACID  GAS. 

This  gas  has  come  into  very  general  use,  particularly  in  the 
orange  growing  sections  of  the  country,  for  the  destruction  of  scale 
insects.  It  may  also  be  used  for  the  destruction  of  insects  in  mills 
and  in  dwellings  and  in  closed  receptacles  generally.  Some  of  the  best 
nursery  men  have  adopted  the  plan  of  fumigating  all  their  nursery 
stock  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  before  shipping  to  their  customers. 

The  chemicals  of  which  this  gas  is  made  are  cheap  and  are 


used  in  the  following  proportions : 

Potassium  cyanide  (of  98  per  cent,  purity) . 1  ounce 

Commercial  sulfuric  acid . 1  ounce 

Water . 3  ounces 


The  above  quantities  are  sufficient  for  a  space  of  100  cubic  feet 
for  the  fumigation  of  dormant  trees  and  plants  (nursery  stock).  It 
may  be  used  in  the  same  strength,  or  even  stronger,  for  the  fumi¬ 
gation  of  mills,  houses,  clothing  and  the  like. 

The  tent,  building  or  receptacle  in  which  the  fumigation  is  to 
take  place,  should  be  as  tight  as  possible.  The  less  wind  there  is 
the  better,  if  the  fumigating  room  is  not  very  tight. 

The  gas  should  be  generated  in  an  earthen  jar,  or  wooden 
bucket  or  tub.  The  chemicals  must  be  added  in  the  following  order : 
First  put  in  the  water ;  then  add  the  acid ;  and,  after  the  water  and 
acid  have  mixed,  add  the  potassium  cyanide.  A  good  way  to  add 
the  poison  is  to  have  it  tied  in  a  paper  sack  and  placed  upon  a  piece 
of  board  over  the  dish  containing  the  acid  and  water,  with  a  string 
attached  to  the  sack  and  passing  to  the  outside.  Then,  when  every¬ 
thing  has  been  made  tight,  a  pull  on  the  string  will  precipitate  the 
sack  of  cyanide  in  the  acid  and  a  rapid  escape  of  the  poisonous 
fumes  (HCN)  will  immediately  take  place,  causing  violent  bubbling 
of  the  liquid.  Filling  ones  lungs  with  these  fumes  would  cause 
almost  instant  death,  so  that  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  breath 
them.  Fumigating  rooms  must  be  arranged  so  that  doors  or  win¬ 
dows  of  some  sort  can  be  raised  from  the  outside  quickly.  Then  a 
thorough  airing  must  take  place  before  anyone  enters. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


33 


It  would  require  considerable  space  to  give  full  directions  for 
the  fumigation  of  orchard  trees,  and,  as  there  is  little  likelihood  that 
such  fumigation  will  be  called  for  in  Colorado  for  some  time 
to  come,  I  shall  not  take  space  to  describe  the  process  here.  Those 
specially  interested  can  obtain  bulletins  giving  full  directions  from 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology,  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.  Full  directions  can  also  be  obtained  in  a  book  entitled 
“Fumigation  Methods,”  by  W.  G.  Johnson,  and  published  by 
Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York.  Figs.  16  and  17  are  from  this  book. 

SUBSTANCES  THAT  REPEL 

There  are  a  number  of  substances  that  are  more  or  less  useful 
for  the  purpose  of  driving  insects  away  from  places  where  they 
would  do  harm  if  unmolested.  I  give  below  a  few  of  the  most 
important. 

30.  NAPTHALINE,  GUM-CAMPHOR,  AND  MOTH  BALLS. 

Napthaline  crystals  are  much  used  in  insect  boxes  and  in  boxes 
or  trunks  where  furs,  feathers  or  woolen  goods  are  kept,  for  tne  pur¬ 
pose  of  keeping  out  insects  that  feed  on  these  animal  products.  It 
is  probably  the  best  single  chemical  that  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  Gum-camphor  is  also  much  used  for  the  same  purpose 
and  moth-balls  are  a  combination  of  these  two  volatile  substances. 
These  materials  cannot  be  used  to  kill  insects,  but  only  to  repel 
them. 

31.  TOBACCO. 

Tobacco,  in  the  form  of  dust,  or  otherwise,  is  often  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  preceding,  but  to  be  effectual  must  be  used 
quite  freely. 

32.  ASHES. 

Ashes,  particularly  from  wood,  are  frequently  used  to  dust 
upon  plants  after  a  rain  or  while  the  dew  is  on  and  often  result  in 
the  insects  disappearing.  Particularly  is  this  true  in  case  of  flea- 
beetles  and  the  cucumber  beetle  when  feeding  upon  leaves.  Ashes 
do  not  kill  the  insects,  but  they  make  the  food  distasteful,  so  the 
insects  are  driven  to  other  plants. 

33.  LIME,  PLASTER,  AND  ROAD  DUST. 

These  substances  are  also  used  like  ashes  as  repellents,  but  are 
of  little  or  no  use  for  the  destruction  of  insects. 

INSECT  TRAPS. 

There  are  many  methods  of  trapping  and  destroying  insects. 
One  of  the  most  common  is  the  use  of  bright  lights  exposed 
at  night. 


34 


Bulletin  71. 


34.  LIGHTS. 

The  usual  plan  is  to  place  a  light  over  a  dish  of  some  sort  that 
contains  water  with  coal  oil  on  top  of  it.  Many  night-flying  insects 
are  attracted  by  lights  and  may  be  destroyed  by  devises  of  this  kind, 
but  there  are  also  many  insects  that  fly  at  night  that  are  not 
attracted  by  lights.  Such  an  insect  is  the  codling  moth,  though 
light  traps  are  often  recommended  for  its  destruction.  Among 
those  insects  that  are  readily  attracted  by  lights  might  be  mentioned 
the  adults  of  the  army  worm,  of  the  various  cut-worms,  the  garden 
web-worms  and  the  corn  or  boll- worm. 

It  is  not  in  frequent^  the  case  that  more  of  the  beneficial 
insects  are  destroyed  than  of  destructive  species,  and  it  is  quite 
doubtful  if  lights  are  often  of  any  considerable  importance  as 
a  means  of  lessening  the  injury  to  crops  by  the  destruction  of 
insects. 

35.  SWEETENED  WATER,  CIDER,  VINEGAR,  ETC. 

Some  insects  are  attracted  in  considerable  numbers  to  such 
substances  as  the  above,  but  it  is  very  seldom  that  the  benefit 
derived  from  them  will  pay  for  the  trouble  and  expense  of  using 
them.  Mr.  David  Brothers,  of  Edgewater,  Colo.,  reported  excellent 
success  capturing  moths  of  the  fruit-tree  leaf-roller  with  weakened 
vinegar  in  pans  in  the  orchard,  and  the  codling  moth  is  attracted 
to  some  extent  to  a  mixture  of  molasses  and  vinegar  placed  in  apple 
trees.  The  advantage  of  such  baits  for  the  capture  of  insects 
is  usually  greatly  overestimated  by  those  who  use  them. 

36.  BANDAGES. 

Heavy  cloth  or  paper  bands  placed  about  the  trunks  of  apple 
trees  are  quite  useful  for  the  capture  of  the  larvae  of  the  codling 
moth  that  are  leaving  the  apples  and  going  in  search  of  a  suitable 
place  to  spin  their  cocoons.  Burlap  bands  are  cheap  and  seem  to 
be  as  good  as  any.  The  writer  took  1,481  codling  moth  larvae 
under  a  single  burlap  band  one  season.  Old  gunny  sacks  cut  into 
strips  serve  as  well  as  anything.  The  band  should  be  not  less  than 
four  inches  wide  and  should  be  composed  of  three  thicknesses  of  the 
cloth. 

The  bands  should  be  wrapped  loosely  about  the  trunks,  the 
ends  overlapped  and  held  in  place  by  a  single  carpet  tack  pushed 
in  with  the  thumb.  * 

If  used  against  the  codling  moth  they  should  be  removed  once 
in  a  week  or  ten  days  for  the  purpose  of  killing  all  the  worms  and 
then  replaced. 

The  bands  should  be  placed  on  the  trees  about  the  10th  of 
June  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State,  and  about  the  25th  of  June 
in  the  northern  parts. 

Heavy  paper  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  cloths. 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


35 


The  peach  twig-borer  can  also  be  taken  under  these  bands. 

Bands  of  paper  or  wire  screen  are  sometimes  wrapped  about 
the  entire  trunk  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  borers,  as  shown  in 
Plate  IV.,  Figs.  2  and  3. 

37.  HOPPER-DOZERS  OR  HOPPER-PANS. 

For  the  purpose  of  catching  jumping  insects,  especially  grass¬ 
hoppers,  the  hopper-dozer  or  hopper-pan  is  most  useful.  There  are 
different  methods  of  constructing  these  pans.  A  form  used  by 
'  Dr.  Riley  and  illustrated  by  him  many  years  ago  is  shown  at 
Fig.  2.  The  pan  in  the  illustration  is  entirely  of  sheet-iron,  and  is 
drawn  across  the  fields  by  two  men  or  two  horses.  In  the  bottom 
of  the  pan  is  placed  a  small  amount  of  water  with  kerosene  on  top 
of  it.  All  grasshoppers  that  come  in  contact  with  the  oil  die.  The 
back  of  the  pan  may  be  extended  by  means  of  stakes  at  the  corners 
and  a  strip  of  cloth  hung  between  them.  Such  an  extension 
catches  many  grasshoppers  that  would  otherwise  escape. 

38.  STICKY  SUBSTANCES. 

Bandages  of  sticky  substances,  such  as  printer’s  ink,  “  Dendro- 
line,”  or  “  Raupenleim,”  or  even  cotton  batting,  are  sometimes  used 
to  prevent  insects  from  climbing  trees.  Where  oily  substances  are 
used  it  is  safer  to  put  them  on  a  bandage  of  stout  paper,  which  is 
then  wrapped  about  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  INSECTICIDES. 

IN  THE  DRY  WAY. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  of  all  low  plants  can  be  easily 
treated  with  a  dry  insecticide  by  dusting  it  upon  them  through  a 
cheesecloth,  or  other  thin  muslin  sack,  held  in  the  hand.  There 
are  also  various  appliances  upon  the  market  for  the  distribution  of 
powders.  One  of  these  that  is  very  convenient  for  filling  the  air  of 
a  room  with  dust  to  kill  flies,  or  for  the  application  of  powders  to 
low  herbage,  is  shown  in  Fig.  .15.  It  can  be  had  of  Thomas 
Woodason,  451  East  Cambria  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Fig.  15.— Dust-sprayer. 


The  Hillis  Dust  Sprayer  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  manufacture  a 


36 


Bulletin  71. 


“  dust-sprayer  ”  large  enough  to  distribute  dry  insecticides  through 
trees  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  apple  tree. 

IN  THE  WET  WAY. 

There  are  so  many  manufacturers  of  spray  pumps  and  nozzles 
of  all  descriptions  that  it  is  impossible  to  point  out  any  make  as 
being  the  best.  The  illustrations  here  given  are  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  kind  of  a  pump  that  will  be  needed 
for  his  work.  Each  must  be  his  own  judge  as  to  the  quality  and 
price  of  the  pumps  offered  him. 


Fig.  16. — ‘‘Faultless”  Hand  Atomizer. 


Fig.  16  is  an  illustration  of  the  “  Faultless  Sprayer,  manu¬ 
factured  by  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.,  Ashland,  Ohio.  It  is  inexpensive 
and  will  answer  well  where  only  a  few  small  plants  are  to  be 
treated. 


Fig.  17.— Bellows  Atomizer. 


Fig.  17  shows  a  form  of  atomizer,  having  a  similar  use,  also 
sold  by  Woodason,  of  Philadelphia. 

PUMPS. 

Pumps  with  metal  valves  should  be  obtained  for  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  insecticides  or  fungicides  in  liquid  form,  as  the  materials 
used  harden  or  decompose  leather  valves  so  that  they  last  but  a 
short  time.  If  the  pump  is  to  be  used  with  a  tank  or  barrel  it  is 
also  important  to  have  some  kind  of  attachment  that  will  keep  the 
liquid  agitated  so  the  materials  in  suspension  will  not  settle.  A 
common  error  is  to  purchase  a  pump  of  too  small  capacity,  because 
it  is  cheaper.  A  smaller,  cheaper  pump  usually  means  less  accom¬ 
plished  in  a  day  with  the  same  help,  but  with  a  greater  expenditure 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


37 


of  energy.  And  then,  it  is  often  important  to 
complete  the  spraying  in  as  short  a  time  as 
possible  after  it  is  begun.  To  do  this,  a  pump 
of  large  capacity  with  two  or  more  leads  of 
hose  is  necessary.  The  hose  to  which  the 
nozzles  are  attached  should  be  as  light  as  pos¬ 
sible  and  still  have  the  requisite  strength — a 
hose  of  good  quality  with  heavy  wall,  but 
small  caliber.  Fig.  18  illustrates  a  form  of 
bucket  pump  manufactured  by  The  Deming 
Company,  Salem,  Ohio.  Bucket  pumps  are 
sold  by  different  dealers  at  prices  ranging 
between  about  $2.00  and  $8.00  in  price.  They 
are  suitable  for  use  among  vegetables,  shrub¬ 
bery  and  all  low  plants,  but  should  not  be 
purchased  for  orchard  work  if  one  has  more 


Fig.  19.— Leggett’s  Air-pressure  Pump. 


Fig.  18. — Bucket  Pump. 


than  a  very  few 
trees  to  treat.  In 
the  small  spray¬ 
er  shown  at 
Figure  19  the 
liquid  is  forced 
up  by  means  of 
a  i  r  pressure. 
Such  a  pump 
is  often  conve¬ 
nient  when  a 
person  is  com¬ 
pelled  to  do  his 
spraying  alone. 
This  sprayer 
also  has  an  oil 
attachment,  so 
that  water  and 
kerosene  may 
be  applied 
mixed  without 
the  trouble  of 
making  an 
emulsion.  This 
pump  is  manu¬ 
factured  by  Leg¬ 
gett  &  Brother, 
New  York  City. 


Fig.  20  shows  a  form  of  air-pressure  sprayer  sold  by  the  North 
Jersey  Nurseries,  Springfield,  N.  J. 


i 


38 


Bulletin  71. 


Many  prefer  some  form  of  the  knapsack  sprayer  for  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  low  plants.  At  Fig.  21  is  shown  one  of  these  sprayers  as 
sold  by  William  Stahl,  Quincy,  Ill.  Knapsack  sprayers  are  also 


Fig.  20. — Another  form  of 

Air-pressure  Pump.  Fig.  21.— Knapsack  Sprayer. 


Fig.  22.— Barrel  Pump. 

made  with  an  oil  tank  attached  so  as  to  spray  kerosene,  or  petro- 


Insects  and  Insecticides. 


39 


leum,  in  a  mechanical  mixture  along  with  water,  so  as  to  do  away 
with  the  need  of  making  an  emulsion. 

For  the  treatment  of  small  orchards  a  barrel  pump  is  gener¬ 
ally  used.  One  of  the  best  of  these  is  Gould’s  “  Pomona  ”  spray 
pump  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The  pump  carries  two  leads  of  hose  and 
has  a  patent  agitating  arrangement  within  the  barrel.  It  is  sold 
by  The  Gould  Manufacturing  Co.,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Where  a  large  amount 
of  orchard  spraying  is  to 
be  done  larger  pumps  and 
tanks  should  be  used. 
Fig.  23  shows  a  gasoline 
power  sprayer  attached  to 
a  large  wagon  tank.  Such 
sprayers  will  easily  run 
four  leads  of  hose  and 
keep  up  a  high  pressure. 
Without  a  good  pressure 
it  is  impossible  to  throw 
a  fine  and  forcible  spray. 

Fig.  23.— Power  Pump.  Run  by  Gasoline  Engine.  The  power  Sprayer  here 

shown  is  also  manufactured  by  The  Gould  Manufacturing  Co. 
There  are  many  other  companies  manufacturing  spraying  appar¬ 
atus.  Their  advertisements  will  be  found  in  agricultural  papers. 
If  anyone  is  thinking  of  purchasing  an  expensive  spraying  outfit  he 
should  obtain  catalogues  and  prices  from  several  manufacturers  or 
dealers  and  then  purchase  where  he  thinks  he  can  do  best. 

HOW  TO  SPRAY. 

The  first  requisite  for  a  good  job  of  spraying  is  a  pump  that 
will  give  plenty  of  pressure  in  the  hose.  Then,  if  one  has  a  good 
spraying  nozzle  and  a  liquid  that  is  free  from  solid  particles  of  a 
size  to  clog  the  sprayer,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  a  good 
spray.  A  very  fine  spray  is  most  economical  of  material  and,  for 
an  even  and  thorough  distribution,  is  best.  Care  should  be  taken, 
also,  not  to  continue  the  spraying  until  the  little  drops  that  collect 
on  the  foliage  unite  and  run  off,  carrying  the  poison  with  them.  In 
some  cases,  however,  as  when  spraying  the  first  and  second  times 
for  the  codling  moth,  the  writer  prefers  a  rather  coarse  spray  and 
to  continue  until  the  calyces  of  the  forming  fruits  have  all  been 
thoroughly  drenched  without  regard  as  to  how  much  the  liquid  is 
dripping  from  the  foliage.  The  medium  coarse  spray  is  preferred 
for  this  work,  because  the  larger  drops  carry  better  into  the 
blossoms,  or  calyces,  of  the  apples. 

The  “  Seneca  ”  nozzle  sold  by  the  Gould  Manufacturing  Co. 
and  shown  at  Fig.  24  throws  a  good  coarse  spray.  The  “Bordeaux  ” 


40 


Bulletin  71. 


nozzle  shown  at  Fig.  25  and  sold  by  The  Deming  Co.  is  one  of  the 


ifi 

IB 

_> 

nil 

1  rl 

pa  1 

Si  J 

Fig.  24.— Seneca  Fig.  25. — Bordeaux  Nozzle. 

Nozzle. 

best  nozzles  for  either  coarse  or  medium  fine  spray.  For  a  very 
fine,  misty  spray  I  know  no  nozzle  that  equals  the  “Vermorel.” 
This  nozzle  is  mounted  singly,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26,  or  in  batteries 
of  two,  three  or  four  nozzles  combined.  A  battery  of  two  nozzles  is 
shown  at  Fig.  27.  Figs.  26  and  27  are  from  the  catalogue  issued 
by  the  Gould  Manufacturing  Co. 


Fig.  26. — Single 
Vermorel 
Nozzle. 

For  farther  information  in 
address  the  Experiment  Station, 
ing  insects,  send  samples  of  the 
possible. 


Fig.  27. — A  Battery  of  two  Vermorel 
Nozzles. 

regard  to  insects  or  insecticides 
When  making  inquiries  concern- 
insects  and  their  injuries  whenever 


Bulletin  72. 


August,  1902. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


A  Soil  Study. 

PART  IV. 

THE  GROUND  WATER. 

-BY- 


WILLIAM  P.  HEADDEN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1902. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Term 


Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS,  - 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  - 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE,  ..... 

Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN, 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


Canon  City,  - 

Expires 

-  1903 

Denver, 

1903 

Denver, 

-  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

1905 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Denver, 

1907 

Gypsum, 

1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

j  ex-officio . 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 


L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director, 
C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., 

W.  P.  HEAD  DEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S., 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S., 

E.  D.  BALL,M.  S., 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  - 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S., 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S., 

J.  E.  P'AYNE,  M.  S., 


Irrigation  Engineer 
Entomologist 

. Chemist 

Agriculturist 

.  Horticulturist 

-  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 
Assistant  Entomologist 
Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 
-  Assistant  Horticulturist 
-  Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 
Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY,  ----------  Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN, . -  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


A  Soil  Study: 

Part  IV.  The  Ground  Water. 

By  WILLIAM  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D. 


§  1.  I  have  presented  the  results  of  our  experiments  and 
observations  upon  the  effects  of  alkaline  conditions  of  the  soil  upon 
crops,  upon  the  sugar  beet  in  particular,  in  Bulletins  46  and  58, 
forming  Parts  I  and  II  of  this  study.  In  Part  III,  Station  Bulletin 
65,  I  have  presented  the  subject  of  the  soil,  and  the  effects  of  culti¬ 
vation  upon  it,  from  both  the  chemical  and  physical  standpoint. 
The  conclusions  reached  in  these  bulletins  have  been  summarized 
in  the  respective  publications  and  will  not  be  reproduced  in  this 
place,  as  reference  can  easily  be  made  to  the  statements  of  them  in 
the  originals,  which  are  fuller  than  could  be  made  here. 

SOME  OBSERVATIONS  ON  ALKALIZATION. 

§  2.  The  statement  made  on  page  3  of  Bulletin  46,  relative  to 
the  general  question  of  alkalization  in  Colorado  is,  I  believe,  correct. 
I  would  state  the  question  even  more  explicitly,  especially  for  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  for  I  am  convinced  that  the 
only  question  of  alkali  that  we  have  resolves  itself  into  one  of  drainage , 
and  beyond  this,  there  is  no  alkali  question  for  us.  I  believe  this  to  be 
true  of  the  western  as  well  as  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  State. 

§  3.  I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that  some  sections  of  the  State 
have  an  abundant  supply  of  alkali  salts,  but  their  presence  and 
whatever  injurious  effects  they  may  have  produced,  is  due  princi¬ 
pally,  if  not  wholly,  to  the  lack  of  drainage,  which,  in  many  in¬ 
stances,  has  been  made  more  apparent  and  its  effects  greatly  aug¬ 
mented  by  over-irrigation.  An  immoderate  use  of  water,  especially 
when  no  regard  is  had  for  drainage,  the  peculiarities  of  the  soil  or 
the  requirements  of  the  plants,  can  prove  as  disastrous  to  the  agri¬ 
culture  of  a  section  as  other  naturally  adverse  conditions.  This 
cause  of  trouble  will  be  lessened  in  all  parts  of  the  State  as  the  de- 


4 


Bulletin  72. 


mand  for  water  approaches  the  limit  of  the  supply  and  an  economic 
and  intelligent  use  of  it  is  forced  upon  the  agriculturists.  As  an 
illustration  I  ma}T  give  the  following  facts  which  were  stated  to 
me — not  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  here  used — by  a  person 
conversant  with  them:  In  a  certain  section  of  the  State  the  water 
table  was  about  18  feet  below  the  surface  and  the  water  was  usable, 
though  not  good.  A  few  years  after  the  irrigating  ditch,  which 
furnished  a  super-abundance  of  water,  had  been  built,  the  water 
plane  had  raised  by  15  feet  or  more,  with  the  result  that  the  de¬ 
pressed  portions  of  the  country  were  being  drowned  out.  The  water, 
which  had  become  heavily  laden  with  the  alkalies,  was  much  less 
desirable  than  formerly,  or  wholly  unfit  for  use.  The  people,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  did  not  take  it  kindly  when  the  writer  insisted 
that  there  were  two  contributing  causes  to  this  state  of  affairs,  over¬ 
irrigation  and  lack  of  drainage,  and  that  the  remedies  were  simple 
if  feasible.  The  first  was  to  apply  less  water,  which  could  easily  be 
done;  the  second,  to  drain  the  land,  which  could  not  easily  be 
done. 

§  4.  The  character  of  the  underlying  strata,  the  presence  or 
absence  of  a  hard  pan,  often  contributes  to  bringing  about  bad 
drainage  conditions,  but  this  was  not  the  case  in  the  above  instance, 
and  I  think  that  it  is  not  very  generally  the  cause  in  any  section  of 
this  State.  I  have  seen  no  occurrence  of  alkalies  in  this  State  where 
their  accumulation  was  not  due  to  these  causes,  usually  to  the  lack 
of  drainage,  the  alkalies  accumulating  in  depressions  with  no  outlet 
which  serve  as  collecting  places  for  the  water  running  off  of  or 
draining  from  the  higher  ground,  or  along  water  courses  where  the 
lowness  of  the  land  and  character  of  the  vegetation  prevent  proper 
drainage. 

THE  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  PLOT'  EXPERIMENTED  ON. 

§  5.  The  plot  of  ground  chosen  for  our  experiment  was  in  the 
worst  condition  of  any  plot  at  our  disposal.  It  was  quite  wet,  had 
no  hard  pan,  but  a  stratum  of  clay  at  a  depth  of  about  5  feet,  under¬ 
lain  by  gravel.  It  was  not  drained,  though  a  tile  drain  had  been 
laid  to  the  west,  south  and  east  of  it,  but  at  so  great  a  distance  that 
it  failed  to  perceptibly  affect  the  condition  of  this  plot.  An  irriga¬ 
ting  ditch  flows  within  50  feet  of  the  east  end  of  the  plot,  and  one 
perhaps  150  feet  from  the  west  end  of  it,  both  being  at  a  higher 
level  than  the  plot  itself,  which  has  a  slope  to  the  eastward  of  six 
inches  in  a  hundred  feet.  The  ditch  passing  the  east  end  of  the 
plot  was,  we  feared,  an  important  factor.  We  will  subsequently 
state  the  results  of  our  observations  made  to  determine  to  what  ex¬ 
tent  this  ditch  influenced  the  water  level  of  the  plot. 

§  6.  Such  were  the  general  conditions  of  the  ground  chosen 


The  Ground  Water. 


5 


to  experiment  on,  and  which  was  chosen  as  representative  of  much 
land  in  Colorado  which  is  neither  so  wet  as  to  be  untillable  nor  so 
strongly  alkalized  as  to  be  hopeless,  and  yet  was  strongly  enough 
impregnated  with  salts  to  yield,  under  favorable  conditions,  incrus¬ 
tations  reaching  a  half  inch  in  thickness. 

§  7.  Parts  I  and  II  of  this  study  deal  exclusively  with  the 
effects  of  these  conditions  on  the  growth  and  composition  of  sugar 
beets,  the  crop  chosen  to  grow  on  this  land,  because  we  thought  it 
probably  more  tolerant  of  the  conditions  than  any  other  crop  which 
would  at  the  same  time  serve  the  other  purposes  of  our  study. 

§  8.  Part  III  deals  with  the  soil,  giving  an  account  of  the 
mechanical  and  chemical  effects  resulting  from  our  cultivating  and 
manuring  it.  In  this  bulletin,  Part  IV  of  our  study,  we  shall  pre¬ 
sent  the  results  of  our  observations  on  the  ground  water,  the  changes 
in  the  water  used  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating,  the  salts  removed, 
etc.  I  shall  confine  myself  in  this  bulletin  to  the  subject  of  water, 
as  in  Part  III  I  confined  myself  to  the  subject  of  the  soil. 

§  9.  I  have  stated  the  general  condition  of  the  plot  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  experiments ;  I  have  stated  the  reasons  which  in¬ 
duced  us  to  choose  this  plot  of  ground  as  well  as  the  crops  to  be 
grown  thereon;  and  in  Part  III  I  have  given  the  condition  of  the 
soil  at  the  end  of  our  experiments,  which  is  summed  up  by  stating 
that  the  store  of  plant  food  in  the  surface  soil,  taken  to  a  depth  of 
ten  inches,  was  actually  increased.  This,  however,  was  the  lesser 
part  of  the  improvement,  the  greater  part  lay  in  the  betterment  of 
the  general  conditions,  whose  best  features  cannot  be  shown  by 
chemical  analysis  or  expressed  in  any  formula.  The  strongest 
and  most  interesting  point  in  this  connection  is  that  the  conditions 
of  water  supply  and  drainage  have  remained  the  same  throughout 
the  experiment.  The  ground  has  subsequently  been  drained,  in 
part,  at  least. 

§  10.  The  amount  of  water  in  the  soil  was  not  determined 
fer  the  reason  that  the  soil  was  excessively  wet,  the  water  table  be¬ 
ing  at  times  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface,  and  in  parts  of  the 
plot,  seldom  more  than  three  feet  six  inches  below  it,  while  in 
the  highest  portion  of  the  plot  it  was  only  six  feet  from  the  surface 
at  its  lowest  stage.  One  would  think  that,  under  such  conditions, 
irrigation  would  not  be  needed  ;  that  the  sub-irrigation  would  be 
sufficient.  We  did  not  find  this  to  be  the  case.  The  explanation 
probably  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  root  system  accommodated  its  de¬ 
velopment  to  the  conditions  obtaining  during  the  earlier  and 
greater  portion  of  the  season,  and  when  the  water  table  fell  the 
surface  soil,  owing  largely  to  its  unfavorable  mechanical  condition, 
dried  out  rapidly  to  a  greater  depth  than  a  soil  in  good  mechanical 


6 


Bulletin  72. 


condition  would  have  done,  causing  the  plants  to  suffer.  The  plant, 
too,  may  have  become  more  sensitive  to  a  lack  of  water,  owing  to 
the  usually  large  supply  of  it.  Whether  this  is  the  explanation 
or  not,  we  had  to  irrigate  two  out  of  three  seasons,  and  while  we 
irrigated  the  third  season  also,  it  was  probably  not  actually  neces¬ 
sary  so  far  as  the  growing  of  the  beets  was  concerned. 

§  11.  The  height  of  the  water  table  in  the  plot  was  referred  to 
a  plane  10  feet  below  our  bench  mark.  The  wells  were  designated 
as  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G  and  H ;  their  respective  heights,  referred  to 
the  same  plane,  were:  A,  9.41';  B,  11.12';  C,  11.23' ;  D,  12.71' ; 
E,  7.24' ;  G,  9.59'.  The  heights  of  F  and  II  were  not  determined ; 
these  wells  were  dug  for  special  purposes,  which  it  would  be  out  of 
place  to  explain  at  this  time.  Wells  A,  B,  C  and  D  were  the  prin¬ 
cipal  ones  and  were  dug  at  intervals  along  the  central  line  of  the 
plot,  which  had  a  width  of  50  feet  and  a  length  of  000  feet.  The 
distances  between  the  wells  were  not  equal.  Well  A  was  the  most 
easterly  one,  and  was  13 0J  feet  from  the  center  of  the  ditch  ;  B  was 
150  feet  west  of  A ;  C  175~  feet  west  of  B,  and  D  160  feet  west  of  C. 
The  surface  of  the  plot  at  D  is  3.3  feet  higher  than  at  A  ;  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  underground  water  is  1.83  feet  higher.  The  distance 
from  A  to  D  is  485  feet,  accordingly  the  surface  of  the  water  table 
has  a  fall  of  1.83  feet  in  485  feet,  while  the  surface  of  the  plot  has  a 
fall  of  nearly  twice  as  much.  The  greater  height  of  the  water  table 
at  the  west  end  is  probably  due  to  the  friction  of  the  flow,  and  is  but 
little  modified  by  the  contour  of  the  surface. 

§  12.  I  suppose  that  the  escape  of  the  ground  water  is  to  the 
eastward,  though  I  have  no  direct  proof  of  this.  There  is  a  drain 
running  from  a  depression  west  of  the  plot,  making  a  wide  curve 
and  passing  again  to  the  east  of  it.  This  drain  was  put  in  in  this 
shape  to  cut  off  seepage  from  higher  lying  land  to  the  westward 
and  to  drain  a  still  lower  lying  portion  to  the  east  of  the  plot.  I 
have  elsewhere  stated  that  it  accomplished  its  purpose  but  par¬ 
tially. 

§  13.  The  daily  records  of  the  height  of  the  water  plane  show 
that  it  varied  quite  uniformly  throughout  the  plot — the  wells  as  a 
rule  rising  and  falling  together.  At  times  there  would  be  a  rise  in 
the  water  table  when  no  rainfall  had  taken  place  and  no  land  had 
been  irrigated  which  could  affect  the  height  of  the  water  plane  in 
this  plot.  Such  rises  in  the  water  plane  were -probably  due  to 
meteorological  conditions.  A  rainfall  of  a  fraction  of  an  inch  also 
affected  it,  owing  to  the  nearness  of  the  plane  to  the  surface,  by 
modifying  the  capillary  force  within  the  soil.  A  rainfall  of  0.28jof 
an  inch  at  4:30  on  the  8th  of  July  was  followed  on  the  9th  by  a  rise 
of  from  0.74  to  0.90  of  a  foot  in  the  water  level ;  but  a  rainfall  of 
0.9  of  an  inch  on  the  night  of  the  9th  produced  a  mixed  result, 


The  Ground  Water. 


7 


which  was  probably  due  to  the  varying  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
air  contained  in  it.  On  the  night  of  July  18th  a  rainfall  of  0.21  of 
an  inch  occurred,  and  the  water  plane  on  the  morning  of  the  1 9th 
had  risen  rather  more  than  0.40  of  a  foot  as  an  average  for  the  four 
wells.  No  further  rainfall  occurred,  and  the  weather  conditions 
remained  favorable  for  observing  how  long  the  effect  of  such  a  rain¬ 
fall  would  remain  noticeable.  On  the  morning  of  the  20th  the 
level  had  fallen  about  0.2  of  a  foot,  and  by  the  morning  of  the  2 2d 
it  had  attained  the  same  level  that  it  had  on  the  18th,  prior  to  the 
rainfall.  On  the  23d  it  was  a  little  lower,  but  rose  again  on 
the  24th. 

§  14.  The  height  of  the  water  plane  oscillated  throughout  the 
season,  owing  to  the  causes  already  mentioned,  and  was  also  influ¬ 
enced  directly  by  irrigation  of  higher  lying  land.  The  record  for 
1898  was  a  weekly  instead  of  a  daily  one,  and  the  minor  changes 
due  to  meteorological  causes  were  largely  eliminated,  and  only  the 
larger  ones,  such  as  were  caused  by  drainage,  or  continued  meteoro¬ 
logical  conditions,  are  shown. 

« 

§  15.  There  was  a  rise  of  the  water  table  throughout  the  plot 
during  the  month  of  February,  1898,  of  about  0.5  of  a  foot.  The 
total  rainfall  was  only  .08  of  an  inch.  During  the  month  of  March 
there  was  a  fall  in  the  water  level.  There  was  a  greater  rainfall 
than  in  February,  though  it  was  still  insignificant.  This  oscillation 
was  a  longer  one  than  is  due  to  the  usual  meteorological  influences 
or  to  irrigation,  besides  no  irrigation  was  being  practiced  at  this 
season.  It  may  have  been  due  to  freezing  and  thawing  and  to  the 
consequent  change  in  the  freedom  of  the  circulation  of  either  the 
water  or  the  air  within  the  soil. 

§  16.  I  supposed  that  the  presence  of  the  irrigation  ditch  near 
the  east  end  of  the  plot  exercised  some  influence  upon  the  height  of 
the  water  level  in  its  immediate  neighborhood.  In  order  to  observe 
the  extent  of  this,  the  height  of  the  water  in  two  wells,  A  and  G, 
was  observed  before  water  was  turned  into  the  ditch  in  the  spring, 
and  when  no  water  had  run  in  it  for  several  months.  We  made 
no  effort  to  determine  whether  its  influence  was  by  leakage  or 
otherwise.  The  wells  taken  under  observation  were  close  together, 
A  entering  the  gravel  below  the  clay,  while  G  did  not  reach  the 
stratum  of  clay  mentioned  as  separating  the  soil  from  the  gravel, 
and  was  presumably  supplied  with  water  from  the  soil  proper. 
Well  G  was  not  so  deep  as  well  A  by  2  feet.  The  distance  be¬ 
tween  the  wells  was  12  feet.  The  water  in  well  G  usually  stood 
a  little  higher  than  in  well  A,  whether  there  was  water  in  the 
ditch  or  not.  It  should  be  added,  for  a  better  understanding  of 
the  conditions,  that  the  ground  on  the  east  side  of  the  ditch  sloped 
gently  to  the  eastward  and  lay  between  the  ditch  and  the  drain 


8 


Bulletin  72. 


already  mentioned.  Water  was  turned  into  the  ditch  late  in  the 
afternoon  of  April  20th.  By  6:15  p.  m.  of  the  23d  the  water 
plane  had  risen  0.31  of  a  foot  in  well  A,  and  0.30  of  a  foot  in 
well  G,  the  former  being  130J  feet  and  the  latter  142J  feet  distant 
from  and  west  of  the  ditch.  No  rain  had  fallen  during  the  preceding 
17  days,  and  the  effect  observed  was  probably  wholly  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  ditch,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  effect  of  the 
ditch  upon  the  height  of  the  water  plane  was  ever  much  greater 
than  is  here  indicated,  0.30  of  a  foot. 

§  17.  The  total  solids  and  the  chlorin  present  in  the  water 
before  and  after  the  rise  showed  a  decrease.  If  the  rise  were  due 
to  unfiltered  water  passing  in  from  the  surface,  or  even  near  it, 
as  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  this  result  would  stand  alone 
and  in  contradiction  to  the  results  observed  when  the  level  of  the 
water  had  been  raised  by  a  copious  rainfall  or  by  the  application 
of  irrigation  water.  In  both  of  these  cases  the  total  solids  and  the 
chlorin  were  greatly  increased,  but  not  in  any  definite  ratio — the 
increase  in  the  amount  of  chlorin  being  more  rapid  than  that  of 
the  total  solids. 

§  18.  The  decrease  in  the  total  solids  held  in  solution  sug¬ 
gests  the  damming  hack  of  the  underground  water  and  a  rising  of 
water  which  was  usually  below  the  clayey  stratum.  The  princi¬ 
pal  fact  on  which  this  interpretation  rests  is  that  the  water  taken 
from  below  this  stratum  was  actually  poorer  in  total  solids  than 
the  water  above  it.  We  also  attempted  to  study  the  effect  of  a 
drain  run  for  the  most  part  just  outside  of  and  south  of  the  plot, 
but  owing  to  a  variety  of  causes,  the  principal  one  of  which  was 
our  inability  to  properly  attend  to  it,  this  experiment  was  aban¬ 
doned. 

§  19.  When  the  water  table  in  this  plot  had  been  raised  by 
irrigation  it  required  from  10  to  13  days  for  it  to  fall  to  the  level 
at  which  it  stood  before  irrigation.  The  rate  at  which  it  fell  was 
very  nearly  the  same  throughout  the  plot  and  did  not  reach  this 
level  at  the  west  or  higher  end  first  and  gradually  proceed  east¬ 
ward  as  it  would  do  if  there  were  sufficient  freedom  of  flow  and 
the  drainage  was  from  the  east  end  of  the  plot. 

§  20.  It  is  mentioned  on  a  preceding  page  that  when  the 
water  level  rose  owing  to  the  change  in  the  conditions  of  capillarity 
caused  by  a  slight  rainfall,  it  required  only  about  three  days  for 
it  to  recede  to  its  former  level,  while  we  state  that  after  an  irriga¬ 
tion  it  required  from  10  to  13  days.  The  two  cases  are  quite  dif¬ 
ferent.  In  the  latter  case  we  have  displaced  the  air  and  filled  the 
soil  with  water,  piling  it  up  on  the  existing  water  plane;  in  the  for- 


The  Ground  Water. 


9 


mer  we  pulled  it  up  by  a  force  which  gradually  lost  its  power  and 
permitted  it  to  subside. 

§  21.  The  general  observations  on  the  water  level  in  this  plot 
shows  that  it  is  subject  to  small  oscillations  due  to  meteorological 
conditions,  and  that  there  are  also  oscillations  extending  over  several 
weeks,  the  cause  of  which  we  have  not  attempted  to  suggest,  and  in 
addition  to  these,  the  accidental  ones  caused  by  rainfall  or  irriga¬ 
tion. 


§  22.  The  water  table  in  the  east  end  of  the  plot  was  seldom 
at  a  depth  exceeding  the  height  to  which  water  would  be  raised  by 
the  force  of  capillarity,  and  in  this  section  the  accumulation  of 
alkali  was  the  greatest.  This  plot  gave  us  throughout  its  whole  ex¬ 
tent  a  good  opportunit}7  to  study  the  changes  in  the  character  and 
quantities  of  salts  in  the  ground  water. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS  IN  THE  GROUND  WATER. 

§  23.  Samples  of  the  ground  water  were  taken  weekly  for  the 
determination  of  the  total  solids.  There  seemed  to  be  no  relation 
between  the  different  wells  in  this  respect,  their  content  being  de¬ 
termined  by  the  conditions  obtaining  in  their  immediate  vicinity. 
For  instance,  well  A,  situated  in  the  worst  portion  of  the  plot,  car¬ 
ried  on  May  24th  3.6114  parts  per  thousand;  *  this  quantity  fell, 
with  slight  fluctuations  from  week  to  week  till  the  end  of  June, 
when  it  carried  2.8714  parts.  Well  B,  which  was  150  feet  west  of 
A,  carried  at  the  beginning  of  this  period  2.7843  parts  per  thous¬ 
and,  which  rose  to  3.2828  parts  by  June  21st,  and  fell  to  2.9143 
parts  by  the  28th.  Well  C  carried,  May  21st,  2.5000  parts  per 
thousand,  on  June  28th  2.3286  parts.  The  changes  in  the  total 
solids  present  in  well  D  were  almost  identical  with  those  observed 
in  the  case  of  well  C.  The  rainfall  during  this  time  amounted  to 
2.08  inches.  The  height  of  the  water  table  had  varied  during  this 
period,  but  it  was  almost  exactly  the  same  at  the  end  of  it  as  at  the 
beginning,  the  greatest  variation  being  0.1  of  a  foot  higher. 

§  24.  The  cause  of  this  gradual  fall  of  the  total  solids  held  in 
solution  by  the  ground  water  was  probably  not  due  to  the  influx  of 
ground  water  from  the  west  carrying  a  less  quantity  of  salts  in  solu¬ 
tion,  for  subsequent  examination  showed  that  the  ground  water  from 
this  direction,  some  of  which,  at  least  at  times,  found  its  way  into 
this  ground,  was  richer  in  this  respect  than  the  ground  water  usu¬ 
ally  filling  this  soil.  The  above  statement  that  some  of  this  water 
from  the  west  found  its  way  into  the  plot  merely  means  that  in  ex¬ 
treme  cases  the  level  of  the  water  table  in  the  plot  was  affected  by 


*  To  convert  parts  per  thousand  into  grains  per  U.  S.  gallon,  multiply  by 
58.334946,  into  grains  per  Imperial  gallon  by  70.0. 


10 


Bulletin  72. 


it,  and  not  that  I  assert  the  actual  flowing  of  this  water  to  the  east¬ 
ward  through  the  plot,  for  the  total  lack  of  agreement  in  the 
amount  of  the  total  solids  in  the  water  of  the  different  wells,  there 
being  only  an  approximate  agreement  when  the  wells  were  only  12 
feet  from  one  another,  indicates  that  the  change  of  level  was  an 
actual  rising  and  falling  due  to  changes  in  pressure,  mostly  hydro¬ 
static,  rather  than  to  a  flowing  ip  and  mixing  of  other  waters.  If 
such  took  place  above  the  water  plane,  we  should  expect  to  observe 
effects  similar  to  those  produced  by  the  entrance  of  water  from 
above  as  in  the  case  of  heavy  rainfalls  or  irrigation. 

§  25.  I  have  not  been  able  to  detect  any  pushing  along  of  the 
water,  indicated  by  the  amount  of  total  solids  in  solution,  nor  yet 
by  their  composition.  I  thought  to  test  this  by  the  addition  of  a 
quantity  of  a  lithium  salt  into  one  of  the  wells,  but  this  experiment 
was  a  failure  for  reasons  hereafter  given. 

§  26.  The  water  soluble  in  the  soil  at  various  depths  with 
high  and  low  water  plane,  was  not  determined,  but  it  is  probable 
that  the  diminution  of  the  total  solids  in  solution  was  due  to  the  re¬ 
moval  of  the  salts  from  the  solution  and  deposition  of  the  salts  in 
tne  upper  portions  of  the  soil.  The  organic  matter  held  in  solu¬ 
tion  fell  with  the  total  solids,  judging  by  the  loss  on  ignition, 
allowance  being  made  for  water  which  may  have  been  present  in 
gypsum. 

§  27.  The  irrigation  applied  on  June  29th  was  not  a  copious 
one,  because  we  had  only  a  small  quantity  of  water  at  our  disposal. 
Its  effect  on  the  height  of  the  water  plane  did  not  reach  its  max¬ 
imum  for  several  days.  It  was  followed  by  an  increase  in  the 
total  solids  in  the  water,  but  this  was  so  irregular  in  its  amount 
and  in  the  time  of  its  appearance  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  an 
exact  statement  of  it  beyond  the  general  one  that  an  increase  fol¬ 
lowed  it.  On  the  day  previous  to  the  application  of  irrigation 
water,  the  total  solids  in  the  water  of  well  A  were  2.8714  parts 
per  thousand;  five  days  later  it  carried  3.6871  parts,  and  twelve 
days  after  irrigation  it  reached  4.4443  parts.  This  quantity  grad¬ 
ually  decreased  until  just  before  the  next  irrigation  it  had  fallen  to 
2.5900  parts  per  thousand. 

§  28.  There  was  only  a  general  similarity  in  the  deportment 
of  the  wells,  the  individuality  of  the  separate  wells  being  very 
marked.  In  well  B,  for  example,  the  total  solids  present  just  be¬ 
fore  irrigation  amounted  to  2.9143  parts  per  thousand,  which  rose 
to  3.1000  parts,  fell  to  3.0000  parts,  and  then  rose  continuously  for 
the  next  eight  weeks  while  they  were  falling  in  the  other  wells. 
The  subsequent,  second  irrigation  caused  an  increase  in  the  total 
solids  in  the  water  of  all  the  wells,  but  it  was  verv  much  less  in 


The  Ground  Water. 


11 


that  of  well  B  than  in  that  of  wells  A  and  C  on  either  side  of  it. 
This  was  not  influenced  by  the  height  of  the  wells,  for  A  was  0.70 
of  a  foot  lower,  and  C  0.77  of  a  foot  higher  than  B.  This  irrigation 
caused  an  increase  of  1.2286  parts  per  thousand  in  the  solids  in 
A,  2.7714  parts  in  that  of  C,  and  rather  less  than  0.0428  parts  in 
that  of  B.  In  the  case  of  well  D  there  was  an  actual  depres¬ 
sion  of  the  solids  by  0.0714  parts  per  thousand,  but  this  was  prob¬ 
ably  due  to  the  running  in  of  water  from  the  surface.  The  sub¬ 
sequent  deportment  of  this  well  was  similar  to  that  of  well  B. 

§  29.  The  total  solids  in  wells  A  and  C  increased  sud¬ 
denly  after  the  irrigation  and  then  fell  again,  reaching  the  point 
at  which  they  stood  prior  to  the  irrigation  in  about  three  weeks. 
In  wells  D  and  B  the  total  solids  increased  throughout  this 
period,  at  the  end  of  which  the  water  in  B  showed  its  maximum 
content  for  the  season,  4.2143  parts  per  thousand ;  in  D,  how¬ 
ever,  they  continued  to  increase  for  three  weeks  longer  before 
reaching  their  maximum  for  the  season  of  3.6986  parts.  The 
maximum  quantity  of  salts  in  solution  in  the  water  of  well  A  was 
reached  immediately  after  the  irrigations,  3.7857  and  3.8143  parts 
per  thousand  respectively  ;  the  minimum  was  found  in  September, 
2.7871  parts  per  thousand;  in  B  the  minimum  was  found  in  May 
and  the  maximum  in  September,  more  than  three  weeks  after  the 
irrigation.  In  C  the  minimum  was  found  in  June,  immediately 
before  irrigation,  and  the  maximum,  5.1929  parts  per  thousand,  in 
August,  immediately  after  irrigation.  In  D  the  minimum  was  found 
in  June  and  the  maximum  in  October,  over  six  weeks  after  the  last 
irrigation.  From  October,  1897,  till  May,  1898,  the  total  solids  in 
the  water  gradually  decreased,  with  only  a  few  increases  which 
were  slight  and  immediately  lost.  The  net  result  at  the  end  of  the 
year  was  a  very  slight  decrease  in  the  salts  held  in  solution  by  the 
ground  water.  The  wells  showed  the  following  quantities  of  salts 
in  solution  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  year  respectively: 
A,  3.6114 — 2.8714  parts  per  thousand;  B,  2.7843 — 2.8328  parts 
per  thousand;  C,  2.5143 — 2.0329  parts  per  thousand;  and  D, 
2.5700 — 2.0843  parts  per  thousand. 

§  30.  The  deportment  of  well  B  is  not  such  as  one  would 
expect  to  observe  in  it  judging  from  its  location.  Wells  A  and  C 
were  located  in  wetter  and  apparently  more  strongly  alkalized,  sec¬ 
tions  than  well  B,  and  the  sample  of  the  soil  taken  near  B  showed 
the  presence  of  less  sulfuric  acid  and  soda  than  those  from  near  the 
other  two  wells,  yet  the  water  from  this  well  is  richer  in  dissolved 
salts  throughout  the  year  than  the  others,  excepting  that  of  well  A 
for  the  month  of  May  alone. 

§  31.  When  the  height  of  the  water  plane  is  raised  by  irriga¬ 
tion  water,  or  a  continued  rainfall,  the  percolating  water  carries  the 


12 


Bulletin  72. 


soluble  salts  with  it  into  the  ground  water,  and  an  increase  in  the 
salts  dissolved  in  the  ground  water  is  simultaneous  with  the  rise  of 
the  water  table.  It  is  evident  that  this  rise  is  due  to  the  piling  up 
of  water  on  a  portion  of  the  general  water  plane  represented  by  the 
irrigated  plot,  and  would  not  take  place  if  the  water  could  flow  per¬ 
fectly  freely  through  the  soil,  which  it  does  not  do.  This  does  not 
fully  state  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  increase  and  decrease  of  the 
salts  in  the  ground  water ;  for  while  it  is  true  that  there  is  an  in¬ 
crease  in  the  salts  concurrent  with  the  rise  of  the  water  table  when 
it  is  due  to  the  application  of  water  to  the  surface,  and  a  subse¬ 
quent  fall,  usually  quite  a  rapid  one,  we  have  the  solids  in  the 
water  of  two  of  the  wells  showing  a  different  course.  The  solids  in 
that  of  wells  B  and  D  began  to  increase  immediately,  or  very  soon, 
after  the  irrigation  of  August  18th  to  20th,  and  continued  to  increase 
for  several  weeks,  though  the  water  table  was  steadily  falling  dur¬ 
ing  this  time,  which  in  the  case  of  well  D  was  six  weeks.  This  is 
the  more  remarkable  for  in  both  these  cases  the  maximum  reached 
was  the  maximum  for  the  season.  In  the  case  of  the  other  two 
wells  the  results  were  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  the  waters  of 
these  wells  the  amount  of  the  dissolved  salts  reached  their  maxi¬ 
mum  for  the  season  immediately  after  the  irrigation  and  fell  within 
four  weeks  to  their  minimum  for  the  remaining  months  of  the  year, 
and  within  0.1571  parts  per  thousand  of  the  minimum  for  the  whole 
season.  The  cause  of  this  difference  is  not  suggested  by  a  consid¬ 
eration  of  the  rate  at  which  the  water  table  fell.  The  height  of 
the  water  table  above  the  reference  plane  was  not  the  same  in  the 
different  wells,  and  there  were  slight  variations  in  the  rate  of  fall, 
but  neglecting  these  irregularities,  the  rate  of  falling  was  very 
nearly  the  same,  so  that  the  rapid  decrease  in  the  amount  of  the 
total  solids  in  the  water  of  wells  A  and  C  was  not  probably  due  to 
any  drainage,  affecting  these  wells  to  a  greater  extent  or  in  a  dif¬ 
ferent  manner  than  it  did  the  wells  B  and  D.  The  conditions  of 
diffusion  obtaining  in  the  different  wells  probably  contributed  to 
the  observed  results.  The  composition  of  the  solids  contained  in 
these  waters  will  be  given  subsequently. 

§  32.  In  this  irrigation,  as  well  as  in  the  preceding,  the  head 
of  water  at  our  disposal  would  not  permit  of  our  attempting  to  flood 
off  any  salts,  and  practically  all  the  salts  which  were  on  the  sur¬ 
face-  at  any  given  place  were  carried  back  into  the  soil,  so  that 
there  was  but  little,  if  any,  transporting  of  salts  even  for  a  few  feet 
in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the  water.  It  follows  that  any  re¬ 
moval  of  salts  during  this  season  was  by  drainage. 

§  33.  In  the  following  season,  1898,  the  conditions  were  quite 
different.  During  April,  and  especially  during  May,  there  were 
frequent  light  rains.  The  water  table  was  rather  higher  at  the  west 


The  Ground  Water. 


13 


end  of  the  plot  and  lower  at  the  east  end  than  in  1897.  The  aver¬ 
age  height  of  the  water  table  at  the  west  end  of  the  plot  for  May, 
1897,  was  9.80  feet,  and  for  the  same  month  in  1898  it  was  9.98 
feet  for  the  east  end ;  for  May,  1897,  it  was  8.11,  and  for  May,  1898, 
7.55  feet.  The  rainfall  in  the  two  years  differed  both  in  its  amount 
and  distribution  ;  there  was  also  another  changed  condition,  the 
plot  had  been  divided  into  sections  100  feet  long  by  25  feet  wide, 
and  the  alternate  sections  had  received  a  heavy  dressing  of  manure. 
These  conditions  undoubtedly  had  an  effect  upon  the  movement  of 
the  soluble  salts  in  the  soil  and  also  upon  the  salts  themselves. 

§  34.  There  was  a  remarkable  change  in  the  amount  of  the 
total  solids  contained  in  the  waters  of  wells  A  and  C  between  May 
16th  and  23d,  each  containing  less  by  14.3  parts  per  thousand 
on  the  later  date.  The  waters  of  the  wells  contained  from  3.57  to 
5.71  parts  per  thousand  more  total  solids  on  May  24,  1898,  than  on 
this  date  in  1897,  except  in  the  case  of  well  D,  the  water  of  which 
contained  3.43  parts  per  thousand  less. 

§  35.  An  examination  of  the  results  obtained  in  1898  corrob¬ 
orate  those  of  1897,  i.  e.,  that  as  a  rule,  the  solids  in  the  waters 
fell  as  the  water  table  fell,  and  that  a  sufficient  rainfall  or  an  appli¬ 
cation  of  water  to  the  surface  was  followed  by  an  increase  in  the 
amount  of  salts  held  in  solution  by  the  ground  water. 

§  36.  The  amount  of  water  necessary  to  raise  the  height  of 
the  water  table  and  at  the  same  time  produce  an  increase  in  the 
amount  of  the  salts  in  the  ground  water  was  not  observed.  I  have 
already  stated  that  a  rainfall  of  a  few  tenths  of  an  inch  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  disproportionate  rise  in  the  height  of  the  water  table. 
In  the  particular  instances  referred  to  we  unfortunately  made  no 
determination  of  the  total  solids  immediately  before  and  after  the 
change  of  the  wrater  level. 

# 

§  37.  In  May,  1898,  there  were  nine  days  on  which  no  rain 
fell.  The  aggregate  rainfall  for  the  3d,  4th  and  5th  was  1.66 
inches,  this  was  followed  by  a  rise  in  the  height  of  the  water  table, 
and  though  there  were  daily  light  rains,  except  on  the  10th,  until 
the  16th  the  water  table  fell  by  0.2  of  a  foot.  In  this  interval  0.69 
of  an  inch  of  rain  had  fallen,  0.22  and  0.24  of  an  inch  being  the 
largest  amounts  for  any  one  day,  an  amount  which  under  other  con¬ 
ditions  had  been  sufficient  to  cause  a  rise. 

§  38.  The  total  solids  present  in  the  waters  of  wells  A  and 
C  were  very  high  at  this  date,  the  16th,  containing  6.1043  and 
4.3414  parts  per  thousand  respectively,  while  those  of  wells  B  and 
I)  were  much  lower,  2.9000  and  2.1000  respectively ;  but  seven 
days  later  they  had  fallen  in  wells  A  and  C  and  risen  in  wells 


14 


Bulletin  72. 


B  and  D.  A  little  rain  had  fallen  during  the  week,  and  the  wells, 
A  excepted,  were  lower  than  on  the  16th. 

§  39.  On  June  3rd,  4th  and  5th  we  had  a  rainfall  aggregating 
1.82  inches,  which  under  the  conditions  prevailing  at  that  time 
might  have  wet  this  soil  to  a  depth  of  5  inches.  The  water  capacity 
of  this  soil,  air  dry,  ranged  from  36  to  51  per  cent.  The  actually 
observed  rise  in  the  water  table  ranged  from  0.32  to  0.95  of  a  foot, 
and  the  waters  of  the  different  wells  showed  an  increase  in  the  total 
solids  present.  The  increase  in  the  case  of  well  B  was  slower  than 
in  the  others.  The  greatest  difference  was  shown  in  the  case  of 
Well  C,  where  it  amounted  to  1.0630  parts  per  thousand.  The 
water  table  and  the  total  solids  had  both  begun  to  fall  by  the  13th, 
or  seven  days  after  the  last  rainfall. 

§  40.  The  rising  of  the  water  table  at  times  when  there  had 
been  no  rainfall  has  already  been  mentioned,  as  has  also  the  effect 
of  a  slight  moistening  of  the  previously  dry  surface  upon  the 
height  of  the  water  table,  but  here  we  have  the  effect  of  1.82  inches 
of  rainfall  upon  the  height  of  the  water  table  reaching  the  consid¬ 
erable  amount  of  0.95  of  a  foot,  or  11.4  inches,  while  the  amount 
of  water  which  fell  was  not  sufficient  to  wet  this  soil  for  more  than 
5  inches.  The  amount  of  the  rise  in  the  different  wells  varied  con¬ 
siderably,  as  did  the  increase  of  the  total  solids.  The  former  is 
probably  due  to  the  capillary  condition  of  the  soil  at  the  different 
places,  and  the  latter,  partly  to  the  solution  of  salts  out  of  the  soil 
through  which  the  water  rose  and  partly  to  changes  in  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  diffusion,  for  the  smallest  change  in  the  amount  of  total 
solids  was  not  in  the  well  that  rose  the  least,  nor  in  one  which  was 
usually  low  in  total  solids. 

§  41.  The  increase  in  total  solids  present  in  the  ground  water 
was  not  always  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  its  height.  Our 
observations  on  the  relation  of  these — increase  in  height  of  ground 
water  atid  total  solids  contained — are  not  quite  consonant  with 
one  another,  but  they  agree  that  the  effect  of  the  addition  of  consid¬ 
erable  quantities  of  water  applied  to  the  surface  is  to  increase  the 
amount  of  salts  in  solution.  Sometimes  the  increase  in  the  amount 
of  the  salts  in  solution  and  that  in  the  height  of  the  water  plane 
fell  together,  but  at  other  times  they  did  not. 

§  42.  The  influence  of  the  changes  in  the  water  level,  due  to 
very  light  rains  or  other  meteorological  causes,  was  not  marked 
enough  to  be  noted  without  special  study. 

§  43.  The  solids  in  the  ground  water  during  the  season 
1898,  from  May  24th  till  the  end  of  October,  were  a  little  higher  dur¬ 
ing  the  first  two-thirds  of  the  season,  but  lower  during  the  last 
third,  than  in  1897 ;  the  water  level  was  also  very  low,  well  D  go- 


The  Ground  Water. 


15 


ing  dry  about  September  1,  and  B  a  month  later,  October  1.  The 
differences  in  the  individual  wells  were  the  same  as  in  1897,  ex¬ 
cept  in  the  extent  of  their  variation. 

§  44.  No  attempt  was  made  in  1899  to  continue  the  study  of 
the  relation  of  the  height  of  the  water  table  to  the  amount  of  total 
solids  contained  in  the  water. 

§  45.  The  question  whether  the  height  of  the  water  in  the 
wells  corresponded  with  the  height  of  the  water  table  in  the  soil 
was  repeatedly  suggested.  Investigation  showed  that,  for  all  of  our 
purposes,  it  was  safe  to  consider  them  the  same. 

§  46.  The  matter  was  apparently  different  with  the  total 
solids  present  in  the  soil  and  well  waters,  especially  in  newly  made 
holes  in  the  soil,  in  which  the  solids  were  higher  than  in  water 
from  the  near-by  wells.  This  was  not  due  to  rain  water  falling 
directly  into  the  wells,  for  they  were  covered  to  prevent  this,  nor  to 
its  running  in  from  the  surface,  for  the  tiles  which  formed  the  lin¬ 
ing  of  the  wells  projected  above  the  surface  sufficiently  to  escape 
this  danger.  The  difference  in  the  amount  of  salts  present  in  the 
soil  and  well  waters  varied  more  than  I  expected  them  to.  In  one 
case,  the  water  table  being  very  high,  within  18  inches  of  the  sur¬ 
face,  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  the  total  solids  in  the  water 
taken  from  the  soil  and  from  the  well,  well  A,  was  2  6286  parts  per 
thousand.  In  another  portion  of  the  plot  where  the  water  table  was 
not  so  near  to  the  surface,  and  where  the  soil  was  very  different,  the 
difference  in  the  amounts  of  the  total  solids  was  only  0.4714  parts 
per  thousand. 

§  47.  It  was  unfortunately  not  feasible  for  us  to  determine 
whether  the  water  drained  into  the  wells  from  the  surrounding  soil, 
higher  than  the  water  plane,  or  not.  If  this  took  place  at  all  it 
would  seem  that  it  did  not  drain  from  a  very  wide  area,  the  radius 
of  the  soil  affected  must  have  been  very  small,  or  we  would  prob¬ 
ably  not  have  found  so  great  a  difference  in  the  total  solids  present 
in  the  soil  water  and  that  of  the  wells.  We  made  an  attempt  to 
determine  the  distance  to  which  an  under-drain  would  affect  the 
height  of  the  water  table,  and  also  to  determine  its  influence  upon 
the  total  solids  present  in  the  ground  water  at  different  distances 
from  it ;  but  as  already  stated,  the  experiment,  owing  to  a  variety  of 
causes,  was  abandoned.  The  best  data  that  I  have  bearing  on  this 
point  was  afforded  by  a  well  situated  about  two-thirds  of  the  way 
from  the  east  end  of  my  plot  to  an  under- drain  east  of  and  lower 
than  the  plot.  The  conditions  here  were  in  every  respect  better 
than  in  the  plot  under  observation.  They  had  probably  not  been 
so  unfavorable  to  begin  with,  but  assuming  that  they  were  the  re¬ 
sults  of  cultivation  and  drainage,  the  drain  being  about  70  feet  from 


16 


Bulletin  72. 


this  well,  was  to  reduce  the  total  solids  to  less  than  one-half  the 
amount  found  in  the  easternmost  well  in  my  plot,  254  feet  west  of 
it.  This  difference  held  throughout  the  two  years  these  wells  were 
under  observation.  These  data  are  not  so  good  as  would  appear  at 
first  sight,  for  the  plot  had  been  under  experimental  cultivation  for 
several  years,  five  at  least,  and  I  have  no  means  of  judging  to  what 
extent,  if  any,  the  changes  were  due  to  the  direct  action  of  the  drain 
upon  this  ground. 

§  48.  If  the  water  in  the  easternmost  well  was  part  of  an  east¬ 
ward  flow  out  of  my  plot,  a  large  amount  of  the  salts,  50  per  cent., 
had  been  removed  from  solution  in  flowing  from  the  eastern  por¬ 
tion  of  my  plot  to  the  well,  a  distance  of  not  more  than  250  feet. 
The  observations,  however,  upon  the  dissimilarity  of  the  salt  con¬ 
tents  of  the  waters  of  the  different  wells  justifies  a  serious  doubt  as 
to  the  existence  of  a  flow  through  the  soil,  or  if  any,  it  is  a  slow  one 
and  is  accompanied  by  an  extremely  slow  translocation  of  the  salts 
in  the  soil.  It  is  certain  that  the  soil  has  the  power  of  retaining 
salts,  but  there  are  reasons  for  believing  that  there  are  marked  dif¬ 
ferences  in  the  soil  in  this  respect,  and  if  there  were  a  flow,  this 
property  of  the  soil  would  tend  to  retard  the  translocation  of  the 
salts.  Some  facts  supporting  this  view  will  be  mentioned  under  the 
subject  of  drainage. 

*  §  49.  There  is  another  consideration  which  should  be  men¬ 
tioned,  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  salts  in  the  water  actually 
in  contact  with  the  soil  and  that  in  the  wells  may  indicate  that 
the  true  soil  water  coming  into  the  wells  from  the  sides  may  have 
received  an  admixture  of  water  coming  from  below,  and  from  which 
those  salts  most  readily  retained  by  the  soil  had  been  partially  re¬ 
moved.  If  this  were  the  case  it  would  be  strongly  suggestive  of  a 
flow  through  the  gravel,  and  as  the  well  referred  to  entered  the 
gravel,  the  water  may  have  been  a  mixture  of  waters,  some  enter¬ 
ing  laterally  from  the  soil  and  others  rising  vertically  from  the 
under-flowing  waters.  Such  might  be  the  case,  even  when  the 
height  of  the  water  in  the  well  and  that  in  the  soil  outside  of  the 
well  were  the  same,  or  so  nearly  so  that  refined  means  of  measure¬ 
ment  would  have  to  be  used  to  establish  the  difference. 

§  50.  That  the  water  flowing  through  the  gravel,  even  if  it 
were  water  percolating  through  the  overlying  soil,  should  differ  in 
its  content  of  salts  from  the  water  in  the  soil,  is  in  keeping  with 
the  observed  fact  that  the  total  solids  present  fell  as  the  water 
table  fell.  The  soil  through  which  the  water  table  fell  not  having 
reached  its  point  of  saturation  for  these  salts,  retained  them  until 
an  equilibrium  between  those  in  solution  and  those  present  in  the 
soil  had  been  established. 

§  51.  To  what  extent  this  well  A  and  all  the  others  were 


The  Ground  Water. 


17 


affected  by  such  mixing  of  waters  lias  been  a  serious  question 
throughout  this  work.  The  doubts  entertained  led  me  to  have 
wells  of  different  depths  dug,  and  to  endeavor  to  determine  the  ex¬ 
tent  to  which*  samples  of  water  obtained  from  slightly  different 
depths  taken  from  the  same  place  and  on  the  same  date  would 
differ.  The  results  obtained  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  ordi¬ 
nary  laws  of  solubility  and  diffusion  are  very  radically  modified! 
and  that  the  mixing  of  waters  as  suggested  was  improbable. 

§  52.  I  stated  in  Bulletin  46,  page  5,  that  the  water  in  the 
gravel  stratum  was  different  from  the  water  in  the  soil  proper. 
This  appears,  from  the  preceding  statements,  to  be  almost  a  matter 
of  course ;  but  there  is  a  broader  sense  in  which  it  might  be  the 
case,  as  I  was  at  one  time  tempted  to  believe,  i.  e.,  that  the  water 
in  the  gravel  might  be  practically  cut  off  from  the  water  in  the  soil 
by  the  clayey  stratum  overlying  the  gravel,  and  that  the  water  in 
the  latter  came  from  higher  ground  and  constituted  a  sheet  flowing 
eastward  through  it.  The  possibility  that  such  might  have  been  the 
case  is  evident,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  the  clayey  stratum  did  not 
suffice  to 'separate  the  waters  in  the  soil  from  that  in  the  gravel,  and 
I  am  doubtful  whether  the  water  from  the  higher  land  actually 
finds  its  way  into  the  gravel  as  a  distinct  course  for  its  flow.  That 
it  does  not  is  indicated  by  our  experience  in  June  and  July,  1899, 
when,  because  of  an  unusually  large  supply  of  water,  the  land  to 
the  west  of  us  was  excessively  irrigated  and  the  water  table  in  our 
plot  was  raised  to  within  eighteen  inches  of  the  surface.  This 
water  either  flowed  above  the  clayey  stratum  or  rose  through  it. 

§  53:  Transportation  of  the  salts  laterally  through  the  soil 
did  not,  even  in  this  case,  seem  to  take  place,  for  the  individuality 
of  the  different  wells  was  quite  unaffected.  Still  the  results  of  three 
seasons’  cultivation,  irrigation  included,  shows  the  removal  of  large 
quantities  of  soluble  salts,  if  the  amount  of  these  held  in  solution  by 
the  soil  waters  be  a  reliable  index.  Taking  the  total  solids  in  the 
waters  of  the  different  wells,  ten  days  after  irrigation,  August  20, 
1897,  and  August  31,  1899,  we  have  wells  A,  B,  C,  and  D  show¬ 
ing  the  following  total  solids  respectively  in  1897:  30.8571,  35.2857, 
3.3429  and  2.6429  parts  per  thousand;  in  1899,  1.7857,  2.7286, 
2.8857  and  3.4000  parts  per  thousand.  In  the  case  of  Well  D,  in 
1899,  we  have  an  increase,  but  after  making  allowance  for  all 
minor  variations  and  a  marked  capriciousness  in  the  amount  of 
salts  dissolved,  there  is  still  evidence  of  the  removal  of  large 
amounts  of  the  soluble  salts  from  the  soil. 

§  54.  The  crops,  as  shown  in  Bulletins  46  and  58,  did  not 
remove  these  salts,  and  if  they  did  not  remain  more  generally 
distributed  through  the  mass  of  the  soil,  whereby  they  would  be 
rendered  more  difficultly  soluble  in  water,  they  must  have  been 


18 


Bulletin  72. 


removed  by  drainage  even  though  we  were  unable  to  detect  the 
flow. 

CHLORIN  IN  THE  GROUND  WATER. 

§  55.  The  amount  of  chlorin  in  the  ground  water  was  not  at 
any  time  extremely  high.  The  maximum  for  1897  was  0.2400 
parts  per  thousand,  unless  we  include  one  abnormal  result  ob¬ 
tained  immediately  after  irrigating  the  plot,  in  which  case  we  have 
0.3429  parts  per  thousand ;  this  result  stands  alone  for  1897. 
The  same  well,  however,  in  1898  showed  two  such  variations 
reaching  0.3143  parts  per  thousand  after  an  irrigation,  and  0.5286 
parts  on  May  16th.  The  month  had  been  wetter  than  usual,  2.9 
inches  of  rain  having  fallen  up  to  this  date.  With  these  excep¬ 
tions  this  well  was  not  so  high  in  chlorin  as  two  of  the  other 
three. 

§  56.  The  ratio  of  the  chlorin  to  the  total  solids  in  the  water 
ranged  from  1:18  to  1:25  for  well  A  from  May,  1897,  till  May  1, 
1898 ;  for  well  B  it  ranged  from  1:15  to  1:19  ;  for  well  C  from  1:18 
to  1:22;  and  for  well  D  from  1:16  to  1:22.  In  other  words  the 
salt,  NaCl,  found  in  the  water  did  not,  at  any  time  during  the  year, 
amount  to  quite  1-9  of  the  total  matter  held  in  solution  by  the  water 
and  fell  as  low,  in  round  numbers,  as  1-16  of  the  total  solids.  In 
1898  the  ratio  of  the  chlorin  to  the  total  solids  for  the  respec¬ 
tive  wells  varied  as  follows:  for  A,  from  1:13  to  1:21;  for  B, 
from  1:14  to  1:16;  for  C,  from  1:11  to  1:27  ;  and  for  D,  from  1:18 
to  1:33.  The  largest  amount  of  salt,  NaCl,  present  equalled  1-7 
and  the  smallest  1-20,  or  from  14.3  per  cent,  down  to  5.0  per  cent, 
of  the  total  solids  present.  The  latter  part  of  the  season  -  of  1898 
was  quite  dry  and  the  water  table  fell  so  that  some  of  the  wells 
went  dry.  The  total  solids  fell  with  the  water  table  and  so  did 
the  chlorin,  but  not  proportionately  with  the  total  solids  ;  the  latter 
fell  from  4.1857  parts  per  thousand  on  May  23  to  2.3429  parts 
on  November  7,  and  the  former  fell  from  0.32400  parts  to  0.11071 
parts  per  thousand  in  the  same  time.  The  total  solids  fell  by  a 
little  less  than  one-half  their  quantity,  while  the  chlorin  fell  by 
two-thirds  of  the  amount  present  when  the  water  table  was  high, 
May  23. 

§  57.  The  chlorin  in  the  water  was  no  indication  of  the 
amount  of  total  solids  present  except  within  the  very  wide  limits 
giyen  above,  which  were  different  for  each  individual  well ;  further¬ 
more  its  quantity  varied  with  the  falling  of  the  water  table  differ¬ 
ently  from  that  of  the  total  solids,  and  increased  in  a  most  irregular 
manner  when  it  rose,  especially  when  the  rising  of  the  water  table 
was  due  to  irrigation  or  to  heavy  rainfalls.  Experiments  made  by 
filtering  salt  solutions  through  sandstones  have  shown  that  they 
have  a  considerable  power  to  retain  it.  Something  similar  prob- 


The  Ground  Water. 


19 


ably  takes  place  in  this  case,  but  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  be¬ 
tween  the  salt  solution  and  the  soil  are  changed,  perhaps  are  con¬ 
stantly  changing,  and  the  soil  retains  more  of  the  sodic  chlorid  as 
the  water  table  falls,  or  gives  it  up  as  it  rises,  sometimes  in  a  most 
irregular  fashion.  Evaporation  from  the  surface  and  capillarity 
undoubtedly  influence  these  changes  continuously.  This  view 
seems  so  fully  conformable  to  what  we  know  concerning  the  deport¬ 
ment  of  mixed  salt  solutions  when  in  contact  with  soil  that  one  is 
tempted  to  assert  it  as  a  demonstrated  fact. 

§  58.  Two  experiments  were  made  in  the  hope  of  gaining 
definite  data  relating  to  it.  An  excavation  was  made  and  a  sam¬ 
ple  taken  as  soon  as  the  water  table  was  entered,  a  second  sample 
was  taken  one  foot  below  this,  the  water  from  the  first  foot  being 
cut  off  as  completely  as  possible  so  that  the  second  sample  repre¬ 
sented  water  from  the  soil  one  foot  below  the  water  table  ;  a  third 
sample  was  taken  at  a  depth  of  an  additional  foot  with  the  same 
precautions.  The  respective  samples  showed  the  presence  of 
0.23286,  0.1771  and  0.1171  parts  per  thousand.  Thirteen  days 
later  we  repeated  this  experiment,  choosing  another  portion  of  the 
plot  for  our  observations.  The  sample  of  water  taken  at  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  water  table  contained  0.2129  parts,  and  the  second  one, 
taken  a  foot  below  the  surface,  showed  the  presence  of  0.1457  parts 
per  thousand.  Two  other  samples  were  taken  at  greater  depths, 
but  the  inflow  of  water  .was  so  great  that  the  results  were  not  so 
reliable.  They  showed,  however,  essentially  the  same  as  the  sec¬ 
ond  sample. 

§  59.  The  ratios  of  the  chlorin  to  the  total  solids  in  the  two 
experiments  are  not  concordant  and  permit  no  inference  whatever 
to  be  drawn  from  them.  These  facts  establish  what  I  have  else¬ 
where  stated,  that  the  order  of  solubility  of  the  different  salts  and 
the  laws  of  diffusion  are  greatly  modified  by  the  properties  of  the 
soil  particles  and  the  relative  masses  of  the  soil  water  and  the  soil. 

§  60.  The  effect  of  irrigation,  particularly  when  sufficient  to 
raise  the  height  of  the  water  table,  was  to  increase  the  absolute 
quantity  of  chlorin  in  the  water,  but  not  proportionately  with  the 
other  salts.  There  were  differences  in  the  wells  in  this  respect.  The 
ratio  of  the  chlorin  to  the  total  solids  in  well  D  before  irrigation 
was  1:34,  and  after  irrigation  1:64;  in  wells  A  and  B  the  changes 
were  in  the  same  direction,  but  much  less ;  in  the  case  of  well  C  the 
change  in  the  ratio,  though  small,  was  in  the  opposite  direction. 
The  local  conditions,  including  variations  in  the  soil,  seem  to  influ¬ 
ence  the  amounts  of  the  salts  taken  into  solution  and  especially  the 
relative  quantities  of  the  same.  The  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  well  C 
contained,  according  to  analysis,  more  than  twice  as  much  chlorin 


20 


Bulletin  72. 


as  the  soils  in  the  vicinity  of  the  other  wells.  The  water  soluble  in 
this  soil  was  less  than  in  that  about  well  A,  but  greater  than  in  that 
about  wells  B  and  D  for  both  the  first  and  second  two  inches.  The 
percentages  of  chlorin  in  the  water  soluble  portions  of  the  soils  are 
not  very  different,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  the  salts  present  in  the 
soils  are  the  same.  The  whole  of  the  chlorin  may  be  present  in  the 
form  of  ordinary  salt  in  one  case  and  in  the  form  of  magnesic  or 
some  other  chlorid  in  the  other ;  this  seems  to  be  the  actual  case 
for  we  were  unable  to  combine  the  results  of  the  analyses  of  these 
different  water  soluble  portions  in  the  same  manner. 

§  61.  It  was  hoped  that  the  amount  of  the  chlorin  in  the 
water  and  its  variation  from  time  to  time  might  throw  some  light 
upon  the  movement  of  the  alkali  salts  in  the  soil ;  but  these  seem 
so  dependent  upon  local  conditions  and  the  character  of  the  soil 
that  no  general  deductions  are  justified. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

§  62.  The  term  total  solids  is  here  equivalent  to  alkali  salts  . 
in  solution  in  the  ground  water,  and  these  are  not  the  same  as  those 
which  form  the  alkali  incrustations,  nor  are  they  equal  to  the  water 
soluble  portion  of  the  soil.  These  are  three  different  mixtures  of 
salts. 

§  63.  It  has  been  given  as  the  result  of  three  seasons’  obser¬ 
vation  on  this  plot  that  the  amount  of  the  total  solids  varied  in 
different  portions,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  wells  differed  from 
one  another  in  this  respect,  and  that  there  was  no  relation  in  the 
rate  or  extent  of  their  variations.  This  is  not  the  case  with  the 
composition  of  the  solids  held  in  solution,  as  shown  by  more  than 
one  hundred  complete  analyses  of  the  waters  of  the  different  wells. 

§  64.  I  wish  to  emphasize  the  statement  that  the  well  waters 
represent  the  composition  of  all  the  water  flowing  into  the  well,  be¬ 
tween  the  surface  of  the  water  table  and  the  bottom  of  the  well,  also 
possibly  of  water  coming  from  the  gravel  below  the  well,  for  it  is 
certain  that  however  abnormally  the  salts  may  diffuse  through  the 
solution  within  the  mass  of  the  soil,  they  are  entirely  relieved  from 
the  influence  of  the  soil  particles  in  the  free  water  accumulating  in 
the  wells.  These  well  waters  probably  represent  the  average  free 
solution  in  the  soil  for  a  depth  represented  by  the  height  of  the 
water  plane  above  the  bottom  of  the  well,  especially  if  there  is  no 
hydrostatic  pressure  forcing  water  upward  out  of  a  more  porous 
stratum,  as  might  have  been  the  case  in  some  of  my  wells  where 
they  entered  the  gravel. 

§  65.  I  have  two  analyses  which,  taken  with  the  conditions 
under  which  the  samples  were  collected,  will  fully  present  this 


The  Ground  Water. 


21 


view.  They  are  of  water  from  wells  designated  as  B  and  G  re¬ 
spectively.  Well  B  was  put  down  in  May,  1897,  and  had  been 
open  for  a  year  at  the  time  the  sample  in  question  was  taken  ;  well 
G  was  put  down  the  day  the  sample  was  taken.  Well  B  reached 
the  gravel  at  a  depth  of  6  feet,  while  well  G  was  but  4  feet  deep, 
leaving  about  2  feet  of  a  difficultly  pervious  soil  between  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  well  and  the  gravel.  The  analyses  of  the  two  samples 
follow : 


TABLE  I.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  B,  MAY  30,  1898. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal . 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid . 

0.541 

1.176 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

39.704 

86.317 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

45.871 

99.724 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

24.934 

54.207 

Carbonic  Acid . 

3.318 

7.214 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.370 

0.795 

Chlorin . 

6.239 

13.563 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

10.173 

22.166 

Sodic  Oxid . 

15.165 

32.969 

Sodic  Clorid . 

10.292 

22.376 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.200 

0.435 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

7.994 

17.378 

Calcic  Oxid . 

16.361 

35.568 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.099 

2.389 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

8.304 

18.054 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.031 

0.067 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.031 

0.067 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.021 

0.045 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.021 

0.045 

Ignition . 

5.235 

11.381 

Ignition . 

5.235 

11.381 

Sum . 

99.853 

217.073 

Sum . 101.286  220.196 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .... 

0.223 

0.050 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

1.406 

3.057 

Total . 

99.876 

217.123 

Total . 

.99.880  217.139 

Total  solids  3.1057  parts  per  thousand,  or  217.4  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


TABLE  II.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  G,  MAY  30,  1898. 


Analytical 

Per 

Grs 

Imp. 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Resiilts. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid . 

.  0.665 

1.350 

Calcic  Sulfate  . 

38.430 

78.013 

Sulfuric  Acid.  . . 

.  46.504 

93.997 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

24.897 

50.541 

Carbonic  Acid . . 

.  3.580 

7.267 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.212 

0.430 

Chlorin . 

.  6.226 

12.639 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

12.444 

25.261 

Sodic  Oxid . 

.  16.450 

33.394 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

10.247 

20.855 

Potassic  Oxid. . . 

.  0.115 

0.233 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

8.632 

17.523 

Calcic  Oxid _ 

.  15.831 

32.137 

-  Sodic  Silicate . 

0.997 

2.024 

Magnesic  Oxid. 

.  8.297 

16.843 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.041 

0.083 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  0.041 

0.083 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.041 

0.083 

Manganic  Oxid. 

.  0.041 

0.083 

Ignition . 

4.102 

8.327 

Ignition . 

.  4.102 

8.327 

— 

— 

Sum 

100  072  902  1 40 

Sum . 

. 101.652  206.353 

Excess  Silicic  Acid . . . 

0.174 

0.353 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin  1.403 

2.848 

Total 

100  94-4  902  492 

Total .... 

. 100.249 

203.505 

Total  solids  0.7285  parts  per  thousand,  or  203  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

i  * 

§  66.  These  two  analyses  differ  slightly  in  the  ratios  of  the 
respective  salts  to  the  total  solids,  but  serve  to  justify  the  statement 
made  above  that  the  well  waters  may  be  assumed  to  faithfully 
represent  the  composition  of  the  freely  circulating  waters  within  the 
soil  to  the  depth  of  the  well.  This  is  still  the  case  when  the  water 


22 


Bulletin  72. 


level  changes.  The  samples,  of  which  analyses  have  just  been  given, 
were  taken  when  the  water  plane  was  relatively  high  and  the  ground 
water  contained  rather  more  than  28.5714  parts  per  thousand. 
The  following  sample  was  taken  when  the  water  plane  had  been 
raised  by  irrigating  the  plot,  and  the  total  solids  present  in  the 
water  were  almost  70  per  cent,  higher  than  on  May  30th,  when  the 
preceding  samples  were  taken.  While  there  are  some  differences, 
they  are  comparatively  small,  which  fact  appears  most  clearly  from 
the  percentage  composition  of  the  total  solids  as  given  by  the  direct 
results  of  the  analysis  which  follows : 


TABLE  III.—. 

ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  G,  JULY  11,  1898. 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  . . . 

.  0.337 

1.149 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

32.866  112.073 

Sulfuric  Acid. 

.  46.106  157.221 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

27.162 

92.622 

Carbonic  Acid . 

.  3.456 

11.785 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

1.845 

6.283 

Chlorin . 

.  6.317 

21.541 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

13.897 

47.389 

Sodic  Oxid .... 

.  17.165 

58.533 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

10.424 

35.546 

Potassic  Oxid 

.  1.002 

3.417 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

8.333 

28.416 

Calcic  Oxid  . . 

. 13.539 

46.168 

Sodic  Silicate . 

0.684 

2.332 

Magnesic  Oxid 

.  9.052 

30.867 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.070 

0.239 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  0.070 

0.239 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.060 

0.205 

Manganic  Oxid 

.  0.060 

0.205 

Ignition . . 

4.352 

14.840 

Ignition . 

.  4.352 

14.840 

— 

Sum . 

99.693 

339.945 

Sum . 

. 101.456  345.965 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .... 

0.337 

1.149 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin  1.423 

4.852 

• 

— 

Total . 

100.030  341.094 

Total . . . 

. 100.033  341.113 

Total  solids  4.7711  parts  per  thousand,  or  341.0  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


§  67.  What  has  just  been  said  is  true  of  the  water  of  all  of  the 
wells  throughout  the  three  seasons  during  which  we  had  them 
under  observation. 

§  68.  The  salts  present,  that  is  constituting  the  total  solids,  in 
the  waters  are  calcic,  magnesic,  and  sodic  sulfates  with  sodic  car¬ 
bonate  and  chlorid. 

§  69.  In  the  analyses  already  given,  and  in  those  to  follow,  I 
have  combined  the  acids  and  basis  in  the  order  adopted  in  Bulletin 
65,  believing  that  this  order  represents  as  nearly  as  any  other 
which  might  have  been  adopted,  the  salts  which  actually  exist  in 
the  solution.  It  is  certainly  not  always  correct,  but  it  gives  us  an 
easy  and  uniform  method  of  statement.  That  it  is  not  correct  in 
every  case  is  clear,  for  the  sodic  carbonate  appears  in  the  analysis 
as  the  normal  salt,  which  when  present  in  the  quantities  shown 
by  the  analyses,  ought  to  react  with  phenolphthalein,  but  it  does 
not,  and  is  probably  present  wholly  as  the  acid  carbonate  or  bicar¬ 
bonate.  The  total  carbonic  acid  in  the  waters  as  they  were  taken 
from  the  wells  was  not  determined,  still  there  is  no  doubt  but  that 


The  Ground  Water. 


23' 


the  sodic  carbonate  existed  essentially  if  not  wholly  as  a  bicarbon¬ 
ate.  Again  the  calcic  sulphate  appears  in  the  analysis  without  any 
water  of  cr3Tstallization,  but  it  is  in  no  way  intended  to  state  that 
calcic  sulphate  was  actually  present  as  anhydrite.  I  do  not  think  it 
possible  to  tell  just  how  these  groups  were  arranged  in  the  solution, 
how  many  of  them  were  free  and  how  many  of  them  combined, 
but  I  simply  present  the  probable  combinations  as  an  easy  and  con¬ 
venient  way  of  expressing  our  results.  The  statement  of  the  analy¬ 
sis  is  so  full  that  further  explanation  is  unnecessary.] 

[  IS  70.  I  find  it  a  common  thing,  almost  a  rule,  that  the 
analyses  show  a  slight  excess  of  sodic  oxid,  sometimes,  however,  the 
excess  is  silicic  acid.  I  have  also  found  this  to  be  a  common  re¬ 
sult  in  the  analysis  of  alkali  incrustations.  I  attributed  this  excess 
to  the  probable  presence  of  organic  acids.  Examinations  for  vola¬ 
tile  organic  acids  did  not  justify  the  assumption  of  the  excess  being 
due  to  their  presence,  for  I  found  them  present  in  very  minute 
quantities.  The  excess  of  sodic  oxid  is  usually  higher  when  the 
loss  on  ignition  is  high,  than  it  is  when  this  loss  is  low.  The  ex¬ 
cess  is  often  very  insignificant  and  within  the  limits  of  analytical 
errors. 

§  71.  For  the  purpose  of  presenting  the  general  composition 
of  the  well  waters  I  will  give  analyses  of  samples  taken  in  the 
month  of  July,  1897  and  1898,  because  I  think  that  the  samples  of 
this  month  show  less  uniformity  than  those  of  any  other  in  which 
regular  samples  were  taken.  The  following  are  all  of  the  samples 
taken  from  these  wTells  during  this  month,  except  some  taken  imme¬ 
diately  after  irrigation. 


TABLE  IV.— 

ANALYSIS 

OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  A,  JULY  5, 

1897. 

A  nalytical 

Per 

LrVS. 

Imp. 

Per 

(j VS' 

I  mp * 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal • 

Silicic  Acid  . . . . 

.  0.474 

1.223 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

36.500 

94,207 

Sulfuric  Acid  . . 

.  48.853  126.090 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

28.795 

74.320 

Carbonic  Acid . . 

.  1.997 

5.154 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.594 

1.533 

Chlorin . 

.  5.598 

14.448 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

13.995 

36.121 

Sodic  Oxid.  . .  . 

.  14.373 

37.097 

Sodic  Cklorid . 

9.233 

23.830 

Potassic  Oxid . . 

. .*  0.321 

0.829 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

4.815 

12.428 

Calcic  Oxid  . .  . . 

.  14.999 

38.712 

Sodic  Silicate . 

0.963 

2.486 

Magnesic  Oxid. 

.  9.596 

24.767 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.177 

0.457 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  0.177 

0.457 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.143 

0.369 

Manganic  Oxid . 

.  0.143 

0.369 

Ignition . 

4.410 

11.382 

Ignition . 

.  4.410 

11.382 

Sum . 

99.625 

257.133 

Sum  .  . .  . 

. 100.941  260.528 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid . .  . 

0.054 

0.139 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin  1.261 

3.255 

Total . 

99.679 

257.272 

Total . 

.  99.680  257.273 

Total  solids  3.6871  parts  per  thousand,  or  258.1  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
Sample  taken  six  days  after  irrigation. 


24 


Bulletin  72. 


\ 


TABLE  V.- ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  A,  JULY  25,  1898. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

■Silicic  Acid . 

0.547 

1.456 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

37.366 

99.468 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

45.209 

120.346 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

25.568 

68.061 

Carbonic  Acid . 

2.140 

5.696 

Potassic  Sulfate ...... 

0.106 

0.281 

Chlorin  . 

6.475 

17.235 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

10.903 

29.025 

Sodic  Oxid . 

14.114 

37.572 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

10.681 

28.433 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.057 

0.152 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

5.155 

13.721 

Calcic  Oxid . 

15.397 

40.988 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.111 

2.958 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

8.515 

22.668 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.091 

0.243 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.091 

0.243 

Manganic  Oxid .  . . .  . : 

0.037 

0.099 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.037 

0.099 

Ignition  .  ....*.. 

8.621 

22.948 

Ignition  . 

8.621 

22.948 

Sum . 

99  639  265.237 

Sum . 

101.203  269.403 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid  ... 

0.101 

0.268 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

1.459 

3.884 

Total . 

99.740  265.505 

Total . 

99.744  265.519 

Total  solids  8.b028  parts  per  thousand,  or  2ith2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


TABLE  VI.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  B,  JULY  5,  1897. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid .... 

.  0.646 

1.406 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

34  359 

74.765 

Sulfuric  Acid . . 

. 46.912 

102.081 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

24.903 

54.189 

Carbonic  Acid . . 

.  2 166 

4.713 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.982 

2.137 

Chlorin . 

.  5.795 

12.610 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

17.149 

37.316 

Sodic  Oxid  .... 

.  16.679 

36  294 

Sodic  Chlorid _ _ 

9.558 

20.798 

Potassic  Oxid  . . 

.  0.531 

1.155 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

5.223 

11.365 

Calcic  Oxid .... 

. 14.158 

30.808 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.312 

2.855 

Magnesic  Oxid 

.  8.299 

18.059 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.141 

0.307 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  0.141 

0.307 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.070 

0.152 

Manganic  Oxid . 

.  0.070 

0.152 

Ignition . 

5.909 

12.858 

Ignition . 

.  5.909 

12  858 

Sum . 

99.606  216.742 

Sum . 

. 101 .306 

220.443 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid ... 

0.394 

0.856 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin  1.306 

2.842 

Total . 

100.000  217.598 

Total  . . . 

. 100.000  217.601 

Total  solids  3.1085  parts  per  thousand,  or  217.6  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
Sample  taken  six  days  after  irrigation. 


TABLE  VII. -ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  B,  JULY  25,  1898. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid . 

0.619 

1.750 

Calcic  Sulfate . . 

34.339 

97.076 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

45  837 

129.581 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

23  141 

05.420 

Carbonic  Acid . 

2  561 

7.240 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.186 

0.526 

Chlorin . 

6  413 

18.129 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

17.988 

50.852 

Sodic  Oxid . 

17.849 

50.459 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

10.583 

29.918 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.101 

0.286 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

6.175 

17.457 

Calcic  Oxid . 

14.146 

39.981 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.258 

3.556 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

7.712 

21.802 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.030 

0.085 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.030 

0.085 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.030 

0.085 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.030 

0.085 

Ignition . 

6.117 

17.293 

Ignition . 

6.117 

17.293 

Sum . 

99.847 

282.268 

Sum . 

101.415  286.691 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid ... . 

0.121 

0.342 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

1.445 

4.085 

Total . 

99.968 

282.610 

Total . 

99  970  282.606 

Total  solids  4.0385  parts  per  thousand,  or  282.7  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


The  Ground  Water. 


25 


TABLE  VIII.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  C,  JULY  5,  1897. 


Grs. 

| 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

■Silicic  Acid . 

0.408 

0.816 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

40.901 

81.802 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

50.288 

100.576 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

22.874 

45.748 

Carbonic  Acid . 

2.550 

5.100 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.631 

1.262 

Chlorin . 

3.294 

6.588 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

19.003 

38 .006 

Sodic  Oxid . 

15.651 

31.302 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

5.433 

10.866 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.341 

0.682 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

6.149 

12.298 

Calcic  Oxid _ • . 

16.854 

33.708 

Sodic  Silicate ........ 

0.829 

1.658 

Magnesia  Oxid . 

7.623 

15  246 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.260 

0.520 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxid? 

0.260 

0  520 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.137 

0.274 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.137 

0.274 

Ignition . 

7.322 

Ignition . 

3.661 

7.322 

Sum . 

99  878 

199.756 

Sum . 

101.067 

202.134 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .... 

0.447 

0.894 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

0.741 

1.482 

Total . 

100.325  200.650 

Total . 

100.326  200.652 

Total  solids  2.5714  parts  per  thousand,  or  200.0  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

Sample  taken  six  days  after  irrigation. 

TABLE  IX.— ANALYSIS 

OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  C,  JULY  25, 

1898. 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ .* . 

0.6"9 

1.121 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

30.752 

56.615 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

46.151 

84.965 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

24.622 

45.329 

Carbonic  Acid . 

3.911 

7  201 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.029 

0.053 

Chlorin . 

4.770 

8.781 

Sodic  -ulfate . 

20.666 

38.047 

S®dic  Oxid . 

19.651 

36.177 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

7.869 

14.486 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.015 

0.028 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

9.423 

17.348 

Calcic  Oxid . 

12.672 

23.329 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.237 

2.278 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

8.200 

15.097 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.045 

0.082 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.045 

0.082 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.040 

0.073 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.040 

0.073 

Ignition . 

4.938 

u.090 

Ignition . 

.  4.938 

9.090 

Sum . 

99.621 

183.401 

Sum . 

101  002 

185.944 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .... 

0.304 

0.560 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

1.075 

1.979 

Total . 

99.925 

183.961 

Total . 

99.927 

183.965 

Total  solids  2.6300  parts  per  thousand,  or 

184.1  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

TABLE  X.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  D,  JULY  5, 

1897. 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

I  mp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicate  Acid . 

0.639 

1.040 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

35.477 

57.712 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

45  490 

74  012 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

19.057 

31.006 

Carbonic  Acid . 

2.351 

3.825 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.353 

0.574 

Chlorin . 

5.765 

9380 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

20.893 

.33.993 

Sodic  Oxid . 

18.578 

30.226 

Sodic  Chlorid  . 

9.509 

15.171 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.191 

0.311 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

5  669 

9.223 

Calcic  Oxid . 

14.619 

23.785 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.298 

2.112 

Magnesic  Oxid. . . 

6.351 

10.333 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.639 

1.040 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.639 

1.040 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.067 

0.109 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.067 

0.109 

Ignition . 

6579 

10.704 

Ignition . 

6.579 

10.704 

Sum . 

99  541 

161.9.3 

Sum . 

101.269 

164  765 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .... 

0.429 

0  698 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

1.299 

2.113 

Total . 

99.970  162.651 

Total . 

99.970  162.652 

Totol  solids  2.3242  parts  per  thousand,  or  162.7  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
Sample  taken  six  days  after  irrigation. 


26 


Bulletin  72. 


TABLE  XI.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  D,  JULY  19,  1897. 


Grs. 

. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

I  mp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid . 

0.539 

1.103 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

36.851 

75.435 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

45.095 

92.309 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

20.789 

42.555 

Carbonic  Acid . 

2.695 

5.517 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.638 

1.306 

Chlorin . 

6.271 

12.837 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

16.472 

33.718 

Sodic  Oxid . 

17.089 

34.981 

Sodic  Chlorid . . 

10.343 

21.172 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.345 

0.706 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

6.498 

13.301 

Calcic  Oxid . 

15  185 

31.084 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.095 

2.241 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

6.928 

14.182 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.207 

0.424 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.207 

0.424 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.061 

0.125 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.061 

0.125 

Ignition . 

6490 

13.285 

Ignition . 

6.490 

13  285 

Sum . 

99  444  203.562 

Sum . 

100.995  206.553 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid.  . . . 

0.047 

0.096 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

1.413 

2  892 

Total . . . 

99.491 

203658 

Total . 

99.492  203.661 

* 

Total  solids  2.9242  parts  per  thousand,  or  201.7  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

TABLE  XII.— ANALYSIS 

OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  D,  JULY  25,  1898. 

Gi'S. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid . 

0.520 

1.203 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

35.466 

82.033 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

46.633 

107.862 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

23.883 

55.241 

Carbonic  Acid . 

3.217 

7.441 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

0.178 

0.412 

Chlorin . 

3.067 

7.094 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

17.353 

40.137 

Sodic  Oxid . 

15.448 

35.731 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

5.059 

11.701 

Potassic  Oxid . 

0.096 

0.222 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

7.757 

17.942 

Calcic  Oxid . 

14.610 

33.793 

Sodic  Silicate . 

1.056 

2.443 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

7.959 

18.40!) 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.087 

0.201 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.087 

0.201 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.087 

0.201 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.087 

0.201 

Ignition . 

8.821 

20.404 

Ignition . 

8.821 

20.404 

Sum  . .  . 

99.747 

230.715 

Sum . 

100.545 

232.561 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .... 

0.107 

0.248 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin 

0.691 

1.598 

Total . 

99.854  230.963 

Total .  99.854  230.963 

Total  solids  3.30429  parts  per  thousand,  or  231.3  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

§  72.  These  analyses  present  the  highest  limit  of  the  sul¬ 
fates  not  only  for  this  month  but  for  the  whole  time  that  the  plot 
was  under  observation.  The  sample  from  well  C,  taken  July  5, 
1897,  six  days  after  irrigation,  shows  the  presence  of  50.29  per  cent, 
sulfuric  acid,  S03 ,  which  is  nearly  1.5  per  cent,  higher  than  the 
next  highest  one  given  and  is  the  highest,  with  one  exception,  in  the 
whole  series  representing  the  three  seasons’  work.  That  the  aver¬ 
age  percentage  of  sulfuric  acid  for  all  of  the  analyses  made  of  these 
well  waters  is  lower  than  that  shown  by  these  for  the  month  of 
July  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  there  are  only  8  in  the  105 
analyses  made  showing  48  per  cent,  or  more  of  this  constituent. 

§  73.  The  analyses  given  show  almost  as  great  a  range  in  the 
quantity  of  chlorids  present  as  the  whole  number  of  samples  taken. 
There  are  only  a  few  exceptional  samples  which  show  either  higher 
or  lower  figures  for  the  chlorids  than  those  given. 


The  Ground  Water. 


27 

§  74.  These  samples  also  serve  to  represent  the  general  com¬ 
position  of  the  total  solids  present  in  this  class  of  ground  waters. 
As  a  matter  of  course  it  is  not  intended  that  one  shall  infer  from 
this  statement  that  the  alkaline  ground  waters  occurring  in  different 
parts  of  the  state  are  so  rich  in  total  solids  or  that  the  different  salts 
are  present  in  the  same  proportions,  but  that  the  ground  waters  in 
alkalied  sections  are  of  this  general  type.  I  have  not  yet  found  any 
ground  water  materially  richer  in  sodic  chloride  (common  salt)  or 
sodic  carbonate.  It  is  true  that  some  surface  well  waters  that  have 
come  to  hand  for  analysis,  have  shown  relatively  much  larger 
amounts  of  carbonates,  while  the  total  solids  were  materially  less  in 
quantity.  These  waters  were  from  wells  sunk  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  potable  water,  or  water  for  use  in  boilers,  and  I  assume 
that  the  samples  represented  the  best  procurable  quality  of  such 
waters. 


§  75.  The  following  analysis  of  a  water  struck  at  a  depth  of 
28  feet  and  occurring  in  a  two-foot  stratum  of  sand,  will  serve  for 
comparison  with  the  analyses  of  ground  waters  already  given. 
This  sample  of  water  was  sent  to  us  from  Rockyford,  in  the 
Arkansas  Valley : 


TABLE  XIII.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  ROCKYFORD,  JULY  26, 1900. 


Grs. 

Analytical  Per  Imp. 

Results.  Cent.  Gal. 

Silicic  Acid .  0.141  0.880 

Sulfuric  Acid .  45.136  281.603 

Carbonic  Acid .  3.989  24.887 

Chlorin .  3.772  23.533 

Sodic  Oxid. .  22.277  138.986 

Potassic  Oxid .  Trace  Trace 

Calcic  Oxid .  6.264  39.081 

Magnesic  Oxid .  9.684  60.418 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.010  0.062 

Manganic  Oxid .  0.040  0.250 

Ignition .  9.233  57.605 

Sum . 100.546  627.307 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin  0.850  5.303 

Total .  99.696  622.004 


Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

15.206 

94.870 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

29.059 

181.299 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

Trace 

Trace 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

29.865  186.328 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

6.224 

38.832 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

9.619 

60.013 

Sodic  Silicate . 

0.286 

1.784 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.010 

0.062 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.040 

0.250 

Ignition . 

9.233 

57.605 

Sum . 

99.542 

621.043 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .... 

0.152 

0.948 

Total . 

99.694  621.991 

Total  solids  8.9129  parts  per  thousand,  or  623.9  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


§  76.  A  sample  of  ground  water  from  this  locality,  Rocky¬ 
ford,  taken  under  my  own  directions,  but  at  a  depth  of  12  feet, 
differed  from  the  above  in  the  relative  amounts  of  calcic  and  mag¬ 
nesic  sulfates,  but  the  quantities  of  sodic  sulfate  and  chlorid  were 
nearly  the  same. 

§  77.  There  is,  as  I  have  previously  intimated,  probably  a 
difference  between  samples  taken  as  soon  as  the  water  plane  has 
been  entered  and  after  the  well  has  been  emptied  several  times  by 
continued  pumping  or  bailing;  there  is,  besides,  in  shallow  wells 


28 


Bulletin  72. 


at  least,  a  difference  due  to  the  conditions  which  prevailed  immedi¬ 
ately  prior  to  the  time  of  taking  the  sample. 

§  78.  Outside  of  these  general  features  but  little  is  shown  by 
the  composition  of  the  ground  waters  as  collected  in  the  wells.  The 
changes  observed  are  not  so  great  as  were  looked  for,  and  when  the 
variations  due  to  changes  in  conditions  immediately  before  the 
taking  of  the  samples  have  been  allowed  for,  the  uniformity 
throughout  the  period  of  observation,  a  period  of  nearly  three  years, 
leaves  but  little  doubt  of  the  correctness  of  the  conclusion  that, 
while  the  total  solids  may  vary  in  their  quantity  and  in  composi¬ 
tion,  too,  within  narrow  limits,  they  remain  in  all  essential  respects 
the  same. 

THE  GROUND  WATERS  DIFFERENT  FROM  ALKALIES - ALSO  FROM  THE 

DRAIN  WATERS. 

§  79.  The  total  solids,  obtained  by  evaporating  the  ground 
waters,  represent  a  different  mixture  of  salts  than  that  which  is 
obtained  by  continued  treatment  of  the  soil  with  frequently  renewed 
portions  of  distilled  water,  until  it  is  so  thoroughly  exhausted  that 
no  sulfuric  acid  can  be  found  in  the  solution  after  standing  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  soil  for  not  less  than  12  hours.  Attention  was  called 
to  this  fact  in  Bulletin  65,  where  some  analyses  of  the  water-soluble 
portions  of  this  soil  are  given,  together  with  their  most  characteristic 
features. 

§  80.  In  the  following  comparison  we  shall  not  make  any 
attempt  to  assign  causes  for  the  differences  which  are  undoubtedly 
to  be  found  in  the  complex  reactions  taking  place  between  the 
different  salts  or  their  ions  within  the  mass  of  the  soil,  and  also  to 
the  formation  of  salts  de  novo,  due  to  the  action  of  water  as  such, 
and  of  solutions  upon  the  rock  particles  in  the  soil.  In  Bulletin  65 
the  suggested  explanation  was  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  latter 
phase  of  the  question  because  it  is  the  simplest  feature  of  it  and 
conveys  a  sufficiently  extensive  view  of  the  subject  without  intro¬ 
ducing  any  of  the  more  difficult  questions  involved  in  the  theory  of 
solutions.  For  a  fuller  and  sufficient  explanation  of  the  facts 
recourse  must  be  had  to  this  branch  of  the  subject,  but  I  shall  con¬ 
tent  myself  with  as  clear  a  statement  of  the  facts  as  I  may  be  able 
to  make. 

§  81.  The  samples  which  I  have  chosen  are  a  sample  of  water 
from  well  C,  the  water  soluble  portions  from  two  samples  of  soil  C 
and  a  representative  alkali  incrustation.  The  designation  well  C 
and  soil  C  is  equivalent  to  stating  that  the  sample  of  soil  was  taken 
as  near  to  well  C  as  we  deemed  advisable,  which  in  this  case  was 
within  11  feet. 


The  Ground  Water. 


29 


§  82.  It  is  difficult  to  present  this  subject  without  reproducing 
all  of  the  analyses  representing  the  different  sections  of  the  plot,  for 
they  differ  so  much  in  character  that  one  is  not  really  representative 
ot  the  plot.  The  suggested  difficulties  are  still  greater  than  the 
simple  lack  of  representativeness,  for  it  suggests  that  the  chemical 
reactions  taking  place  within  very  limited  areas  of  soil  may  be  but 
partially  or  not  at  all  comparable.  This  difference  is  made 
strikingly  evident  by  the  difference  in  the  salts  present  in  the  water- 
soluble  portions  of  the  first  and  second  two  inches  of  these  soils. 
Whether  I  have  adopted  the  proper  order  of  combination  or  not 
does  not  matter.  I  have  adopted  the  same  method  of  interpretation 
in  all  cases,  which  in  itself  may  be  an  error,  still  it  brings  out  sev¬ 
eral  important  and  scarcely  questionable  differences. 

§  83.  I  shall  select  section  C  for  my  present  purpose,  because 
it  is  less  favorable  to  my  presentation  of  this  subject  than  B  or  D, 
and  rather  more  favorable  than  section  A.  The  reader  who  wishes 
to  compare  the  results  obtained  for  the  other  sections  can  find  the 
analyses  of  the  water-soluble  portions  of  the  soil  in  Bulletin  65, 
pages  36,  37  and  38. 

§  84.  The  samples  of  soil  were  taken,  one  in  May  and  the 
other  in  June.  The  sample  of  water  was  taken  in  June.  It  would 
have  been  better  for  the  present  purpose  had  they  been  taken  at  the 
same  time  as  well  as  from  the  same  place,  but  I  have  chosen  these 
from  the  samples  taken,  as  being  the  nearest  together  in  the  point  of 
time  of  collecting. 

§  85.  The  alkali  which  I  use  in  this  case  was  also  collected  in 
June,  but  nearer  to  well  A  than  to  well  C.  This,  however,  does  not 
detract  from  its  value  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  for  other  sam¬ 
ples  show  that  the  differences  in  the  alkali  incrustations  of  this  plot 
do  not  lie  in  the  salts  of  which  they  are  composed,  but  in  their 
relative  quantities.  I  have  a  sample  taken  nearer  to  well  C,  but  it 
was  taken  in  January  during  freezing  weather,  which,  owing  to  the 
deportment  of  sodic  sulfate  at  low  temperatures,  might  make  it  less 
comparable  than  the  one  chosen. 

The  arrangement  of  the  analyses  is  evident. 


30 


Bulletin  72. 


TABLE  XIV.— ANALYSIS  OF  ALKALI,  INCRUSTATION. 


Analytical  Per 

Results.  Cent. 

Silicic  Acid .  0.491 

Sulfuric  Acid .  52.403 

Carbonic  Acid .  0.730 

Chlorin .  2.004 

Sodic  Oxid .  26.797 

Potassic  Oxid .  0.048 

Calcic  Oxid . '. .  3.050 

Magnesic  Oxid .  8.951 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids .  0.030 

Manganic  Oxid .  0129 

Ignition .  5  384 


Sum . 100.017 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Chlorin .  0.451 


Total .  99.566 


.  Per 


Combined.  Cent. 

Calcic  Sulfate .  7.404 

Magnesic  Sulfate .  26.859 

Potassic  Sulfate .  0.088 

Sodic  Sulfate . .* .  53.450 

Sodic  Chlorid .  3.307 

Sodic  Carbonate .  1,760 

Sodic  Silicate .  0.997 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids .  0.030 

Manganic  Oxid .  0.129 

Ignition .  5.384 


Sum .  99  408 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .  0.157 


Total .  99.565 


TA  BLE  XV.— ANAL YSIS  WATER-SOLUBLE,  SOIL  C,  FIRST  TWO  INCHES. 


Analytical 

Per 

Per 

Results. 

Cent. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Silicic  Acid . 

1.084 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

.  43.260 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

48.826 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

.  24  260 

Phosphoric  Acid . 

None 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

.  2.475 

Carbonic  Acid . 

0  385 

Sodic  Sulfate . 

.  10.789 

Chlorin . 

4.321 

Sodic  Chlorid . 

.  7.128 

Potassic  Oxid . 

1338 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

.  0  928 

Sodic  Oxid . 

10.190 

Sodic  Silicate . 

.  2  202 

Calcic  Oxid . 

17  826 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids.  . 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

8.080 

Manganic  Oxid . 

.  0342 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids . 

Ignition . 

.  8.281 

Manganic  Oxid . . 

0  342 

Sum . 

.  99.665 

Ignition . 

8.281 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid . 

.  0.031 

Sum . 

100.673 

Total . 

.  99.696 

Oxygen  Equivalent  to  Chlorin 

0  973 

Total . 

99.700 

The  percentage  of  water-soluble  equalled  2.0541. 


TABLE  XVI.— ANALYSIS  WATER-SOL.,  SOILC,  SECOND  TWO  INCHES. 


Analytical 

Per 

Per 

Residts. 

Cent. 

Combined 

Cent. 

Silicic  Acid . 

9.095 

Calcic  Sulfate . 

.  50.917 

Sulfuric  Acid . 

34.832 

Magnesic  Sulfate . 

.  3.197 

Phosphoric  Acid . 

0.522 

Potassic  Sulfate . 

.  6.016 

Carbonic  Acid . 

5.558 

Magnesic  Phosphate.  . . . 

....  0.963 

Chlorin .  . 

2.663 

Magnesic  Chlorid ....... 

.  3.565 

Potassic  Oxid . 

3.252 

Magnesic  Carbonate .... 

.  8.646 

Sodic  Oxid . 

8.778 

Sodic  Carbonate . 

.  2.490 

Calcic  Oxid . 

20.981 

Sodic  Silicate . 

. . . .  14.418 

Magnesic  Oxid . 

7.131 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids.  . 

.  0.898 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids . 

0.878 

Manganic  Oxid . 

.  0.245 

Manganic  Oxid . 

0.245 

Ignition . 

.  6.996 

Ignition . 

6.996 

Sum . 

.  98.351 

Sum . 

100.951 

Excess  of  Silicic  Acid. .  . 

....  1.998 

Oxygen  Equivalent  to  Chlorin 

0.600 

Total . 

. 100.349 

Total . 

100.351 

, 

The  percentage  of  water-soluble  equalled  0.813. 


The  Ground  Water. 


31 


TABLE  XVII.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  WELL  C,  JUNE  13,  1898. 


Analytical  Pei * 

Results.  Cent. 

Silicic  Acid .  0  656 

Sulfuric  Acid .  44.875 

Carbonic  Acid .  3  517 

Chlorin .  5.144 

Sodic  Oxid .  18.108 

Potassic  Oxid .  0.058 

Calcic  Oxid .  14.445 

Magnesic  Oxid. .  7.167 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids .  0.026 

Manganic  Oxid .  0.041 

Ignition .  6.911 


Sum . 100.948 

Oxygen  Equivalent  to  Chlorin  1 159 


Total .  99.789 


Per 

Combined.  Cent. 

Calcic  Sulfate .  35.054 

Magnesic  Sulfate .  21  520 

Potassic  Sulfate .  .  0107 

Sodic  Sulfate .  17.517 

Sodic  Chlorid  .  8.487 

Sodic  Carbonate .  8.474 

Sodic  Silicate _ : .  1.333 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids .  0.026 

Manganic  Oxid .  0.041 

Ignition .  6.911 


Sum .  99.470 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid .  0.316 


Total .  99.786 


§  86.  The  alkali  or  incrustation  which  collected  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil  is  essentially  a  mixture  of  sodic  and  magnesic  sulfates  in 
the  ratio  of  two  to  one.  These  two  salts  make  up  80  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  mass.  Calcic  sulfate  is  subordinate  in  quantity,  with 
sodic  chlorid  and  carbonate  still  more  so. 

§  87.  In  the  first  two  inches  of  the  soil  we  find  that  the 
soluble  salts  consist  largely  of  calcic,  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates, 
which  together  form  78.3  per  cent,  of  them,  with  the  calcic  sulfate 
predominant.  In  the  second  two  inches  the  calcic  sulfate  consti¬ 
tutes  almost  51  per  cent,  of  the  water-soluble  portion  of  the  soil,  with 
magnesic  sulfate  subordinate  and  sodic  sulfate  absent.  On  the 
other  hand,  sodic  silicate,  which  is  very  subordinate  in  the  alkali 
and  ground  water,  is  here  next  in  quantity  to  the  calcic  sulfate,  and 
the  potassic  sulfate,  which  is  present  in  scarcely  more  than  traces  in 
the  alkali  given,  makes  about  1-16  of  the  water-soluble  portion  of 
the  second  two  inches  of  the  soil.  The  potassic  salts  in  the  alkali 
incrustations  which  I  have  examined  and  which  were  formed  as 
efflorescences,  are  sometimes  higher  than  in  the  one  given,  amount¬ 
ing  in  some  cases  to  about  1  per  cent.  In  an  alkali  from  South 
Park,  Colo.,  the  potassic  salts  were  a  little  over  8  per  cent.,  but  the 
conditions  are  wholly  different  from  those  prevailing  in  our  plot. 

§  88.  The  variety  of  salts  in  the  water-soluble  portion  of  the 
soils  seems  to  be  greater  and  the  relative  quantities  of  the  subordi¬ 
nate  ones  are  much  more  nearly  equal  than  in  the  alkali  or  the 
water.  Reference  to  the  analyses  of  the  other  water-soluble  portions 
of  the  soils  will  show  a  tendency  in  this  direction  in  the  first  two, 
but  it  is  more  marked  in  the  second  two  inches  of  soil.  In  no  case 
do  we  have  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  the  more  soluble  sodic  and 
magnesic  sulfates  in  the  second  two  inches  of  soil,  while  that  of  the 
less  soluble  calcic  sulfate  is  quite  marked. 


32 


Bulletin  72. 


§  89.  The  analyses  of  the  waters  from  the  wells  agree  with 
the  one  given  in  showing  that  the  total  solids  in  the  ground  water 
contain  more  calcic  sulfate  than  the  incrustations,  but  much  less- 
than  the  water-soluble  portions  of  the  soils,  whether  it  is  of  the  first 
or  second  two  inches.  The  results  of  the  analyses  of  other  samples 
also  agree  relative  to  the  magnesic  sulfate,  viz.:  that  there  is  almost 
as  much  in  the  water  residues  as  there  is  in  the  incrustation  or  in 
the  first  two  inches  of  the  soil  C,  and  more  than  in  any  of  the  other 
seven  water-soluble  portions  examined. 

§  90.  The  most  marked  difference  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the 
sodic  sulfate,  which  makes  up  53  per  cent,  of  the  alkali  incrusta¬ 
tion,  17  per  cent,  of  the  solids  dissolved  in  the  ground  water,  10 
per  cent,  of  the  water-soluble  in  the  first  two  inches  of  the  soil,  and 
is  absent  in  the  second  two  inches.  The  analyses  given  above  do 
not  stand  alone  in  indicating  this  difference,  but  many  analyses,  all 
that  we  have  made  of  the  ground  waters  and  three  other  soil  sam¬ 
ples,  indicate  this  to  be  a  fact.  Sodic  sulfate  is  always  a  constituent 
of  the  total  solids  in  the  ground  waters,  varying  in  quantity  from 
less  than  5  per  cent,  to  23  per  cent.  I  may  state  here,  as  an  un¬ 
looked-for  result,  that  this  salt  almost  disappears  from  the  drain 
water  coming  from  this  area. 

§  91.  The  appearance  of  these  two  salts,  sodic  and  magnesic 
sulfates,  in  the  incrustations,  seems  very  reasonable  if  the  sugges¬ 
tion  made  in  Bulletin  65,  that  the  incrustation  is  formed  by  an 
approximate  separation  of  these  efflorescent  salts  from  the  more 
permanent  ones,  especially  calcic  sulfate,  at  the  contact  of  the  water 
surface  with  the  air,  is  correct.  The  suggestion  of  the  formation  of 
a  double  magnesic  sodic  sulfate  lies  near  at  hand  in  this  case,  but 
whatever  the  case  may  be,  we  are  not  justified  by  the  ratio  of  the 
magnesic  salt  to  the  sodic  salt  in  assuming  its  formation ;  besides 
there  is  no  urgent  need  of  it,  as  the  deportment  of  these  two  sulfates- 
toward  the  air  surface  is  sufficiently  different  from  that  of  calcic 
sulfate  to  permit  of  the  separation  as  observed.  The  formation  of 
these  incrustations  is  very  different  from  the  simple  evaporation  of 
a  solution  of  different  salts  to  dryness,  for  these  efflorescent  salts  are 
removed  from  the  solution  and  its  former  status  is  changed. 

§  92.  Why  the  sodic  sulfate  forms  so  small  a  percentage  of 
the  water-soluble  portion  of  the  soil  is  not  easily  explained.  That 
it  should  sometimes  be  found  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  soil  in 
large  quantities  is  to  be  expected,  even  if  as  a  rule  it  were  present 
in  small  quantities  only  or  entirely  absent,  for  the  tendency  is  to  a 
separation  of  it  on  the  surface,  whence  it  may  be  carried  back  into- 
the  soil  by  rain  or  abundant  atmospheric  moisture,  being  retained 
within  the  surface  layers  ©f  the  soil  in  which  it  may  form  a  large 
percentage  of  the  water-soluble  portion.  We  have  one  instance  in 


The  Ground  Water. 


33 


which  it  forms  27  per  cent,  of  it.  But,  remembering  that  this  sul¬ 
fate  does  not  pass  into  the  drain  waters,  while  it  usually  exceeds  10 
per  cent.,  often  rises  above  17  and  sometimes  reaches  23  per  cent,  of 
the  salts  in  the  ground  water,  it  seems  strange  that  the  water- 
soluble  portion  of  the  soil  should  so  frequently  give  good  reason  for 
supposing  it  to  be  absent.  I  do  not  know  any  facts  nor  have  I  seen 
any  statement  of  established  or  probable  changes  which  will  account 
for  these  facts  as  observed. 

§  93.  The  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates  are  both  present  in  the 
ground  water,  or  their  ions  are,  and  constitute  the  efflorescent  salts 
passing  out  of  solution  at  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  where  the  surface 
of  the  solution  comes  in  contact  with  the  air.  Evaporation  is  pro¬ 
ceeding  at  this  surface  and  the  capillary  movement  of  the  ground 
water  is  rapid  and  free,  for  when  the  condition  of  the  soil  is  such 
that  we  can  sufficiently  impede  the  capillary  rise  of  the  water,  we 
prevent  the  formation  of  such  incrustations.  The  result  may  be 
roughly  presented  as  the  movement  of  a  free  solution  through  the 
interstices  of  particles  which  are  themselves  not  free  to  move,  but 
capable  of  being  modified  in  regard  to  their  composition  either  by 
exchange  or  by  attracting  to  themselves  and  retaining  other  salts. 
These  processes  may  be  subject  to  the  greatest  variety  of  modifica¬ 
tions,  so  that  they  are  not  exclusive  or  constant,  and  seldom  per¬ 
fected,  but  vary  from  point  to  point  within  the  soil. 

§  94.  It  has  been,  accepted  for  a  long  time  that  soils  as  a  rule 
have  a  high  power  of  retaining  potassic  salts  and  but  a  very  feeble 
one  of  retaining  soda  salts.  If  this  were  wholly  correct,  we  should 
expect  to  find  the  drain  waters  from  such  areas  as  the  one  forming 
the  subject  of  this  study  loaded  with  soda  salts,  at  least  to  the  same 
extent,  if  not  to  a  much  greater  one,  than  the  ground  waters.  But 
we  do  not  find  this  to  be  the  case,  and  the  conditions  are  such  that 
it  is  not  probable  that  the  difference  is  due  to  the  dilution  of  the 
drain  waters  from  this  area  by  water  from  other  sources. 

§  95.  Under  the  subject  of  the  total  solids  in  the  ground 
water,  I  stated  the  result  of  experiment  to  be  an  indication  that 
they  decreased  with  depth,  that  the  first  foot  of  water  after  entering 
tht  water  plane  was  richer  in  total  solids  than  the  second,  and  so 
on.  At  first  I  did  not  believe  this.  An  instance  in  point  was  well 
D,  which  on  September  20th  showed  the  presence  of  3.4071  parts 
total  solids  per  thousand.  A  temporary  well  opened  on  this  date 
40  feet  south  of  well  D,  the  surface  contour  and  the  character  of  the 
soil  being  the  same  but  the  sample  of  water  being  obtained  at  a 
greater  depth,  probably  two  feet  deeper,  showed  only  2.18713  parts 
total  solids  per  thousand.  The  residue  from  the  water  of  well  D 
showed  the  presence  of  16.87  per  cent,  of  sodic  sulfate,  while  that 
from  the  newly  opened  one  showed  14  per  cent.,  a  difference  of 


34 


Bulletin  72. 


nearly  3  per  cent,  in  this  respect.  In  this  case  we  almost  certainly 
had  an  admixture  of  water  from  points  above  that  at  which  we 
endeavored  to  collect  the  water,  for  with  our  appliances  we  could 
not  prevent  it.  The  drain  waters,  in  which  we  have  a  better  sep¬ 
aration  of  the  waters,  show  a  still  greater  difference,  both  in  the 
amount  of  the  total  solids  and  in  the  percentage  of  the  sodic  sulfate. 
We  are  justified  in  extending  our  statement  that  the  ground  water, 
in  so  far  as  it  is#a  solution  of  salts,  differs  from  the  alkalis  which 
effloresce,  from  the  solution  obtained  by  exhausting  the  soil  with 
distilled  water  as  previously  described,  and  also  from  the  drain 
water  flowing  from  under  the  area. 

LITHIA  IN  THE  GROUND  WATER. 

§  96.  Reference  has  been  made  in  a  preceding  bulletin  to  the 
failure  of  an  attempt  to  determine  the  lateral  movement  of  this 
salt  through  the  soil,  or  the  rate  and  direction  of  the  flow  of  the 
ground  water.  The  detection  of  lithia  in  the  samples  of  water  tested 
to  ascertain  with  certainty  that  my  experiment  was  actually  a 
failure,  led  me  to  test  a  considerable  number  of  samples  of  the 
ground  water  and  also  samples  of  drain  water  to  ascertain  whether 
its  presence  was  accidental  or  whether  its  occurrence  was  general 
and  constant.  The  result  was  that  its  presence  was  established 
qualitatively  in  every  sample  tested,  and  these  represented  samples 
taken  during  a  period  extending  over  more  than  two  years.  The 
quantity  present  was  as  a  matter  of  course  not  large,  but  sufficient 
to  be  readily  detected  by  the  aid  of  the  spectroscope,  and  in  some  of 
the  samples  sufficient  for  quantitative  determination  without  great 
trouble.  This  element  seems  to  be  present  in  all  of  the  water  in 
this  basin.  Its  presence  was  detected  in  the  ash  of  beets  grown 
upon  this  plot,  and  also  in  the  ash  of  their  leaves.  This  is  peculiar 
for  I  have  tested  a  number  of  ashes  of  alfalfa;  some  of  it  grown 
within  this  same  swale  and  have  never  succeeded  in  detecting  it. 

NITRATES  IN  THE  GROUND  WATER. 

§  97.  The  results  of  the  only  determinations  of  the  nitrates  in 
the  soil  are  given  in  Bulletin  65,  page  45.  The  variation  in  the 
amount  present  in  the  different  portions  of  the  plot  and  also  in  the 
first  and  second  two  inches  of  soil  is  very  considerable.  The  deter¬ 
minations  are  entirely  conclusive  that  the  conditions  obtaining  do 
not  prevent  the  formation  of  nitric  acid,  and  further,  that  its  distri¬ 
bution  in  depth  as  well  as  from  place  to  place  throughout  the  plot 
is  very  uneven.  The  minimum  quantity  of  nitric  acid  in  a  million 
parts  of  the  air  dried  soil  of  the  first  two  inches  was  32  and  the 
maximum  162;  of  the  second  two  inches  the  minimum  was  a  trace 
and  the  maximum  was  9  parts.  In  A,  the  section  of  the  plot  where 
the  conditions  were  most  unfavorable  to  cultivation,  there  was  32 


The  Ground  Water. 


35 


parts  per  million ;  in  B,  where  the  conditions  of  cultivation  were 
good,  but  where  we  had  trouble  to  obtain  a  good  stand  of  plants 
and  the  ground  water  was  generally  the  most  heavily  laden  with 
total  solids,  the  nitric  acid  was  the  highest,  reaching  162  parts  per 
million;  in  C,  a  section  which  is  ouite  wet  and  yields  incrustations, 
but  in  a  less  degree  than  A,  the  nitric  acid  falls  to  55  parts  per 
million,  but  it  again  rises  to  86  parts  per  million  in  D,  which  sec¬ 
tion  is  in  good  condition  and  whose  surface  is  always  from  3.5  to 
6  feet  above  the  water  table. 

§  98.  We  do  not  find  nitric  acid  abundant  in  any  portion  of 
the  plot  in  the  second  two  inches,  it  being  present  in  the  sample 
from  section  A  as  a  trace  only,  but  it  increases  as  the  ground  rises 
to  the  westward  until  it  reaches  a  maximum  of  9.3  parts  per  million 
in  D. 


§  99.  At  the  close  of  the  season  of  1897,  23  days  before  our 
crop  was  harvested,  the  ground  water  from  the  wells  showed  a  range 
of  total  solids  from  2561  to  3986  parts  per  million,  while  the  nitric 
acid  ranged  from  4  to  7.8  parts.  A  sample  of  water  taken  from  a 
newly  made  opening  penetrating  the  gravel  and  quite  near  to  the 
Town  Ditch,  an  irrigating  ditch,  showed  the  presence  of  2187  parts 
total  solids  and  11.34  parts  of  nitric  acid  per  million.  The  water 
plane  was  low  at  the  time  these  samples  were  taken. 

§  100.  On  the  16th  of  May,  1898,  the  level  of  the  ground 
water  was  not  especially  high,  but  the  total  solids  were  excep¬ 
tionally  so,  and  the  nitric  acid  in  the  waters  of  wells  A  and  C  was 
unprecedentedly  high,  41  and  68  parts  per  million  respectively, 
but  this  was  not  so  in  the  case  of  wells  B  and  D,  which  carried  5.0 
and  2.7  parts  respectively.  From  this  date,  May  16th,  the  nitric 
acid  fell  continuously  till  June  6th,  when  owing  to  a  rainfall  there 
was  a  change  in  the  soil  conditions,  followed  by  an  increase  of  nitric 
acid  in  wells  A  and  D  and  by  a  decrease  of  it  in  wells  B  and  C. 
From  this  time,  June  6th,  till  July  14th,  the  water  table  gradually 
fell  and  so  did  the  quantity  of  nitric  acid  present ;  the  surface  of  the 
ground  having  become  somewhat  dry  in  the  meantime.  The 
plot  received  an  irrigation  on  July  14th  and  the  samples  of 
water  taken  on  the  following  day  showed  an  increase  in  the 
amount  of  nitric  acid  present ;  but  this  increase  was  not  uniform 
in  the  different  wells.  The  water  plane  was  raised  according  to 
the  position  of  the  wells,  and  the  amount  of  water  we  were  able 
to  bring  on  the  surrounding  section,  which  varied,  as  we  had 
only  a  scanty  supply  of  water  at  our  disposal.  The  effects  of  this 
irrigation  upon  the  total  solids  held  by  the  waters  was  as  marked 
as  any  that  I  have  had  the  opportunity  of  observing.  Wells  A,  B 
and  C  rose  from  28.0000,  29.2856  and  16.1429  parts  per  thousand 
on  the  8th  to  58.8571,  44.8571,  and  58.1429  parts  per  thousand 


36 


Bulletin  72. 


on  the  11th,  while  well  D,  probably  due  to  accidental  inflow  of 
water  from  the  surface,  fell.  The  nitric  acid  rose  in  the  mean¬ 
time  by  7  parts  per  million  in  A,  13  parts  in  B,  18  parts  in  C, 
and  1  part  in  D.  The  largest  increase,  however,  was  observed  in 
a  well  sunk  in  an  adjoining  plot  which  had  been  manured  and 
which  chanced  to  receive  an  irrigation  at  this  time.  This  well 
showed  3.59  parts  of  nitric  acid  per  million  on  June  27th  and 
475.63  parts  on  July  9th.  The  water  table  was  raised,  in  this 
case,  almost  to  the  surface. 

§  101.  The  duration  of  the  effects  of  this  irrigation  upon  the 
amount  of  nitric  acid  in  the  water  was  quite  different  in  the  dif¬ 
ferent  wells.  The  greatest  increase  in  my  plot  was  shown  in  the 
case  of  well  C,  which,  throughout  the  season,  proved  to  be  the  rich¬ 
est  in  nitric  acid  of  any  of  the  four  wells  here  considered,  and  also 
of  all  the  wells  on  my  plot  of  ground.  The  water  of  this  well  car¬ 
ried  on  the  8th  of  July  2.69  parts  nitric  acid  per  million  ;  this  rose 
to  21.18  parts  just  after  the  irrigation  and  fell  to*  2.51  parts  by 
August  1st.  The  nitric  acid  in  well  B  did  not  increase  to  the  same 
extent  as  in  well  C,  but  it  fell  a  little  more  slowly,  and  on  this 
date,  August  1st,  showed  more  than  either  of  the  other  three  wells. 
The  quantities  for  all  the  wells  ranged  from  1.8  to  6.1  parts  per 
million. 

§  102.  The  rate  of  decrease  was  quite  rapid  at  first,  and  while 
it  gradually  grew  slower,  it  was  quite  abrupt  at  the  end.  The  well 
alluded  to  as  being  in  an  adjacent  plot  may  serve  as  an  illustration 
of  both  the  rapidity  of  the  rise  and  the  rate  of  decrease.  On  July 
4th,  before  irrigation,  and  with  a  low  water  level,  it  carried  only  a 
trace ;  on  the  9th,  after  irrigation,  and  with  the  water  plane  near  the 
surface,  it  carried  475.63  parts  per  million.  In  the  next  two  days 
this  fell  to  242.0  parts,  in  the  succeeding  seven  days  it  fell  to  89.74, 
in  seven  days  more  to  35.89  parts,  and  in  seven  days  more  to  what 
may  be  expressed  as  within  the  range  of  its  constant  content. 
This  well  behaved  unlike  the  others,  for  while  mine  showed  a  tem¬ 
porary  increase  in  nitric  acid  about  August  8th,  this  one  continued 
to  decrease  until  there  was  less  than  1  part  of  nitric  acid  per 
million. 

§  103.  As  a  rule  the  nitric  acid  was  lower  when  the  water 
plane  was  low,  but  there  were  variations  which  showed  no  relation 
to  either  the  height  of  the  water  level  or  to  the  amount  of  the  total 
solids  present ;  for  instance,  the  nitric  acid  in  the  water  of  well  C 
on  August  1st  was  2.5  parts  per  million,  on  the  8th  8.4  parts,  on  the 
22d  2.7  parts ;  the  total  solids  on  the  1st  were  2.0143  parts  per 
thousand,  on  the  8th  1.9143  parts,  and  on  the  22d  1.8000  parts. 
The  height  of  the  water  table  on  the  1st  was  7.75  feet,  on  the  8th 
7.67  feet,  and  on  the  22d  7.15  feet  above  the  reference  plane.  The 


The  Ground  Water. 


37 


increase  on  the  8th  was  probably  due  to  a  rainfall  which  took  place 
on  the  5th  and  6th  and  amounted  to  0.78  of  an  inch.  There  were 
also  slighter  rainfalls  on  the  1st,  2d,  16th  and  17th,  but  the  total  of 
these  amounted  to  only  .12  of  an  inch,  the  heaviest  one  was  only 
.07  of  an  inch,  too  small  an  amount  to  produce  an  observable  influ¬ 
ence.  The  comparatively  small  rainfall  of  .78  of  an  inch  seems  to 
have  been  the  cause  of  the  increase  of  the  nitric  acid  in  the  ground 
water,  for  the  increase  in  the  four  wells  was  simultaneous,  though 
quite  unequal ;  the  greatest  increase  being  6  parts  per  million,  the 
least  1  part  per  million.  The  effect  of  this  rainfall  was  not  great 
enough  to  show  in  well  E,  as  the  nitric  acid  was  falling  at  a  rapid 
rate  and  our  samples  were  not  taken  often  enough  to  show  small 
variations  in  the  rate  of  falling. 

§  104.  There  was  a  slight  change  of  the  water  table  between 
the  6th  and  the  8th,  amounting  to  a  few  hundredths,  the  greatest 
being  0.08  of  a  foot.  The  actual  distance  of  the  water  table  below 
the  surface  at  this  time  was  from  3.0  to  5.2  feet.  Under  these 
conditions  there  can  scarcely  be  a  thought  of  the  nitric  acid, 
nitrates,  having  been  added  to  the  ground  waters  by  its  direct  wash¬ 
ing  downward  through  the  soil.  The  wells  in  which  the  water  was 
the  deepest  below  the  surface  showed  the  greatest  increase.  This 
is  what  we  would  expect  if  the  rain  water  simply  flowed  through 
the  soil,  carrying  the  nitric  acid  or  its  equivalent  nitrates  down  with 
it.  This  amgunt  of  rainfall,  0.78  of  an  inch,  is,  however,  insuffi¬ 
cient  to  wet  this  depth  of  soil.  As  the  surface  of  this  soil  was  in  an 
almost  air  dry  condition  at  the  time  of  the  rainfall,  it  was  probably 
not  wet  to  a  depth  greater  than  two  inches,  which  is  a  liberal  esti¬ 
mate,  but  if  we  put  the  depth  to  which  the  rain  water  penetrated  at 
four  times  this  estimate,  it  would  not  account  for  the  rise  in  the 
water  table,  nor  for  the  washing  downward  of  the  nitric  acid  to  a 
depth  of  a  little  more  than  5  feet.  I  think  that  the  oscillation  in 
the  water  plane  and  the  increase  in  the  nitric  acid  in  the  water 
were  both  due  to  the  effect  of  the  rainfall  upon  the  capillary  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  soil;  the  nitric  acid,  more  explicitly  the  nitrates,  exhib¬ 
iting  a  downward  capillary  movement. 

§  105.  A  sample  of  water  taken  from  well  A  on  December 
7,  1898,  showed  only  a  trace  of  nitric  acid.  This  determination  was 
repeated  to  assure  myself  that  no  mistake  had  been  made,  but  the 
results  were  the  same,  corroborating  the  first  determination.  This 
was  the  fourth  instance  that  we  had  met  with  in  which  there  was 
only  a  trace  of  nitric  acid  present  in  the  water.  These  four  instances 
were  met  with  when  the  water  plane  was  low,  but  not  when  it  was 
at  its  lowest. 

§  106.  Well  A  was  located  in  a  portion  of  the  plot  where  the 
incrustations  formed  most  abundantly,  where  the  mechanical  con- 


38 


Bulletin  72. 


ditions  of  the  soil  were  most  unfavorable  and  where  the  water  plane 
was  the  nearest  to  the  suiface  at  all  times.  This  last  fact  may  have 
effected  a  more  regular  removal  of  the  nitric  acid  as  it  was  formed 
than  in  the  other  cases.  Whether  this  is  the  explanation  or  not, 
the  water  from  this  well  showed  uniformly  as  much  nitric  acid  as 
that  of  any  of  the  other  wells,  though  the  first  two  inches  of  the 
soil  was  lower  in  nitric  acid  than  the  corresponding  samples  from 
the  other  sections,  but  irrigation  did  not  increase  the  nitric  acid  in 
the  water  of  this  well  as  it  did  in  some  of  the  others. 

§  107.  Well  C  is  located  in  the  next  most  unfavorable  section 
and  the  water  level  is  in  round  figures  1  foot  further  below  the 
surface  than  in  well  A.  The  nitric  acid  varied  greatly  in  the 
water  from  this  well,  and  its  amount  was  immediately  and  greatly 
affected  by  irrigation  or  rainfall,  even  a  light  rainfall  being  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  marked  increase  in  the  amount  of  nitric  acid. 

§  108.  I  have  said  nothing  about  well  G,  a  shallow  well  near 
well  A,  in  connection  with  the  nitrates.  This  well  was  separated 
from  the  gravel  stratum  by  two  feet  of  soil  and  was  only  12  feet 
from  A.  There  was  mo  more  relation  between  the  quantities  of 
nitric  acid  in  these  wells,  nor  in  its  variations,  than  between  it  and 
wells  farther  removed. 

§  109.  A  careful  consideration  of  the  results  at  my  disposal  do  . 
not  justify  me  in  making  any  comparison  or  assuming  any  relation 
as  existing  between  the  nitric  acid  in  the  waters  of  these  different 
wells.  There  is  a  general  similarity  in  their  conduct,  but  it  is  greatly 
modified  by,  if  not  wholly  dependent  upon,  the  soil  conditions  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  well.  Well  A,  on  July  8th,  be¬ 
fore  irrigation,  showed  the  presence  of  1.79  parts  per  million  and 
well  G  only  a  trace;  on  the  11th,  after  irrigation,  A  showed  15.2 
parts  and  G  19.2  parts  of  nitric  acid  per  million ;  by  the  25th  inst., 
the  nitric  acid  in  A  had  fallen  to  6.59  parts  per  million,  and  in  G 
to  2.69  parts.  The  water  plane  was  nearly  the  same  in  the  two 
wrnlls,  it  being  0.18  of  a  foot  higher  in  G  than  in  A. 

§  110.  The  relation  between  the  amount  of  nitric  acid  and  the 
total  solids  is  even  less  intimate  than  that  of  the  chlorin  to  the  total 
solids,  which  is  practically  equivalent  to  stating  that  there  is  no 
relation  between  them. 

§  111.  An  examination  of  the  300  determinations  of  the 
nitric  acid  in  this  ground  water  does  not  permit  us  to  draw  any  con¬ 
clusions  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  either  the  physical  condition  of 
our  soil  or  of  the  amount  and  character  of  our  alkalies  upon  the 
formation  of  nitric  acid  in  the  soil.  The  average  of  the  soil  sam¬ 
ples  taken  to  a  depth  of  two  inches  indicates  the  presence  of  469 
pounds  of  potassic  nitrate  or  its  equivalent  in  every  acre  of  soil 


The  Ground  Water. 


39' 


taken  to  this  depth,  i.  e.,  two  inches,  which  is  a  goodly  supply.  Our 
determinations,  however,  show  that  this  statement  cannot  be  ex¬ 
tended  to  the  second  two  inches,  and  much  less  to  the  first  foot  of 
soil,  the  conventional  depth  on  which  to  base  such  computations. 
Whatever  the  effects  of  our  conditions  may  have  been,  they  were 
certainly  not  prohibitive  of  the  production  of  nitric  acid. 

§  112.  I  can  find  no  examinations  of  ground  waters  with 
which  to  compare  my  results.  The  nitric  acid  in  drain  waters  is 
another  question,  and  I  shall  subsequently,  in  another  bulletin,  show 
that  drain  waters  and  ground  waters  from  the  same  territory  are 
not  comparable,  so  that  nitric  acid  determinations  in  drain  waters 
are  not  available  for  my  present  purpose.  I  am  compelled  by  the 
lack  of  better  data  to  use  samples  of  another  ground  water  taken  by 
myself  as  the  basis  of  my  statements  in  regard  to  the  effects  of  our 

conditions  upon  this  subject. 

* 

§  113.  A  sample  of  ground  water  from  a  field  lying  to  the 
west  of  my  plot,  several  feet  higher,  and  of  an  entirely  different  as¬ 
pect  and  character,  was  taken  10  days  after  irrigation  and  showed 
the  presence  of  0.718  part  of  nitric  acid  per  million.  This  land  is 
in  good  condition,  is  not  alkalized,  water  logged,  or  subject  to  the 
adverse  conditions  obtaining  in  my  plot.  The  field,  however,  was 
in  alfalfa  at  the  time  the  sample  was  taken,  July  5th,  and  the  sam¬ 
ple  represented  the  ground  water  in  the  soil  at  that  time,  for  the 
sample  was  taken  immediately  after  the  hole  was  dug.  The  nitric 
acid  in  this  sample  is  lower  than  was  usually  found  in  ground 
water  from  my  plot,  but  is  not  so  low  as  was  sometimes  found  in  it, 
but  as  these  smaller  quantities  are  exceptional,  it  is  probably  safe  to 
conclude  that  the  ground  water  in  my  plot  is  quite  as  rich,  or  even 
richer,  in  nitric  acid  than  the  average  ground  water  of  the  neigh¬ 
boring  soils. 

I  did  not  know,  nor  even  suspect  at  the  time  these  samples 
were  taken,  that  I  could  not  compare  them  with  drain  waters,  nor 
did  I  fully  appreciate  the  fact  that  a  sample  of  water  taken  from  the 
soil  represented  so  little  beyond  the  conditions  prevailing  within  a 
very  few  feet  of  the  point  where  it  was  taken. 

§  114.  Judging  from  the  amount  of  nitric  acid  found  in  the 
aqueous  extract  of  the  soil,  especially  in  that  from  the  first  two 
inches  and  from  the  amount  usually  present  in  the  ground  water 
as  represented  by  the  wells,  ranging  up  to  6  or  8  parts  per  million, 
but  as  a  rule  from  2  or  a  little  less  to  5  parts  per  million,  the  alka¬ 
lized  condition  was  not  unfavorable  to  the  formation  of  nitric  acid, 
The  abundance  of  proteids  in  the  beet  crops  grown  on  this  ground, 
they  being  slightly  higher  than  the  average  in  this  respect,  also  sup¬ 
port  this  view. 


40 


Bulletin  72. 


§  115.  The  great  difference  in  the  amount  of  nitric  acid  in  the 
first  and  second  two  inches  of  soil,  suggested  the  question  of  a  possi¬ 
ble  reduction  of  the  nitric  acid  from  some  cause.  I  had  no  reason 
to  suspect  the  formation  of  ferrous  salts,  and  the  amounts  of 
ammonia  and  nitrous  acid  found  in  the  well  and  drain  waters  ex¬ 
amined  for  these  constituents  did  not  strongly  support  the  idea  of  a 
reduction.  The  maximum  amount  of  free  ammonia  found  in  the 
well  waters  before  irrigation  was  0.0850  part  per  million,  and  after 
irrigation  0.5780  part.  The  maximum  quantity  of  nitrous  acid 
found  in  the  well  waters  before  irrigation  was  0.0837  part  per  mil¬ 
lion,  and  after  irrigation  0.1000  part.  The  increase  in  the  free 
ammonia  present  alter  irrigation  is  not  accompanied  by  a  corre¬ 
sponding  increase  in  the  nitrous  acid,  but  is  greatly  exceeded  by  the 
increase  in  album enoidal  ammonia,  so  that  the  probabilities  are  in 
favor  of  another  source  for  it  rather  than  that  of  the  reduction  of 
nitric  acid.  The  nitric  acid  in  these  samples  was,  moreover,  quite 
as  high  as  the  average,  being  2.692  parts  per  million  before  irriga¬ 
tion  and  7.628  parts  per  million  after  irrigation. 

§  116.  When  we  consider  the  large  amount  of  nitric  acid  per 
acre,  293.14  pounds,  existing  in  the  uppermost  two  inches  of  this 
soil,  and  while  the  second  two  inches  show  less  than  a  tenth  as 
much,  and  further,  that  the  ground  waters  are  comparatively  poor 
in  it  after  as  well  as  before  irrigation,  we  are  forced  to  the  conclu¬ 
sion  that  there  is  a  tendency  in  our  soil  to  the  concentration  of  this 
salt  in  the  upper  portions.  Whether  this  is  due  to  a  very  rapid 
formation  of  it  at  this  point,  or  to  the  action  of  capillarity  under 
our  meteorological  conditions,  is  an  open  question.  Long  continued 
cloudiness,  with  or  without  continued  or  heavy  rains,  which  means 
impeded  evaporation,  is  followed  by  a  greater  increase  in  the 
amount  of  nitric  acid  in  the  ground  water  than  we  have  observed 
to  be  due  to  irrigation.  In  fact  the  increase  due  to  irrigation  has 
in  no  case  been  comparable  to  that  observed  after  long  rains.  I 
have  no  explanation  to  offer  for  this  fact  unless  we  find  one  in  the 
difference  between  the  rate  at  which  the  nitrates  tend  to  move  up¬ 
ward,  due  to  capillarity,  whose  effects  are  made  more  marked  by 
our  conditions,  almost  continuously  favorable  to  a  rapid  evapor- 

may  be  washed 

downward  by  the  amount  of  water  used.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
nitrates  appear  in  alkaline  crusts  under  favorable  conditions,  some¬ 
times  forming  several  per  cent,  of  the  mass,  but  I  have  not  found  it 
present  in  any  incrustation  collected  in  Colorado  except  in  traces. 

§  117.  I  expected  to  find  relatively  large  quantities  of  nitrates 
n  the  ground  water,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  soil  is  not  usually 
credited  with  any  great  power  of  retaining  them  when  solutions  of 
these  salts  are  passed  through  them,  and  I  at  first  assumed  that 


ation  from  the  surface  and  that  at  which  they 


The  Ground  Water. 


41 


there  was  enough  downward  moving  water  in  the  soil,  even  when 
the  voids  between  the  soil  particles  were  not  completely  filled  with 
water  to  carry  the  nitrates  into  the  ground  water.  Such  does  not 
seem  to  be  the  case,  for  if  it  were,  the  ground  water  immediately 
after  irrigation  ought  to  be  richer  in  nitrates  than  they  were  found 
to  be,  even  after  making  liberal  allowance  for  the  fact  that  the  irri¬ 
gation  might  effect  a  dilution  of  the  ground  water.  In  the  case  of 
the  total  solids  we  find  a  very  decided  increase,  more  salts  having 
gone  into  solution  than  was  necessary  to  maintain  the  degree  of  sat¬ 
uration.  This  is  true,  too,  of  the  nitrates,  at  least  in  a  measure.  In 
the  case  of  the  irrigation  applied  August  31st  and  September  1st, 
1899,  the  results  were  not  uniform  in  regard  to  the  increase  of  the 
nitrates  in  the  ground  water,  indeed  an  increase  in  their  quantity 
was  the  exception.  This  result  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  I 
had  a  more  liberal  supply  of  water  than  in  any  previous  irrigation 
.and  the  results  were  due  to  dilution  of  the  ground  water,  owing  to 
the  addition  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  in  a  short  time. 

NITROUS  ACID  IN  THE  GROUND  WATER, 

§  118.  I  have  given  the  limits  found  for  the  nitrous  acid  in 
the  ground  water,  especially  before  and  after  irrigation,  in  a  preced¬ 
ing  paragraph.  Our  examination  of  the  water  did  not  as  a  rule  ex¬ 
tend  to  the  determination  of  this  constituent  except  in  studying  the 
effects  of  irrigation  upon  the  composition  of  the  ground  water,  off- 
flow  and  drainage,  under  which  topic  the  results  observed  will  be 
given  more  fully.  The  results  of  the  determinations  made  indicate 
that  as  a  rule  the  nitrous  acid  present  in  the  ground  water  of  this 
plot  was  low,  not  exceeding  0.0837  part  per  million,  except  imme- 
-  dialely  after  irrigation,  when  it  rose  to  0.1090  part  per  million. 
The  least  quantity  of  nitrous  acid  was  found  in  the  ground  water 
from  the  alfalfa  field  west  of  our  plot,  in  which  we  found  only  a 
trace. 

§  119.  The  few  samples  of  drain  water  which  we  examined 
were  richer  in  nrtrous  acid  than  the  ground  waters.  The  ground 
waters  were  richer  in  nitric  than  in  nitrous  acid  ;  while  the  reverse 
was  the  case  with  the  drain  waters.  The  cause  of  this  might  be  a 
reduction  of  the  nitrates  in  passing  through  the  soil  to  the  depth  of 
the  drain,  which  is  about  four  feet,  but  the  ratio  of  increase  above 
that  of  the  nitrates  caused  by  irrigation  suggests  that  it  is  rather 
due  to  the  deportment  of  the  salts  of  this  acid  toward  the  soil  parti¬ 
cles.  For  while  irrigation  did  not  always  increase  the  nitrates  in 
the  ground  waters,  it  always  increased  the  nitrites,  and  in  those 
cases  in  which  it  caused  an  increase  of  the  nitrates  from  1J  to  3 
times  their  previous  amount,  the  nitrites  were  increased  from  8  to 
30  or  more  times.  It  should  be  remembered  that  we  always  had 
very  much  smaller  amounts  of  nitrites  than  of  nitrates  to  deal  with. 


42 


Bulletin  72. 


The  presence  of  larger  quantities  of  nitrites  in  the  drain  than  in 
the  ground  water  is  more  probably  due  to  the  deportment  of  the 
solution  of  these  salts  within  the  soil  than  to  a  reduction  of  the 
nitrates.  This  view  is  suggested  by  the  facts  stated  above,  and  also 
by  the  fact  that  the  off-flow  water  is  poorer  in  nitrates  than  the 
ground  water  either  before  or  after  irrigation,  while  the  nitrites  in 
the  off  flow  water  amounted  to  more  than  200  times  as  much  as  was 
found  in  the  ground  water,  but  the  amount  was  less  than  that  which 
was  found  in  the  drain  waters.  I  do  not  maintain  that  there  is  no 
reduction  of  the  nitric  to  nitrous  acid  taking  place  in  this  soil,  but 
simply  that  the  appearance  of  the  nitrous  acid  in  the  drain  and 
off  flow  water  in  excess  of  the  nitrates  does  not  necessarily  indicate 
a  reduction  of  the  nitric  acid,  but  is  probably  to  be  explained  in 
this  case  by  the  different  deportment  of  these  salts  after  they  have 
been  formed,  without  regard  to  the  method  of  their  formation.  I 
stated  in  a  former  paragraph  that  I  had  no  reason  to  assume  the 
formation  of  ferrous  salts  or  the  presence  of  other  conditions  favor¬ 
ing  the  reduction  of  the  nitrates  in  any  unusual  degree,  micro 
organisms  not  included. 

AMMONIA  IN  THE  GROUND  WATER. 

§  120.  The  ammonia  and  ammonia  salts  in  the  soil  were 
shown  in  Bulletin  65  to  probably  amount  to  a  little  more  than 
0.00211  per  cent,  of  the  soil.  The  amount  of  these  salts  in  the 
ground  water  is  small,  ranging  from  0.0230  to  0.0850  part  per  mil¬ 
lion.  Irrigation  increased  this  amount  to  from  0  0570  to  0.5780  part 
per  million.  The  drain  waters  were  found  to  contain  from  0.0496 
to  0.0944  part  per  million. 

§  121.  The  albumenoidal  ammonia  present  ranged  from 
0.0674  to  0.3029  part  per  million  in  the  ground  water  and  was 
greatly  increased  by  irrigation.  The  maximum  found  after  irriga¬ 
tion  was  3.1170  parts  per  million.  This  kind  of  ammonia  does  not 
pass  into  the  drain  very  freely  ;  it  amounted  to  0.2299  part  per  mil¬ 
lion  in  the  drain  water  from  this  plot.  The  comparatively  small 
amount  of  ammonia  found  in  the  drain  waters  strengthen  the  state¬ 
ment  made  relative  to  the  reduction  of  the  nitrates  to  nitrites.  The 
reader  may  be  tempted  to  think  that  we  intend  to  discuss  the  pota¬ 
bility  of  this  water.  Such  is  not  the  case.  It  is  purely  a  matter  of 
the  soil  conditions.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  certain  properties  of 
the  water  are  not  discussed  at  all. 

AMOUNT  OF  NITRATES,  ETC.,  REMOVED  BY  THE  IRRIGATION  WATER. 

§  122.  The  question  as  to  how  much  of  the  nitrates,  nitrites, 
and  ammonia  of  both  kinds  was  taken  from  the  soil  by  the  water 
naturally  suggests  itself.  This  question  is  difficult  to  answer  in  re¬ 
gard  to  the  ground  water,  for  there  are  a  number  of  considerations 


The  Ground  Water. 


43 


entering  into  the  answer  which  are  not  known  with  sufficient  defi¬ 
niteness.  The  same  may  be  true  of  the  off- flow  water,  but  this  water 
is  the  same  that  flowed  onto  the  soil,  and,  after  having  been  in  con¬ 
tact  with  it  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  flowing  over  it  for  a  dis¬ 
tance  of  600  feet  in  this  case,  was  collected  for  examination.  The 
water  as  it  flowed  onto  the  soil  contained  onlv  traces  of  nitrates;  the 
first  portions  that  flowed  off  contained  1.970  and  1.077  parts  per 
million  respectively  ;  the  last  portions  that  flowed  off  contained 
0.3590  and  a  trace  respectively. 

§  123.  The  ground  water  in  two  instances  showed  an  increase 
in  the  nitrates  from  1.970  and  2.513  to  3.231  and  7.628  parts  per 
million  respectively.  In  two  other  instances  a  slight  decrease  was 
observed. 

• 

§  124.  The  rapid  diminution  in  the  amount  of  the  nitrates 
removed  by  the  off-flowing  water  shows  that  their  removal  by  the 
water  flowing  over  the  soil  is  very  limited,  probably  confined  to  the 
very  surface  of  the  soil.  In  this  connection  I  would  recall  the  fact 
that  comparatively  large  quantities  of  nitrates  existed  in  the  upper 
two  inches  of  this  soil.  It  is  evident  that  the  water  upon  coming 
in  contact  with  the  soil  wets  the  uppermost  portion  before  flowing 
over  it;  this  takes  place  even  when  there  is  a  good  head  of  water. 
This  wetting  means  a  downward  movement  of  the  water  at  first, 
which  may  carry  the  nitrates  not  somewhat  firmly  held  by  the  soil, 
down  into  the  soil  and  beyond  the  action  of  the  succeeding,  over¬ 
flowing  portions  of  water. 

§  125.  It  is  stated  above  that  two  instances  of  a  decrease  in 
the  nitric  acid  were  observed  after  irrigation.  This  decrease  was 
in  wells  B  and  D  and  amounted  to  0.1840  and  1.0870  parts  per 
million  respectively.  In  the  case  of  D,  which  was  near  the  point 
at  which  the  water  was  brought  onto  the  plot  and  where  the  soil 
was  a  sandy  loam,  it  may  be  that  the  irrigation  water  may  have 
found  its  way  into  the  well  more  directly  than  it  was  intended  it 
should,  or  it  may  be  that  the  amount  of  water  received  at  this  point 
sufficed  to  produce  leaching,  but  I  am  very  doubtful  of  this. 

§  126.  The  water,  especially  the  ditch  water,  used  for  irrigat¬ 
ing,  contained  an  unusual  amount  of  nitrous  acid.  Whence  it  came 
I  did  not  attempt  to  ascertain,  and  it  was  probably  not  true  of  the 
water  after  it  had  been  running  for  some  hours.  Some  of  the  water 
used  was  what  we  designate  as  seepage  water,  and  contained  0.2340 
parts  nitrous  acid  per  million.  The  off  flow  was  from  3  to  8  times 
as  rich  in  nitrous  acid  as  the  ground  water  after  irrigation.  The 
amount  of  the  off-flow  was  comparatively  small.  What  relation  it 
bore  to  the  amount  applied,  I  did  not  determine,  nor  have  I  any 
means  of  estimating  how  long  the  water  collected  was  in  contact 


44 


Bulletin  72. 


with  the  soil.  No  account  has  been  taken  of  the  amount  of  water 
evaporated,  which  was  probably  a  larger  fraction  of  the  water  ap¬ 
plied  than  we  would  think,  possibly  not  less  than  a  sixteenth  of  it. 
The  rate  of  evaporation  from  a  standard  tank  at  the  time  this  irri¬ 
gation  was  made  was  6  inches  in  30  days,  and  as  our  irrigation 
extended  over  3  days,  the  evaporation  probably  amounted  to  fully 
.6  of  an  inch. 

It  required  about  34  hours  for  the  water  to  flow  the  length 
of  the  plot,  600  feet,  and  produce  an  off-flow.  The  first  samples 
of  the  off-flowing  water  were  taken  soon  after  the  off-flow  began, 
and  the  second  samples  were  taken  8J  hours  later.  At  this  time 
the  off-flow  was  estimated  to  be  about  half  of  the  on-flow. 

§  127.  The  albumenoidal  ammonia  in  the  ground  water  was 
materially  increased  in  two  of  the  wells,  but  in  the  other  two  wells 
its  amount  was  affected  in  a  very  much  less  degree.  The  off-flowing 
water  was  only  slightly  richer  in  this  kind  of  ammonia  than  the  on- 
flowing  water. 

§  128.  The  rate  at  which  the  water  flowed  over  the  ground 
and  also  the  rate  at  which  it  passed  into  the  soil  probably  exerted 
an  influence  upon  the  amount  and  kinds  of  salts  taken  into  solution. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  determine  the  rate  at  which  the  wells  filled; 
they  were  measured,  pumped  down,  remeasured,  and  the  time  noted 
which  was  required  for  them  to  fill  again.  The  rate  varied  with 
the  soil  and  other  conditions,  but  our  results  indicated  an  inflow  of 
from  7  to  11  cubic  inches  ner  minute,  the  water  outside  of  the  wells 
standing  from  24  to  36  inches  above  the  surface  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiment.  This  does  not  indicate  so  rapid  a  draining  out  of 
the  water  from  a  comparatively  free  surface  as  I  expected.  The 
surface  varied  in  the  different  wells,  but  this  requires  nearly  30 
square  inches  to  furnish  one  cubic  inch  of  water  per  minute,  or  a 
square  foot  yielded  at  the  rate  of  4.8  cubic  inches  per  minute.  No 
attempt  was  made  in  this  crude  experiment  to  find  out  how  much 
space  about  the  well  was  affected  by  the  lowering  of  the  water  in 
the  well;  it  was  very  small  at  best.  This  rate  of  inflow  would 
have  diminished  materially  after  a  short  time.  I  have  elsewhere 
stated  that  the  lateral  movement  of  the  solutions,  which  may  be  quite 
equivalent  to  water,  is  very  small,  if  not  zero,  in  this  plot,  for  the 
amount  and  kinds  of  salts  in  the  water  in  wells  near  to  one  another 
are  different  and  maintain  their  individuality  throughout  a  series 
of  changes  in  the  conditions  of  the  ground  water,  including  the  ef¬ 
fects  of  irrigation.  The  rate  of  the  flow  into  the  wells  does  not  seem 
to  be  sufficiently  high  to  disturb  the  relation  of  the  well  water  to 
Ihe  ground  water  to  such  an  extent  as  to  demand  special  considera¬ 
tion.  The  differences  between  the  ground  waters  and  aqueous  ex¬ 
tracts  of  the  soil  already  noted  are  not  sensibly  affected  by  the  lat- 


/ 


The  Ground  Water. 


45 


eral  passage  of  the  solutions  through  the  soil  and  probably  not  by 
their  downward  movement  in  the  plot  under  discussion.  If  the 
conditions  were  changed,  for  example,  by  judicious  and  thorough 
drainage,  then  the  question  of  alkali  salts  in  the  soil  would  be  one 
of  time  and  the  amount  of  water  applied  to  the  surface.  Our  object 
from  the  beginning  was  not  to  study  the  effects  of  drainage  as  such, 
but  the  effects  of  cropping  and  cultivation  where  irrigation  is  neces¬ 
sary  but  drainage  difficult  or  impossible. 


SUMMARY. 


1.  The  question  of  alkalization  in  Colorado  resolves  itself  into  a  ques¬ 
tion  of  drainage. 

2.  Alkalization  in  .  this  state  has  been  made  more  apparent,  and  its 
effects  increased,  by  over  irrigation. 

3.  Crops  growing  on  alkalized  soil  with  the  water  table  quite  near  the 
surface  were  sensitive  to  drouthy  conditions. 

4.  The  water  plane  is  1 .83  feet  higher  at  the  west  end  of  the  plot  than 
at  the  east  end  and  the  drainage  is  probably  to  the  eastward. 

5.  The  inclination  of  the  water  plane  to  the  eastward  is  less  than  that 
of  the  surface. 

6.  The  height  of  the  water  plane  often  changes  without  sensible  cause, 
probably  due  to  atmospheric  conditions,  pressure,  temperature,  etc. 

7.  Light  rains  during  dry  periods  produce,  as  a  rule,  comparatively 
great  increases  in  the  height  of  the  water  plane,  probably  due  to  modification  of 
the  capillary  conditions,  j 

8.  Light  rains  during  an  interval  of  abundant  moisture  when  the  soil 
is  wet  do  not  produce  an  increase  in  the  height  of  the  water  plane. 

9.  Moderate  'rains  were  sometimes  accompanied  by  temporay  depres¬ 
sion  of  the  water  plane.  This  was  accounted  for  by  the  rate  of  rain  fall,  char¬ 
acter  of  soil  and  the  air  contained  therein. 

10.  The  effect  of  an  irrigating  ditch  running  past  the  east  end 
of  the  plot  was  to  raise  the  height  of  the  water  plane  by  0.30  of  a  foot 
at  a  distance  of  142  feet  from  the  center  of  the  ditch.  This  raise  was  apparent¬ 
ly  produced  by  the  causing  of  a  backward  pressure  and  not  by  direct  infiltra¬ 
tion  of  water. 

11.  When  the  water  plane  rose  due  to  changes  in  capillary  conditions 
caused  by  light  rain  falls  it  usually  fell  to  its  former  level  in  about  three  days, 
but  when  it  rose  after  an  irrigation  it  required  from  10  t<^13  days  for  its  fall. 

12.  The  total  solids,  salts  held  in  solution  in  the  different  well  waters, 


46 


Bulletin  72. 


varied  both  in  quantity  and  in  the  ratio  of  the  different  salts  present.  Their 
amount  and  character  depended  upon  the  conditions  obtaining  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  well. 

13.  The  total  solids  rose  and  fell  with  the  water  plane,  passing  into  the 
water  as  it  rose,  and  remaining  in  the  soil  when  it  fell.  This  is  the  same  as  say¬ 
ing  that  the  total  solids  in  solution  depend  upon  the  relative  masses  of  the  water 
and  soil  and  vary  with  the  character  of  the  soil,  including  the  salts  retained  in  it. 
The  preceding  is  a  general  statement  and  does  not  consider  the  irregular  increase 
or  decrease- of  the  total  solids  in  the  same  well  at  different  times.  These  are  un¬ 
questionably  dependent  in  a  large  measure  upon  the  unlike  conditions  of  chemi¬ 
cal  equilibrium  obtaining  in  the  solution  at  different  times. 

14.  The  increase  in  the  amount  of  total  solids  in  a  well  water  is  not 
always  the  greatest  in  those  wells  which  show  the  greatest  rise  in  the  water  plane, 
nor  in  those  which  usually  show  the  greatest  quantities  of  total  solids.  The 
increase  in  the  total  solids  due  to  the  rise  of  the  water  plane  seems  to  be  partly 
dependent  upon  the  rate  of  diffusion  through  the  soil. 

15.  The  height  of  the  water  in  the  different  wells  was  essentially  the 
height  of  the  water  table  in  the  soil. 

16.  The  total  solids  in  the  well  waters  were  less  than  in  the  water  in  the 
soil.  This  difference  was  not  due  to  a  mixture  of  water  entering  the  wells  from 
different  sources,  but  was  seemingly  due  to  the  modification  of  the  laws  of  dif¬ 
fusion  and  solubility  by  the  soil  itself. 

17.  The  total  solids  in  the  ground  water  were  lower  in  1899  than  in  1897 
as  indicated  by  samples  of  ground  water  taken  10  days  after  irrigation. 

18.  The  chlorin,  or  its  corresponding  salt,  sodic  chlorid,  was  at  no  time 
very  abundant  in  the  ground  water  and  bore  no  definite  relation  to  the  total 
solids,  as  the  sodic  chlorid  ranged  from  5  to  a  little  more  than  14  per  cent,  of 
their  total  weight.  The  increase  or  decrease  of  sodic  chlorid,  common  salt,  was 
not  proportional  to  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  total  solids  and  did  not  serve 
as  an  index  of  either  the  amount  of  total  solids  present  or  of  their  variation,  ex¬ 
cept  within  very  wide  limits. 

19.  The  chlorin  may  not  alwTays  be  present  in  the  form  of  sodic  chlorid, 
which  is  tacitly  assumed  in  the  preceding  statement.  Analytical  results  indi¬ 
cate  that  it  may  sometimes  be  present  as  magnesic  chlorid,  and  the  irregular  de¬ 
portment  of  chlorin  in  the  waters  may  be  due  to  such  causes,  i.  e.,  differences  in 
the  manner  of  its  combination. 

20.  The  chlorin  present  in  the  ground  waters  and  its  variations  in  quan¬ 
tity  throw  but  little  or  no  light  upon  the  movement  of  the  alkali  salts  within  this 
soil. 

21.  The  term  total  solids  is  equivalent  to  the  salts  constituting  the  free 
solution  in  the  soil.  The  term  represents  a  different  mixture  of  salts  than  is 
found  in  the  incrustations  forming  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  obtained  by 
evaporating  an  aqueous  extract  of  the  soil  to  dryness. 

22.  The  total  solids  in  the  ground  water  varied  greatly  in  the  different 
wells,  and  also  from  time  to  time,  in  regard  to  their  quantity,  but  only  to  a  lim¬ 
ited  extent  in  their  chemical  composition.  The  difference  in  the  latter  respect 
was  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  relative  quantities  of  the  respective  salts. 

23.  The  method  of  combining  the  analytical  results  has  been  adopted 
as  convenient  and  probable,  but  not  as  infallible. 

24.  In  combining  up  the  analyses  there  is  frequently  a  slight  excess  of 
sodic  oxid,  this  is  often  within  the  limits  of  analytical  errors,  at  others  it  is 
rather  high.  We  have  observed  that  this  excess  is  usually  higher  when  the  loss 
on  ignition  is  high  and  are  inclined  to  attribute  it  to  the  presence  of  organic 
acids. 

25.  The  alkali  incrustations  from  this  plot  consist  essentially  of  sodic 


The  Ground  Water. 


47 


and  magnesic  sulfates  in  the  ratio  of  two  to  one;  they  together  constitute  80 
per  cent,  of  the  mass.  Calcic  sulfate  is  subordinate  in  quantity  with  sodic 
chlorid  and  carbonate  still  more  so, 

26.  The  salts  dissolved  in  the  ground  water,  the1  total  solids,  consist 
much  more  largely  of  calcic  sulfate  than  of  sodic  sulfate,  and  contain  about  the 
same  amount  of  magnesic  sulfate  as  the  incrustation  from  this  plot.  The  ratio 
of  calcic  sulfate  to  the  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates  in  the  total  solids  is  approx¬ 
imately  2:134-1- 

27.  The  salts  extracted  from  the  first  two  inches  of  the  soil  by  continued 
treatment  with  water  consisted  of  the  same  salts,  they  made  up  nearly  80  per 
cent  of  the  total,  but  the  ratio  was  approximately  4:2:1. 

28.  The  aqueous<extract  of  the  second  two  inches  of  soil  contained  very 
little  magnesic  sulfate,  no  sodic  sulfate,  and  almost  51  per  cent,  of  calcic  sulfate. 
This  extract  showed  a  large  amount  of  soluble  silicic  acid,  corresponding  to  14.5 
per  cent,  of  sodic  silicate  calculated  on  the  dried  residue. 

29.  The  upper  portions  of  the  ground  water  are  richer  in  total  solids 
than  the  successively  deeper  portions  and  the  salts  in  solution  differ,  especially 
in  their  relative  quantities. 

30.  There  seemed  to  be  an  abundant  formation  of  nitric  acid  in  the 
upper  portions  of  the  soil,  even  in  portions  of  the  plot  where  the  alkali  salts 
were  abundant. 

31.  Nitric  acid  occurred  so  generally  in  the  ground  waters  and  its  vari¬ 
ations  were  so  dependent  upon  other  conditions  that  we  cannot  judge  of  the 
effect  of  the  alkalies  present  nor  of  that  of  the  mechanical  conditions. 

32.  There  was  no  relation  between  the  amount  of  total  solids  and  that 
of  the  nitric  acid  present. 

33.  There  was  no  relation  between  the  different  wells  in  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  nitric  acid  present  or  its  variations. 

34.  Irrigating  the  ground  increased  the  nitric  acid  in  the  well  waters,  so 
did  even  light  rainfalls,  probably  due  to  increase  of  capillary  exchange  of  the 
nitrates  between  the  upper  portions  of  the  soil  and  the  ground  water. 

35.  The  ground  water  from  this  plot  is  richer  in  nitrates  than  that  from 
neighboring  land  which  is  in  better  condition. 

36.  The  nitrites  in  the  ground  water  are  relatively  high  and  are  in¬ 
creased  by  irrigation.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  biological  conditions  of  the 
soil  and  the  deportment  of  solutions  of  nitrites  toward  the  soil,  especially  in  re¬ 
gard  to  the  readiness  with  which  they  will  pass  through  it. 

37.  The  free  ammonia  and  ammonia  salts  were  not  especially  abundant 
in  the  ground  water,  either  before  or  after  irrigation,  though  more  abundant 
after  than  before. 

38.  The  ground  water  was  slightly  richer  in  free  ammonia  than  the  drain 
water  from  this  plot. 

3'h  The  albumenoidal  ammonia  in  the  ground  water  was  not  excessively 
high,  but  it  was  materially  increased  by  irrigation.  The  albumenoidal  ammonia 
did  not  appear  to  pass  freely  into  the  drain  water. 

40.  The  amount  of  nitrates  removed  by  off -flow  water  is  probably  quite 
limited  as  their  quantity  in  the  off-flow  diminished  rapidly. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Section. 

1.  Subjects  treated  of  in  preceding  parts  of 

this  bulletin. 

2.  The  alkali  question  in  Colorado. 

3.  The  effects  of  over  irrigation. 

4.  The  presence  of  a  hard  pan  sometimes  the 

cause  of  alkalization. 

5-6.  Conditions  of  plot  experimented  with, 
reasons  for  choice  of  plot. 

8.  Object  of  bulletin  stated. 

10.  Crops  grown  sensitive  to  lack  of  water. 

11.  Heights  of  wells  A  B,  etc. ,  above  reference 

plane.  Location  of  wells  A,  B,  C  and  D 
The  water  plane  higher  at  west  end  of 
plot .  Inclination  of  surface  greater  than 
that  of  water  plane 

12.  Drainage  of  the  plot 

13.  Changes  in  height  of  water  plane  affected 

by  meteorological  conditions.  Water 
plane  depressed  by  rainfall.  Duration 
of  effects  of  rainfall  upon  height  of  water 
plane . 

15.  Effects  of  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  the 

soil  on  height  of  water  plane 

16.  Influence  of  town  ditch  on  height  of  water 

plane. 

17.  The  filling  of  the  town  ditch  caused  de¬ 

crease  in  total  solids  and  chlorin  in 
ground  water  Total  solids  and  chlorin 
decreased  by  filling  of  town  ditch. 

19.  Rate  of  fall  in  height  of  water  plane.  No 

free  drainage  from  east  end  of  plot. 

20.  Difference  between  rise  of  water  plane  due 

to  capillarity  and  irrigation. 

21.  Other  oscillations  in  height  of  water  plane. 

22.  Plot  favorable  to  the  study  of  the  charac¬ 

ter  of  the  salts  in  ground  water  * 

23.  Amount  of  total  solids  in  different  wells 

not  the  same. 

24.  The  rise  and  fall  in  the  water  plane  an  up 

and  down  movement  of  the  water. 

25.  No  lateral  movement  of  water  detected. 

26.  Falling  water  plane  leaves  salts  in  soil. 
27-28.  Increase  in  total  solids  due  to  irriga¬ 
tion  irregular. 

29.  Duration  of  the  effect  of  irrigation  on  the 

amount  of  total  solids.  Minima  and 
maxima  for  total  solids  in  wells — 1897. 

30.  Well  B  richest  in  total  solids. 

31.  Increase  of  total  solid  in  wells  B  and  D 

with  a  falling  water  plane,  while  they 
decreased  in  wells  A  and  C,  attributed  to 
conditions  of  diffusion. 

33.  Meteorological  conditions  and  height  of 

water  plane,  spring  of  1898. 

34.  Exceptional  amount  of  total  solids  in 

water,  May  16. 

36.  Amount  of  water  necessary  to  cause  change 

in  height  of  water  plane  not  determined. 

37 .  Light  rains  during  wet  periods  do  not 

cause  rise  of  water  plane 

38.  Total  solids  in  wells  a  and  C  exceptionally 

high. 

39-40.  Effect  of  1.82  inch  rainfall  on  height  of 
water  table  and  total  solids 

45.  The  height  of  water  in  wells  and  soil  the 

same. 

46.  Total  solids  less  in  the  well  waters  than  in 

soil  water. 

47.  Effect  of  drain  on  amount  of  total  solids  in 

well  waters.  Radius  of  influence  of  wells 
upon  salts  in  soil  probably  small. 

48.  Translocation  of  salts  through  soil  im¬ 

probable. 

49.  The  water  in  the  wells  possib’y  a  mixture. 

50.  Decrease  of  total  solids  with  fad  of  water 

table  explained. 

51.  The  waters  in  the  wells  probably  not  mix¬ 

tures 

52.  The  stratum  of  gravel  underlying  the  plot 

not  necessarily  course  of  flow. 

53.  Soluble  salts  eliminated  by  cultivation. 

56.  Ratio  of  salt,  sodic  chlorid,  to  total  solids. 
Variation  in  quantity  of  salt  present  not 
same  as  variation  of  total  solids. 

57.  Chlorin  present  no  measure  of  total  solids 
present . 


Section. 

58.  Chlorin  in  ground  water  diminishes  with 
depth . 

60.  Chlorin  in  ground  water  increased  by  irri¬ 

gation. 

61.  Chlorin  in  ground  water  does  not  show  the- 

movement  of  the  alkali  salts  in  the  soil. 

62.  Total  solids  defined 

64.  Well  waters  represent  the  average  free  solu¬ 
tion  iu  the  soil. 

69.  Method  of  combining  analytical  results. 

Method  of  combining  results  of  analyses 
not  always  correct. 

70.  Excess  of  sodic  oxid  in  analyses.  Excess 

of  sodic  oxid  higher  when  organic  mat¬ 
ter  is  higher. 

74.  Surface  well  waters. 

78.  Composition  of  total  solids  throughout  ex 
periment. 

82.  Individual  samp  es  of  water  or  soil  not 
representative. 

86.  Composition  of  alkali  crust. 

87.  Differences  between  alkali  crusts  and  water 

soluble  in  soil  Silicates  in  water  and 
soluble  of  soil.  Potassic  salts  in  alkali 
crusts. 

88.  Characteristics  of  water-solub'e  portion  of 

soil . 

90.  Percentage  sodic  sulfate  in  alkali  crusts, 

ground  water,  etc. 

91.  Double  sodic-magnesic  sulfate  probably  not 

formed. 

93.  Presence  of  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates  in 

incrustations  accounted  for. 

94.  Drain  water  not  rich  in  sodic  sulfate. 

95.  Lower  portions  of  ground  water  poorer 

than  upper.  Grouud  water  and  drain 
water  different. 

98  Lithia  in  the  ground  water.  Litliia  in  ash 
of  beets  and  beet  leaves 

97.  Nitric  acid  in  air  dry  soil;  first  two 

inches. 

98.  Nitric  acid  in  a’r  dry  soil:  second  two- 

inches. 

99.  Nitric  acid  in  ground  water.  1897. 

100.  Nitric  acid  in  ground  water.  1 898 .  Effect 

of  irrigation  on  nitric  acid  in  ground 
water. 

101.  Duration  of  effects  of  irrigation  on  nitric 

acid. 

102.  Rate  of  decrease  in  quantity  of  nitric  acid 

after  irrigation. 

103.  Variation  in  amount  of  nitric  acid  caused 

by  light  rainfalls. 

101.  Variation  of  nitric  acid  in  ground  water 
due  to  capillary  movement  of  nitrates. 

105.  Nitric  acid  absent  in  well  A.  Dec.  7.  1898. 

106.  Nitric  acid  in  well  A  more  constant  than  in 

the  others. 

108.  No  relation  between  amounts  of  nitric 
acid  in  adjacent  wells. 

112.  Ground  water  richer  in  nitric  acid  than 
that  from  neighboring  land 

114.  Condition  of  plot  probably  not  restrictive 

of  the  formation  of  nitric  acid. 

115.  Free  ammonia  in  ground  water.  Nitrous 

acid  in  ground  water  before  and  after 
irrigation. 

118.  Nitrous  acid  in  ground  water. 

119.  Nitrites  Jess  abundant  in  ground  than  in 

drain  water.  Nitrites  increased  more 
by  irrigation  than  nitrates 

120.  Ammonia  in  ground  and  drain  waters 

121.  Albumenoidal  ammonia  before  and  after 

irrigation. 

122.  Nitrates  in  off-flowing  water. 

123.  Increase  of  nitrates  in  ground  water 

caused  by  irrigation 

124.  Nitrates  removed  by  off-flowing  water  lim¬ 

ited. 

125.  Decrease  in  nitrates  after  irrigation  ex¬ 

plained. 

128.  Drainage  out  of  soil  into  wells  slow. 
Summary. 

Tables  I  to  XVII. 


Bulletin  73.  August,  1902. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


PART  1. 

THE  FEEDING  VALUE  OF  BEET  PULP. 

PART  II. 

FEEDING  BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR 

BEETS  TO  COWS. 


-BY - 


B.  C.  BUFFUM  and  C.  J.  GRIFFITH. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins.  Colorado. 

1902. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


the  state  Board  of  agriculture. 


Hon.  B.  P.  ROOKAFELLOW 
Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President, . 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  . 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS,  - 

Hon.  W,  R.  THOMAS,  - . 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  - 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN,  )  ~ 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  )  ex'°Plcl° 


Canon  City, 

Denver, 

Denver, 

Fort  Colima, 
Denver,  - 
Denver, 
Gypsum, 
Rocky  ford, 


TERM 

EXPIRES 

19C3 
1903 
1905 
1905 
1907 
-  1907 
1909 
1909 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ....  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . Chemist 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S., . Agriculturist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer  and  Meteorologist 

E.  D.  BALL,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  »  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S,, . Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  Superintendent  Arkansas  Valley  Substation 
J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Superintendent  Plains  Substation 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MtLLIG A N.. .  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


THE  FEEDING  VALUE  OF  BEET  PULP  AND  FEEDING 
BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  COWS. 


BY  B.  C.  BUFFUM  AND  C.  J.  GRIFFITH. 


PART  I.  INTRODUCTION. 

The  natural  conditions  in  arid  America  where  a  compar¬ 
atively  small  part  of  the  land  is  reclaimed  by  irrigation  and 
the  rest  will  always  be  used  as  range  for  live  stock,  make 
the  stock  industry  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  our 
Agriculture.  With  the  development  of  our  irrigated  farms 
has  come  smaller  holdings  of  better  classes  of  stock  than 
those  originally  pastured  on  the  ranges,  and  the  farmer  has 
become  desirous  of  finishing  his  stock  for  market  at  home 
instead  of  selling  feeders  to  be  fattened  in  the  corn  growing 
states  east  of  us. 

The  growing  of  alfalfa  on  our  farms  to  supply  a  rotation 
which  will  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil  has  become  an  in- 
dispensible  practice  and  this  surplus  hay  is  an  important  item 
of  profit  if  it  can  be  fed  at  home. 

Establishing  the  beet  sugar  industry  has  brought  to  our 
farmers  another  source  of  stock  foods  in  the  by  products  of 
the  sugar  factories,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  beet 
pulp  which  is  left  after  the  sugar  has  been  extracted.  The 
coming  winter  we  estimate  that  the  factories  now  established 
in  the  state  will  produce  over  150,000  tons  of  this  pulp  which 
will  be  available  for  feeding  stock.  Our  farmers  are  custom¬ 
ers  for  large  quantities  of  corn  shipped  in  from  Kansas,  Ne¬ 
braska  and  Iowa,  for  which  they  pay  large  prices  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  profitably  use  their  alfalfa  in  fitting  stock, 
more  especially  lambs,  for  market.  Anything  which  will 
make  our  own  people  more  independent  by  producing  their 
own  feeds  instead  of  purchasing  from  abroad  is  of  inestimable 
value  to  the  state.  The  Experiment  Station  is  continually 
trying  to  solve  this  problem  and  furnish  the  information  it 
may  gain  to  those  who  can  make  use  of  it.  The  feeding 
value  of  sugar  beets  and  of  beet  pulp,  the  comparative  value 
of  our  home  grown  grains,  and  corn  and  of  such  new  grains 
or  new  stock  foods  of  whatever  nature,  and  the  combinations 
of  these  foods  which  will  give  the  largest  returns,  are  import¬ 
ant  questions  which  have  been  receiving  marked  at- 


4  BULLETIN  73. 

tention  recently.  We  are  now  ready  to  publish  bulletins 
giving  the  results  cf  a  series  of  experiments  which  have  been 
carried  out  to  throw  light  on  these  questions.  An  experi¬ 
ment  has  been  carried  out  on  the  sub-station  at  Rockyford 
by  Mr.  Griffin,  to  show  the  value  of  beet  pulp  combined  with 
alfalfa  for  lamb  feeding.  In  the  present  bulletin  we  give  a 
brief  resume  of  the  value  of  beet  pulp  as  determined  in  other 
places  and  report  some  trials  in  which  beets  and  pulp  were 
fed  to  cows  on  the  College  farm  at  Fort  Collins.  The  in¬ 
formation  of  the  value  of  pulp  as  determined  in  other  places 
has  been  gleaned  from  every  available  source  which  we  have 
reason  to  believe  is  reliable  and  in  connection  with  our  own 
investigations  will  give  our  farmers  and  stockmen  some 
basis  upon  which  to  decide  whether  or  not  it  will  pay  them  to 
feed  pulp  to  their  stock.  In  addition  to  this  bulletin,  we  have 
ready  for  publication  a  bulletin  on  “Swine  Feeding  in  Col¬ 
orado"  which  reports  trials  with  beets  and  pulp  and  which 
gives  the  only  information  we  know  of  about  the  value  of 
beet  pulp  for  hog  feeding,  and  also  a  bulletin  entitled  “Lamb 
Feeding  Experiments  in  1901-1902,"  in  which  will  be  report¬ 
ed  the  results  of  our  trials  of  pulp  and  beets  in  rations  for 
fattening  lambs.  We  speak  only  of  the  diffusion  puip  such 
as  comes  from  our  factories. 

COMPOSITION  OF  BEET  PULP. 

Professor  Henry  in  his  book  “breeds  and  Feeding”  gives 
the  result  of  sixteen  analyses  and  seven  trials  of  digestibility 
of  beet  pulp,  which  shows  the  following  composition.  The 
digestible  nutrients  are  given: 

BEET  PULP.  AVERAGE  OF  l6  ANALYSES. 

Dry  Matter.  Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Ether  Extract.  Nutritive  Ratio. 

10.2  '0.6  7.3  -  1:12.2 

Analyses  made  by  the  California  Station,  published  in 
their  bulletins,  show  a  nutritive  value  considerably  higher 
than  the  above.  These  analyses  also  show  the  comparative 
value  of  beet  pulp,  pulp  silage  and  sugar  beet  silage. 

The  digestible  nutrients  only  were  calculated. 

CALIFORNIA  BEET  PULP. 

Water.  Protein.  Carbohy-  Fat.  Feed  Value  Nutritive 


Beet  Pulp 

90 

1.25 

drates. 

8.19 

0.14 

Calories. 

164 

Ratio 

1:6.7 

Beet  Pulp  Silage .... 

90 

1.46 

7.84 

0.39 

165 

1:5.7 

Sugar  Beet  Silage  ... 

70 

4.38 

23.52 

1.17 

351 

1:7.7 

Analyses  made  by  Dr.  Headden,  Professor  of  Chemistry 


THE  FEEDING  VALUE  OF  BEET  PULP.  5 

at  the  College,  shows  our  Colorado  pulp  to  have  the  follow¬ 
ing  composition: 

COLORADO  BEET  PULP. 

Dry  Matter.  Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Fat.  Nutritive  Ratio 
10.0  0.38  7.36  0.2  1:20.5 

The  crude  fibre  and  nitrogen  free  extract  were  reported 
separately  but  we  combine  them  under  carbohydrates.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  Calfornia  analyses,  the  beet  pulp  silage  has  a 
narrower  ratio  and  a  little  higher  food  value  than  the  fresh 
pulp,  which  seems  to  be  the  general  experience  in  practice. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  fresh  pulp  is  apparently  worth  be¬ 
tween  one-third  and  one-half  as  much  as  the  sugar  beet  when 
made  into  silage. 

The  places  are  not  given  where  the  analyses  reported  by 
Henry  were  made;  possibly  they  were  all  from  Europe,  and  if 
so,  it  is  possible  that  the  diffreence  between  the  beet  pulp 
there  and  in  this  country  would  be  as  great  as  that  shown. 
The  analysis  given  in  the  Report  of  the  United  States  De¬ 
partment  of  Agriculture  as  an  average  analysis,  is  about 
midway  between  the  ones  given  above. 

The  nutritive  ratio  from  the  analysis  is  given  as  1:7.2, 
which  it  is  pointed  out,  is  near  the  standard  ratio  for  a  fatten¬ 
ing  steer,  according  to  the  given  standard. 

The  analysis  of  the  Colorado  pulp  gives  a  lower  amount 
of  protein  and  a  little  more  carbohydrates  and  fat  than  the 
composition  as  given  by  Professor  Henry.  This  makes  the 
nutritive  ratio  correspondingly  wide. 

RESULTS  OF  FEEDING  TRIALS. 

EUROPE. 

Some  experiments  in  feeding  pulp  in  Europe  as  given  in 
the  year  book  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
1898  are  of  especial  interest  to  us,  as  the  roughage  used  was 
alfalfa  hay,  the  ration  being  enriched  by  using  linseed  oil¬ 
cake.  The  following  table  presents  these  results.  The  value 
per  ton  of  pulp  is  computed  from  increase  in  weight  and 
value  of  other  foods  given. 


ANIMALS.  FEED. 

Pulp.  Alfalfa.  Linseed  Cake.  Grain  per  Da}’.  Value  of  Pulp 
lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  per  Ton. 

Beef  Cattle . 115.0  6.6  6.6  2.214  $1.18 

Oxen . 126.8  12.0  2.2  -  0.87 

Sheep .  11.8  1.1  0.44  0.3  1.58 

Ewes . . .  .  .  1.10 


Average . . $1.18 


6 


BULLETIN  73. 

It  was  stated  that  the  oxen  fell  off  in  flesh  the  first  fifteen 
days  on  pulp,  but  after  that  they  gained  and  did  more  work 
on  the  pulp  ration.  The  ewes  were  given  a  little  larger 
ration  than  the  sheep.  An  experiment  in  feeding  milk  cows 
was  said  to  be  even  more  satisfactory  but  the  comparative 
value  of  the  pulp  was  not  indicated. 

CALIFORNIA. 

The  California  Experiment  Station  has  published  some 
general  statements  regarding  the  value  of  pulp.  Different 
stockmen  replied  that  they  could  afford  to  pay  from  25  cents 
to  $1.00  per  ton  for  beet  pulp.  One  man  placed  the  value  of 
fermented  pulp  at  25  cents  per  ton  more  than  fresh  pulp. 
The  pulp  there  is  fed  with  oat  and  barley  hay  and  straw, 
along  with  chopped  grain  and  cottonseed  meal.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  meat  dresses  whiter  and  with  less  sinews  when  fed 
pulp.  An  experiment  is  reported  in  which  pulp  was  fed  to 
cows  and  its  effect  on  feed  consumed,  milk  flow  and.  butter 
fat  noted.  An  accurate  account  of  the  hay  was  not  kept,  but 
approximately  when  no  pulp  was  fed,  the  cows  consumed 
twenty  pounds  of  hay  per  day,  in  addition  to  eight  pounds  of 
grain.  When  given  pulp,  the  consumption  of  hay  varied 
from  6  to  16  pounds,  depending  upon  the  amount  of 
pulp,  which  varied  from  20  to  80  pounds  per  day.  The 
effect  on  the  milk  flow  was  beneficial,  but  there  was  no 
appreciable  effect  in  raising  or  lowering  the  proportion  of  fat 
in  the  milk. 

MICHIGAN. 

The  Michigan  Experiment  Station  has  carried  out  some 
interesting  experiments  in  feeding  beet  pulp.  In  one  experi¬ 
ment  pulp  was  fed  to  steers  at  the  rate  of  55  pounds  per  day 
along  with  mixed  hay,  shredded  corn  stover  and  ground 
grain.  The  amounts  of  foods  given  and  eaten  were  compar¬ 
ed  with  a  check  lot  not  given  pulp.  It  was  found  that  one 
ton  of  pulp  took  the  place  of  421.5  pounds  of  corn  stover,  274 
pounds  of  mixed  hay  and  68.8  pounds  of  grain.  At  Colorado 
prices  of  $4.00  per  ton  for  the  roughage  and  1%  cents  per 
pound  for  the  grain,  this  would  give  the  pulp  a  value  of  $2.25 
per  ton. 

In  another  experiment  13,775  pounds  of  pulp  gave  an  in¬ 
creased  gain  of  280  pounds  of  beef.  Giving  the  increased 
gain  a  value  of  7 cents  per  pound  would  indicate  that  the 
feeding  value  of  the  pulp  was  a  little  more  than  $3.00  per  ton. 

Experiments  with  milk  cows  showed  that  the  pulp,  when 
given  with  hay  and  grain,  increased  the  flow  of  milk  some- 


THE  FEEDING  VALUE  OF  BEET  PULP. 


7 

what  but  did  not  add  to  the  yield  of  butter  fat.  This  report 
states  that  owners  of  growing  and  fattening  cattle  declare 
that  pulp  saves  one-third  of  the  coarse  fodder. 

NEW  YORK. 

The  Cornell  Station  reports  experiments  in  feeding  beet 
pulp  to  cows.  Their  conclusions  are  as  follows: 

“The  cows,  as  a  rule,  ate  beet  pulp  readily  and  consumed 
from  50  to  100  pounds  per  day,  according  to  size,  in  addition 
to  the  usual  feed  of  8  pounds  of  grain  and  6  to  12  pounds 
of  hay.” 

“The  dry  matter  in  beet  pulp  proved  to  be  of  equal 
value,  pound  for  pound,  with  the  dry  matter  in  corn  silage.” 

“The  milk  producing  value  of  beet  pulp  as  it  comes  from 
the  beet  sugar  factory  is  about  one-half  that  of  corn  silage.” 

“Beet  pulp  is  especially  valuable  as  a  succulent  food,  and 
when  no  other  such  food  is  obtainable  it  may  prove  of  great¬ 
er  comparative  value  than  is  given  above.” 

In  the  dairy  districts  of  New  York  and  other  states 
where  factories  have  been  established,  beet  pulp  is  coming 
into  great  demand  for  cows. 

NEBRASKA  AND  OTHER  PLACES. 

In  New  Mexico,  sheep,  and  in  Utah,  cattle,  have  been 
successfully  fattened  and  put  on  the  market  with  no  other 
food  than  pulp  and  alfalfa  hay. 

In  Nebraska  some  valuable  data  has  been  obtained  with 
both  sheep  and  cattle.  .  Experience  there  indicates  that  a 
maximum  amount  of  40  or  50  pounds  pulp  per  day  for  each 
steer  gives  better  results  than  larger  amounts.  Mr.  John 
Reimers,  whose  report  on  pulp  feeding  has  been  often  quot¬ 
ed,  states  that  cattle  eat  the  same  amount  of  hay  and  grain  . 
when  given  only  moderate  amounts  of  the  pulp,  but  that  they 
lay  on  flesh  more  rapidly,  shortening  the  feeding  season,  and 
that  the  pulp  gives  extra  gains  of  from  50  to  75  pounds  in 
three-fourths  of  the  usual  time,  which  results  in  a  great 
saving  of  grain  and  roughness.  His  pulp-fed  cattle  dressed 
and  shipped  as  well  as  any  other,  even  for  export.  Many 
general  reports  have  been  made  by  those  who  have  fed  this 
important  by-product  of  the  sugar  factories  and  all  testify  to 
its  value  both  for  fattening  and  the  production  of  milk. 

In  Colorado  some  extensive  feeding  has  been  done  with 
with  pulp.  Several  feeders  in  the  Arkansas  Valley  have  fed 
large  quantities  to  both  sheep  and  cattle  during  the  past  two 
years.  Col.  J.  A.  Lockhart  at  Rockyford  fed  3,700  head  of 


8 


BULLETIN  73. 

cattle  during  the  past  winter  using  beet  pulp,  alfalfa  hay, 
sorghum,  cotton  seed  meal,  corn  and  bran.  He  has  kindly 
offered  to  furnish  the  Station  with  his  results,  and  as  the 
feeding  was  done  on  so  large  a  scale  the  data  obtained  will 
be  very  valuable.  Mr.  Rhodes,  of  Las  Animas,  fed  2,200 
lambs  on  pulp,  and  speaks  very  highly  of  the  pulp.  There 
was  practically  no  loss  of  lambs,  they  made  large  gains,  and 
he  states  that  the  saving  of  hay  while  they  were  receiving 
the  pulp  was  very  marked.  Several  feeders  at  Loveland, 
Colorado,  who  fed  pulp  last  season  will  feed  on  a  larger  scale 
the  coming  winter.  Mark  Austin,  the  Agricultural  Super¬ 
intendent  for  the  Loveland  Sugar  Factory,  profitably  fed 
lambs  and  cattle,  and  Wm.  Davis,  a  farmer  north  of  Love¬ 
land,  tells  us  that  his  cattle  did  exceeding  well  on  the  pulp 
ration. 

USE  OF  PULP. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  attempts  to  compute  the  cash 
value  of  pulp  compared  with  other  foods  do  not  indicate  its 
total  value.  It  supplies  a  succulent  food  at  a  time  when  such 
food  is  either  not  available  or  is  scarce,  and  its  effect  on  stock 
seems  to  be  much  more  favorable  than  either  its  chemical 
analysis  or  the  return  in  increased  meat  or  milk  would  indi¬ 
cate.  To  its  actual  nutritive  effect  as  a  food  should  be  ad¬ 
ded  its  general  effect  on  the  quality  of  meat  and  milk  and 
on  the  animal  system.  Pulp  undoubtedly  overcomes  much 
injurious  effects  of  dry  and  concentrated  foods,  puts  the  sys¬ 
tem  in  good  sanitary  condition,  keeps  off  disease,  and  so  aids 
the  appetite  and  digestion  and  assimilation  of  food  that  there 
is  less  waste,  both  of  food  which  is  generally  discarded  in  eat¬ 
ing,  and  that  which  usually  passes  through  the  animal  un¬ 
digested. 

There  seems  to  be  no  difficulty  in  regard  to  keeping  beet 
pulp.  While  there  is  some  loss  of  material  when  placed  in 
open  piles,  the  fermentation  which  takes  place  seems  to  be  bene¬ 
ficial  rather  than  otherwise.  Animals  eat  the  sour  pulp  as 
well,  and  after  a  little  time  even  better  than  they  do  the  pulp 
fresh  from  the  factory,  and  the  dry  beet  chips  on  the  surface 
of  the  piles  are  very  palatable  to  sheep  and  cattle.  Nebraska 
feeders  claim  that  pulp  which  has  been  left  in  open  piles  for 
two  or  three  years  is  as  good  as  ever. 

No  injurious  effects  have  been  observed  from  feeding 
pulp,  unless  coo  large  amounts  are  given  before  the  animals 
become  accustomed  to  it.  The  Michigan  Station  warns  feed¬ 
ers  against  too  liberal  use  of  pulp  from  frozen  beets.  Freez¬ 
ing  does  not  seem  to  injure  the  pulp  itself,  except  that  it 


THE  FEEDING  VALUE  OF  BEET  PULP.  9 

probably  does  not  pay  to  feed  large  amounts  of  frozen  pulp 
in  cold  weather,  as  the  animal  must  expend  much  food 
energy  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  pulp  to  the  heat  of 
the  body.  Utah  reports  a  case  of  the  pulp  becoming  poison¬ 
ed  in  shipping.  The  pulp  was  shipped  in  freight  cars  which 
had  been  used  in  shipping  lead  ores  from  the  mines,  and  the 
pulp  absorbed  enough  of  the  lead  to  make  it  dangerous  to 
stock. 

During  the  past  spring  the  Denver  papers  gave  an  ac¬ 
count  of  cattles’  mouths  becoming  sore  from  eating  pulp, 
claiming  that  the  injury  was  produced  by  acids  added  to  the 
pulp  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  This  is  hardly  possible, 
as  the  pulp  is  subjected  to  nothing  but  hot  water  at  the  fac¬ 
tory.  Through  the  process  of  fermentation  from  long  keep¬ 
ing  butyric  and  acetic  acids  develop  in  pulp,  but  we  have  no 
accounts  of  any  injurious  effects  from  feeding  fermented 
pulp. 

The  greatest  difficulty  with  pulp  feeding  is  that  the  large 
amount  of  water  it  contains  makes  it  heavy  and  rather  ex¬ 
pensive  to  handle,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  keep  the 
animals  dry  and  comfortable  while  feeding  large  amounts  of 
it.  The  feeder  who  is  near  the  factory  and  has  the  appliances 
so  arranged  that  he  can  handle  the  pulp  with  the  least  ex¬ 
pense,  should  make  the  greatest  use  of  pulp  and  will  gain  the 
greatest  profit  from  its  use-  If  it  can  be  placed  before  stock 
at  a  cost  of  not  more  than  one  dollar  per  ton,  we  believe  it 
will  bring  good  returns  for  the  investment,  and  in  many  in¬ 
stances  it  may  be  worth  two  or  three  times  this  amount. 
Whether  fresh,  fermented  ,  or  dry,  beet  pulp  is  a  valuable 
stock  food,  and  one  of  which  our  farmers  should  make  the 
largest  possible  use. 

As  an  example  of  how  pulp  may  be  combined  with  other 
foods  in  forming  a  ration,  we  give  the  following  illustration: 

RATIONS  WITH  BEET  PULP. 

FATTENING  CATTLE  WEIGHING  I  ,CCO  POUNDS. 


FIRST  PERIOD. 


Dry 

Carbo- 

Nutritive 

Matter. 

Protein. 

hydrates. 

Fat. 

Ratio. 

Standard  Ration 

30 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

1:6-5 

Alfalfa . 

.15 

lbs. 

13.7 

1.65 

5.94 

0.1S 

Beet  Pulp . 

75 

i . 

7.0 

0.45 

5.47 

Cotton  Seed  Meal 

2 

t  i 

1.8 

0.75 

0.3 

0.24 

23.1 

2. 85 

11.71 

0.42 

1:4.4 

IO  BULLETIN  73. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 


Dry 

Carbo- 

Nutritive 

Matter. 

Protein. 

hydrates. 

Fat. 

Ratio. 

Standard  . 

30 

3.0 

14.5 

0.7 

1:5.4 

Alfalfa . 

15 

lbs.  13.7 

1.65 

5.94 

0.18 

Beet  Pulp . 

25 

“  2.5 

0.15 

1.8 

Cotton  Seed  Meal 

2 

“  1.8 

0.75 

0.3 

0.24 

(torn  Meal . 

6 

“  5.36 

0.46 

4.0 

0.26 

23.36 

3.01 

12.04 

0.68 

1:4.5 

The  larger  part  of  the  above  information  has  been 
gleaned  from  the  following  authorities: 


Colorado  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  46. 

Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  183. 

California  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  132. 

Michigan  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  193. 

Yearbook  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  189S. 

Special  Reports,  Division  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri 
culture,  1897,  1898,  1899. 

Utah  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  74. 


/ 


FEEDING  BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  COWS. 


PART  II.  INTRODUCTION. 

The  experiments  here  reported  were  among  the  first 
planned  to  compare  the  feeding  value  of  sugar  beets  and 
pulp  from  beet  sugar  factories.  The  value  of  roots  to  fur¬ 
nish  succulent  food  during  the  winter  when  green  pasture  is 
not  available,  has  long  been  well  understood,  and  such  suc¬ 
culent  foods  are  considered  especially  desirable  for  cows  pro¬ 
ducing  milk.  The  pulp  has  a  smaller  nutritive  value  than 
beets  because  the  sugar  and  salts  which  have  been  extracted 
at  the  factory  are  important  food  products,  but  there  is  no 
question  about  its  succulence.  Fresh  pulp  contains  about  ten 
per  cent  more  water  than  beets.  If  the  office  of  roots  in  a 
ration  is  to  supply  juicy  foods  which  will  aid  in  the  digestion 
and  assimilation  of  the  roughage  and  grain  fed  with  it,  rather 
than  for  the  nutritive  effect,  we  would  expect  pulp  to  possess 
the  necessary  qualifications.  The  manufacture  of  silage  from 
corn  and  other  roughage  is  done  to  extend  the  summer  con¬ 
ditions  of  green  food  through  the  rest  of  the  year 
when  the  animal’s  system  is  apt  to  become  clogged  with 
dry  grain  and  dry  hay  to  such  an  extent  that  the  digestive 
tract  does  not  perform  its  normal  function. 

That  the  main  use  of  roots  or  beet  pulp  is  to  prevent 
mal-nutrition  and  insure  general  health,  rather  than  to  sup¬ 
ply  food,  can  hardly  be  questioned.  Food  nutrients  can  be 
supplied  in  concentrated  form,  but  in  order  for  the  animal 
to  make  use  of  them  he  must  be  given  bulk  to  fill  up  and 
distend  the  digestive  organs,  and  the  food  must  be  porous 
and  permeable  by  the  digestive  fluids.  Laplanders  eat  in¬ 
fusorial  earth,  which  is  simply  a  chalky  soil,  to  help  fill  up 
the  stomach  and  dilute  the  whale  blubber  which  is  almost 
pure  fat  and  forms  the  chief  part  of  their  diet. 

Beets  or  beet  pulp  given  our  farm  animals  supply 
quantities  of  tender  living  plant  cells  which  are  filled  with 
juices  and  which  dilute,  soften  and  separate  the  particles  of  dry 
hay  and  grain  so  the  nutritive  qualities  of  the  whole  may  be 
more  efficiently  digested  and  absorbed  out  of  the  mass.  This 
is  aptly  illustrated  by  a  statement  made  to  one  of  us  by  a 
feeder  of  long  experience.  Tie  stated  that  one  winter  he  fol¬ 
lowed  the  usual  practice  of  running  hogs  with  his  steers  to 


12 


BULLETIN  73. 

consume  the  undigested  corn.  The  hogs  did  usually  well  un¬ 
til  he  added  the  beet  pulp  to  the  corn  ration  for  the  steers, 
when  they  so  thoroughly  digested  the  corn  that  the  hogs 
starved  and  he  was  forced  to  give  them  other  food. 

Both  beets  and  pulp  have  nutritive  values,  that  of  the 
beets  being  greater  than  that  of  the  pulp.  They  contain  so 
much  water  which  is  merely  bulk,  that  a  cow  would  hardly 
be  able  to  eat  enough  of  the  pulp,  at  least  if  given  no  other 
food,  to  supply  her  maintenance,  and  there  is  a  limit  to  the 
amount  of  such  foods  which  can  be  profitably  used.  Some 
experiments  report  cows  eating  as  much  as  120  pounds  of 
pulp  daily,  or  forty  to  sixty  pounds  of  beets.  However,  exces¬ 
sively  large  amounts  of  beets  are  dangerous,  as  they  contain 
small  amounts  of  a  poison  principle  which  may  cause  the 
death  of  the  animal  by  paralysis,  if  indeed  the  mere  amount 
of  food  does  not  produce  other  serious  troubles.  In  all  of 
our  experiments  up  to  this  time  we  have  confined  the  amount 
of  beets  or  pulp  fed  to  a  minimum,  giving  only  such  quan¬ 
tities  as  experience  in  other  places  has  indicated  could  be  fed 
with  profit.  We  think  fifty  pounds  of  beet  pulp,  or  one-half 
that  amount  of  beets,  would  be  a  maximum  to  add  to  a  ration 
fed  to  cows,  and  in  our  experiments  to  show  comparative 
values  we  have  fed  approximately  one-half  as  much. 

If  the  main  use  of  beets  or  pulp  is  to  furnish  a  tonic  or 
to  produce  a  salubrious  mechanical  effect,  rather  than  to 
supply  nutriment,  then  we  would  not  expect  to  find  a  great 
amount  of  difference  in  their  feeding  value  when  added  to 
grain  and  hay  rations  in  small  amounts.  These  points 
should  be  borne  in  mind  when  comparing  the  results  obtain¬ 
ed  in  the  following  reports  of  our  feeding  trials. 

The  beets  fed  were  grown  on  the  College  farm  and  con¬ 
tained  from  twelve  to  seventeen  per  cent  of  sugar.  The 
pulp  was  kindly  furnished  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  tests  by  Mr.  A.  V.  Officer,  manager  of  the  Loveland 
Sugar  Factory.  The  pulp  was  placed  in  piles  on  the  ground 
outdoors  and  fed  as  wanted. 

PLAN  OF  THE  EXPERIMENT. 

At  first  four  cows  were  put  on  alternate  beet  and  pulp 
rations,  records  of  which  were  kept  for  eleven  weeks.  Later 
a  fifth  cow,  Bessie  Geneva  2d,  was  added  and  fed  from  the 
eighth  to  eleventh  weeks.  Having  obtained  five  common 
stock  cows  before  the  supply  of  pulp  was  exhausted,  they 
were  fed  in  the  same  manner  the  last  three  weeks. 

The  first  week  all  the  cows  were  given  sugar  beets;  the 
next  two  weeks  the  beets  were  discontinued  and  pulp  fed; 


FEEDING  BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  COWS.  I  3 

the  fourth  and  fifth  weeks  beets  were  given  instead  of  pulp; 
the  sixth  and  seventh  weeks  pulp  was  fed;  the  eighth  and 
ninth  weeks,  beets,  and  the  tenth  and  eleventh  weeks,  pulp. 
The  cows  were  all  fed  the  same  amount  of  hay  and  grain 
daily  throughout  the  experiment.  The  grain  was  equal  parts 
of  corn  chop  and  wheat  chop. 

There  was  a  slight  variation  the  first  week  in  the  amount 
of  grain  fed,  as  the  cows  were  given  four  pounds  of  grain  per 
day  the  first  two  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  was  in¬ 
creased  to  eight  pounds  per  day.  The  first  week  each  cow 
ate  14.3  pounds  of  alfalfa  per  day,  and  for  the  remaining 
time  they  ate  20  pounds  per  day.  The  sugar  beets  eaten 
amounted  to  eight  pounds  per  day  during  the  first  week,  and 
twelve  pounds  per  day  during  the  subsequent  alternate 
periods  of  two  weeks  each.  They  ate  24  pounds  of  pulp 
daily  when  given  the  pulp  ration.  The  rations  were  as 
follows: 

BEET  RATION. 


Corn  chop,  4  pounds. 
Wheat  chop,  4  pounds. 
Alfalfa  hay,  20  pounds. 
Sugar  beets,  12  pounds. 


PULP  RATION. 


Corn  chop,  4  pounds. 

Wheat  chop,  4  pounds. 

Alfalfa  hay,  20  pounds. 

Beet  pulp,  24  pounds. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  nearly  the  above  rations 


correspond  in  digestible  nutrients  with  the  theoretical  stand¬ 
ard  for  a  thousand  pound  dairy  cow  giving  22  pounds  of  milk 
daily. 


Standard 

Dry 

Matter. 

29 

Protein. 

2.50 

Carbo¬ 

hydrates. 

13.0 

Ether 

Extract 

0.5 

Ratio. 

1:5.7 

Our  Beet 

Ration 

27.1 

3.05 

14.6 

0.5 

1:5.1 

Our  Pulp 

Ration 

27.8 

2.99 

14.2 

0.48 

1:5.1 

RESULTS  OF 

THE  FEEDING  TRIALS. 

Tables  I  to  X  give  the  individual  records  of  each  of  the 
cows  which  were  fed  either  beets  or  pulp  for  two  or  more 
weeks,  and  Fables  XI  and  XII  give  in  condensed  form  the 
records  of  the  five  cows  which  were  fed  beets  one  week  and 
pulp  two  weeks.  The  minus  sign  before  numbers  in  columns 
headed  "‘gain’  means  a  loss  of  weight  for  the  time  indicated. 


BULLETIN  73. 


I  A 


TABLE  I. 


DAINTY  NOBLE— FED  SUGAR  BEETS. 


Week. 

Weight  of  Cow. 

Beets 

Eaten 

Milk 

Butter 

Percent 

Fat 

Begin  ning 

End 

Gain 

1st, 

lbs. 

800 

lbs. 

820 

lbs, 

20 

lbs. 

56 

lbs. 

118.0 

lbs. 

6.46 

4.65 

4th  and  5th. 

I 

820 

870 

50 

168 

214.2 

13.91 

4.87 

8tli  and  9th. 

I 

890 

830 

—60 

168 

244.5  14.59 

5.12 

Total. 

| 

10 

392  1  606.7 

34.96 

Average 

Weekly. 

I 

2 

I 

78  5  !  121.3 

6.99 

4.88 

TABLE  II. 

DAINTY  NOBLE-FED  BEET  PULP. 


Week. 

Weight  of  Cow. 

Pulp 

Eaten 

Milk 

Butter 

Percent 

Fat 

Beginning 

End 

Gain 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

2d  and  3d. 

820 

820 

0 

224 

246 

13.89 

4.85 

6th  and  7th. 

870 

890 

20 

336 

242.2 

13.34 

4  72 

10th  and  11th. 

O 

cc 

00 

- 1 

880 

50 

336 

252.5 

15.17 

5.16 

Total. 

70 

896 

740.7 

42.40 

Average 

Weekly. 

11.7 

149.3 

123.5 

7.06 

4.89 

FEEDING  BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  COWS 


15 


TABLE  III. 

GILD  ANA-FED  SUGAR  BEETS. 


W eight  of  Cow. 

Beets 

Percent 

Week. 

Beginning 

End 

Gain 

Eaten 

Milk 

Butter 

Fat 

1st. 

lbs. 

930 

lbs. 

931 

lbs. 

1 

lbs. 

56 

lbs, 

59.0 

lbs. 

3.19 

4.60 

4tli  and  5th. 

960 

970 

10 

168 

144.2 

8.15 

4.84 

8th  and  9th. 

960 

970 

10 

168 

133.0 

7.80 

4.93 

Total. 

21 

392 

CO 

0$ 

io 

19.14 

Average 

Weekly. 

I 

4.2 

1 

78.5 

67.2 

3.83 

4.79 

TABLE  IV. 


GILDANA— FED  BEET  PULP. 


Week. 

Weight  of  Cow. 

Pulp 

Eaten 

Milk 

Blitter 

Percent 

Fat 

Beginning 

End 

Gain 

lbs. 

2d  and  3d.  931 

lbs. 

960 

lbs.  lbs. 

29  ;  224 

lbs. 

136 . 5 

lbs. 

76 

4.79 

II 

6th  and  7th.  jj  970 

ZD 

a 

0 

-10 

336 

121.7 

7.03 

4.95 

10th  and  11th. 

Total. 

19 

560  258 . 2 

.. 

14.63 

Average 

W  eekly. 

4.7 

140 

64.5 

3.66 

4.87 

i6 


BULLETIN 


/  J* 


TABLE  V. 

YOUNG  GRANNIE— FED  SUGAR  BEETS. 


j 

Week. 

! 

Weight  of  Cow. 

Beets 

Eaten 

Milk 

Butter 

Percent 

Fat 

Beginning 

End  j  Gain 

Ibs. 

1st.  i!  1070 

II 

lbs. 

1060 

lbs. 

-10 

lbs. 

56 

lbs. 

91.5 

lbs. 

5.28 

4.95 

4 Mi  and  5th. 

| 

1090 

1080 

—  10  '  168 

1 

! 

210.5  ;  12.52 

i 

5.10 

8th  and  9th. 

Total. 

—20  234 

302.0 

17.80 

Average 
Weekly,  j 

— 6.6  74.7 

100.7 

5.93 

5.02 

TABLE  VI. 

YOUNG  GRANNIE-FED  BEET  PULP. 


Weight  of  Cow. 

Pulp 

Pe  re  e  n  t 

Week. 

Beginning 

I 

End  Gain 

i 

Eaten 

! 

Milk 

Butter 

Fat 

2d  and  3d. 

lbs. 

1060 

lbs. 

1090 

lbs. 

30 

lbs. 

224 

lbs. 

203.2 

lbs. 

11.68 

4.94 

6th. 

1 

1080 

| 

1108 

28 

168 

104.5 

5  98 

4.89 

Total. 

I 

58 

392 

307.7 

17.66 

1 

Average 

Weekly. 

j 

19.3 

131 

102.6 

5.88 

4.91 

FEEDING  BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  COWS. 


17 


TABLE  VI!. 

MOUNTAIN  BEAUTY— FED  SUGAR  BEETS. 


Week. 

Weight  of  Cow. 

Beets 

Eaten 

Milk 

Butter 

Percent 

Fat 

Beginning 

End 

Gain 

1st. 

lbs. 

I 

lbs.  i  lbs. 

1 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

4th  and  5th. 

970 

970 

0 

108 

108.0 

7.07 

8.51 

I 

8th  and  9th.  i 

I 

1000 

1 

1080 

30 

108 

190.2 

! 

7 .  i  1  I  »l .  4  < 

I 

Total. 

00 

386  I  363.2  j  14.78 

Average 

Weekly. 

1 

7.5  |  84 

88.8 

8.09 

8.49 

TABLE  VIII. 

MOUNTAIN  BEAUTY— FED  BEET  PULP. 


Week. 

Weight  of  Cow. 

Pulp 

Eaten 

Milk 

• 

Butter 

Percent 

Fat 

Beginning 

End 

Gain 

2d  and  8d. 

I 

lbs. 

900 

lbs. 

970 

lbs. 

10 

lbs. 

224 

lbs. 

140.7 

lbs. 

6.48  J  3.72 

6th  and  7th. 

970 

1 

1000 

80 

886 

178.2 

7.43 

3.57 

10th  and  llth. 

1080 

990 

—40 

336 

1920 

7.05 

3.43 

Total. 

00 

tO 

05 

GO 

| 

516.9  21.51 

1 

Average 

Weekly. 

00 

149.3 

80.1 

3.58 

8.57 

1 8 


BULLETIN  73. 


TABLE  IX. 


BESSIE  GENEVA  2d— FED  SUGAR  BEETS. 


Week. 

Weight  of  Cow. 

Beginning!  End. 

Gain. 

Beets 

Eaten. 

Milk. 

Butter. 

Percent 

Fat. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

8th  and  9th 

1290 

1280 

—00 

188 

519.7 

28.18 

4 . 59 

Total. 

Average 

—15 

84 

259.8 

14.08 

4.59 

Weekly. 

TABLE  X. 

BESSIE  GENEVA  2d— FED  BEET  PULP. 


Weight  of  Cow. 

Pulp 

Percent 

Beginning 

1 

End.  Gain. 

Eaten. 

Milk. 

Butter. 

Fat. 

10th  and  11th 

1280 

1220 

0  | 

388  557.2 

1 

27.23 

3.91 

1 

Total. 

Average 

Weekly. 

-20 

188 

278.8 

13.81 

3.91 

I 


FEEDING  BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  COWS. 


19 


TABLE  XI. 

FIVE  COWS  ON  BEETS— NINTH  WEEK. 


Cow. 

Weight. 

Beets 

Eaten. 

Milk. 

Butter. 

Percent 

Fat. 

Beginning 

End. 

Gain. 

Brindle  No. 3. 

lbs. 

850 

lbs. 

880 

lbs.  lbs. 

10  81 

i 

lbs.  lbs. 

210.7  j  9.78 

3.96 

Black  Cow. 

990 

1030 

40 

84 

255.5 

12.86 

4.38 

Red  Cow. 

880 

890 

10  84 

180.5 

8.78 

4.11 

Brindle. 

1030 

1040 

10 

84 

234.2 

12.68 

4.12 

Old  Spot. 

1 

860 

1 

870 

10 

I  I 

84  I  170.7  !  8.10 

1  1 

4.01 

Total. 

80 

420 

1051.6 

52.20 

Average 
Weekly 
Per  Cow. 

16 

1 

84 

| 

210.8  ;  10.44  i  4.12 

1  i 

TABLE  XII. 

FIVE  COWS  ON  PULP— TENTH  AND  ELEVENTH  WEEKS. 


Weight. 

Pulp 

Percent 

Cow. 

Beginning 

End. 

Gain. 

Eaten. 

Milk. 

Butter. 

Fat. 

Brindle  No.  3. 

lbs. 

860 

lbs. 

800 

lbs. 

—60 

lbs. 

386 

lbs. 

465.5 

lbs. 

20.00 

3.70 

Black  Cow. 

1030 

990 

-40 

336 

529.0 

23.83 

3.75 

Red  Cow. 

890 

836 

376.5 

19.18 

4.18 

Brindle. 

1040 

935 

—105 

336 

470.7 

24.04 

4.24 

Old  Spot. 

870 

820 

—50 

336 

896.0 

18.33 

3.95 

Total. 

—255 

1680 

2237.7 

1 

104.83 

Average 
Weekly 
Per  Cow. 

1 

—32 

168 

223.8 

10.48 

3.96 

20 


BULLETIN  73. 

DAINTY  NOBLE.— TABLES  I  AND  II. 

Dainty  Noble  is  a  registered  Jersey  heifer.  At  the  time 
of  this  experiment  she  was  in  her  lirst  period  of  lactation, 
her  calf  having  been  dropped  January  1,  1902,  at  which  time 
Dainty  Noble  was  twenty-one  months  old.  Her  calf  was 
taken  away  immediately  after  birth.  Dainty  Noble  was  fed 
liberally  with  a  ration  of  wheat  and  corn  chop  and  alfalfa 
hay.  Sugar  beets  also  formed  a  part  of  the  ration  most  of 
the  time  until  the  experiment  began,  so  the  beets  were  not 
altogether  a  new  food  for  her,  and  there  would  be  no  un¬ 
desirable  results  from  change  of  food  ration. 

CILDANA.-TABLES  III  AND  IV. 

* 

Gildana  is  an  old  decrepit  Jersey  having  passed  the  use¬ 
ful  years  of  her  life  and  is  being  kept  as  a  nurse  cow  for  un¬ 
fortunate  calves  from  our  beef  herds.  Gildana’s  last  calf 
was  dropped  in  August,  1901,  from  which  time  she  had  been 
milked  as  her  motherly  services  had  not  been  required  else¬ 
where.  She  too  had  been  fed  sugar  beets  along  with  a  grain 
and  alfalfa  ration.  The  largest  milk  record  which  Gildana 
leaves  is  from  January  1,  1897,  to  January  1,  1898,  during 
which  time  she  produced  7,809  pounds  of  milk.  The  per 
cent  of  butter  fat  is  not  recorded. 

YOUNG  GRANNIE. -TABLES  V  AND  VI. 

Young  Grannie  had  dropped  her  sixth  calf  in  August, 
1901 ,  being  herself  eleven  years  old  the  previous  May.  In 
her  prime  she  had  been  a  good  milker  and  a  large  profit 
cow.  Young  Grannie  is  also  a  registered  Jersey.  The  ra¬ 
tion  of  sugar  beets,  wheat  and  corn  chop  and  alfalfa  hay  had 
also  been  fed  to  Young  Grannie. 

MOUNTAIN  BEAUTY .  — T A B L E S  VII  AND  VIII. 

Mountain  Beauty  is  a  pure-bred  Shorthorn  heifer  out  of 
Bessie  Geneva  2d.  As  a  calf  Mountain  Beauty  was  of  re¬ 
markable  proportions.  “She  is  as  handsome  a  calf  as  I  ever 
saw’’  were  the  words  of  the  President  of  the  National  Live 
Stock  Association.  Mountain  Beauty  dropped  her  first  calf 
when  she  was  still  very  young.  It  wasthought  advisable  to  take 
the  calf  away  from  her,  and  in  despite  of  the  high  condition 
in  which  she  had  been  kept  for  the  fairs,  to  see  if  she  would 
still  show  the  tendency  of  her  dam  in  the  dairy  line. 

Mountain  Beauty  had  not  been  accustomed  to  sugar 
beets  before  the  experiment  as  had  the  preceeding  cows. 


BESSIE  GENEVA  2d. -TABLES  IX  AND  X. 

Bessie  Geneva  2d  dropped  her  fourth  calf  April  g,  1902, 
when  she  was  live  years  and  eight  months  of  age.  As  soon 
as  her  milk  was  good  to  use  she  was  put  on  the  experiment, 
which  was  in  time  to  give  her  two  weeks  each  on  beets  and 
pulp.  T  his  was  the  second  year  that  she  had  been  milked. 
Previous  to  that  time  her  calves  had  been  allowed  to  take 
the  milk. 

Sugar  beets  had  been  a  part  of  the  ration  fed  to  Bessie 
Geneva  2d  during  the  winter  months  of  1901-02. 

FIVE  COWS  IN  TABLES  XI  AND  XII. 

The  five  cows  reported  in  these  tables  were  scrub  cows 
purchased  to  furnish  milk  to  the  College  dairy.  They  had 
calved  from  two  weeks  to  two  months  previous  to  the  time 
they  were  brought  to  the  College  farm.  None  of  them  had 
been  given  grain  or  had  received  anything  but  pasture  grass. 
When  we  obtained  possession  of  them  they  were  weighed  up 
and  put  upon  the  experiment  at  once  and  given  the  same 
ration  of  grain,  alfalfa,  sugar  beets  and  pulp  as  were  the 
other  cows.  These  cows  are  not  considered  in  the  results 
because  they  were  not  on  the  experiment  long  enough  to 
give  an  intelligent  idea  of  the  effect  of  the  beets  and  pulp. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  Table  XII  that  four  cows  made  a 
total  loss,  during  the  two  weeks  that  they  were  fed  pulp,  of 
255  pounds.  This  is  probably  explained  by  the  fact  that  a 
little  more  than  one  week  before  this  time,  these  cows  came 
directly  off  of  pasture  and  were  put  on  a  grain  ration.  It 
would  be  natural  then  for  them  to  fill  up  for  some  time  and 
apparently  gain  flesh  during  the  first  week  on  sugar  beets,  and 
then  apparently  lose  weight  rapidly  during  the  two  following 
weeks.  For  this  reason  the  results  of  these  cows  are  not 
used  in  computing  the  comparative  cost  and  profits. 

The  results  for  the  first  five  cows  which  were  on  feed  long 
enough  to  make  the  comparison  of  sugar  beets  and  pulp  of 
some  value,  show  that  the  two  foods  gave  almost  identical 
returns.  The  pulp  ration  gave  slightly  better  returns  when 
fed  to  Dainty  Noble  and  Young  Grannie.  Bessie  Geneva  2d 
gave  more  milk  but  not  quite  so  much  butter  per  week  when 
on  pulp,  and  also  lost  most  flesh.  The  beets  apparently  gave 
better  returns  with  Gildana  and  Mountain  Beauty.  The 
per  cent  fat  in  the  milk  varies  so  much  that  it  is  difficult  to 
draw  definite  conclusions  in  regard  to  which  ration  produced 
the  richest  milk.  Our  averages  show  a  little  more  milk  from 
the  pulp  ration  and  a  little  higher  fat  content  in  milk  from 
the  beet  ration. 


22 


a 

a 

a 


X 

111 

-1 

CQ 

< 

H 


C5 

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FEEDING  BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  COWS.  23 

Table  XIII  gives  the  cost  of  beets  eaten,  pulp  eaten  and 
total  cost  of  all  the  food  for  each  week,  and  the  values  of  gain 
and  products  with  the  corresponding  profit  weekly  for  each  of 
the  five  cows  which  were  fed  the  longest.  The  cost  of  the 
beets  eaten  is  computed  from  a  value  of  $4.00  per  ton  on  the 
farm,  beet  pulp  $1.00  per  ton,  alfalfa  $4.00  per  ton,  wheat 
chop  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds,  and  corn  chop  $1.30  per 
hundred.  The  gain  or  loss  in  weight  of  the  cows  is  valued 
at  five  cents  per  pound,  and  the  butter  made  at  20  cents  per 
pound  to  give  the  profit  from  butter.  The  amount  of  butter 
yield  is  computed  from  the  amount  of  fat  by  increasing  the 
total  fat  by  16.6  per  cent.  The  profit  from  the  milk  produc¬ 
tion  is  also  given  and  was  computed  in  the  same  way,  valu¬ 
ing  the  milk  at  one  cent  per  pound. 

Dainty  Noble,  on  beets,  gave  a  profit  of  43  cents  per  week 
from  the  butter,  or  24  cents  per  week  from  the  milk  yield. 
On  pulp  she  gave  a  profit  of  99  cents  per  week  on  butter,  or 
81  cents  on  milk. 

Gildana,  when  fed  beets,  gave  a  loss  of  9  cents  from  but¬ 
ter  yield,  or  of  49  cents  from  milk  yield.  On  pulp  she  gave 
a  loss  of  3  cents  per  week  from  the  butter  yield,  or  12  cents 
per  week  from  the  milk  yield. 

Young  Grannie,  when  fed  beets,  gave  a  loss  of  19  cents 
per  week  from  butter  yield,  or  38  cents  per  week  from  milk 
yield.  On  pulp  she  gave  a  profit  of  $1.15  per  week  from 
butter  yield,  which  is  the  hignest  profit  from  any  of  the  cows. 
Her  profit  is  99  cents  per  week  from  milk  yield. 

Mountain  Beauty,  when  fed  beets,  gave  a  profit  of  2  cents 
per  week  from  butter  yield,  or  16  cents  per  week  from  yield 
of  milk.  When  fed  on  pulp  she  gave  a  loss  of  28  cents  per 
week  on  butter  yield,  and  14  cents  per  week  from  yield  of 
milk. 

Bessie  Geneva  2d,  when  fed  on  beets,  gave  a  profit  of  98 
cents  per  week  from  butter  yield,  or  76  cents  from  her  milk 
yield.  On  pulp  she  gave  a  profit  of  71  cents  in  butter  or  78 
cents  in  milk. 

The  difference  between  the  profit  and  losses  made  by  all 
the  cows  while  fed  beets  shows  a  total  profit  of  81  cents,  against 
a  total  profit  on  pulp  of  $2.54.  Accrediting  all  of  the  profit 
to  the  total  pulp  fed  gives  the  pulp  a  value  of  $2.61  per  ton, 
and  in  like  manner  attributing  the  profit  made  by  cows  on 
beet  ration  to  the  amount  of  beets  which  they  consumed 
gives  the  beets  a  feeding  value  of  $5.06  per  ton. 


24 


BULLETIN  73. 


SUMMARY. 

Five  cows  fed  24  pounds  of  beet  pulp  for  six  weeks,  in 
addition  to  grain  and  hay,  made  an  average  gain  per  week 
of  6.2  pounds.  The  same  cows  fed  12  pounds  of  beets  per 
day  for  five  weeks  made  an  average  gain  per  week  of  one- 
fifth  pound. 

Five  cows  on  the  pulp  ration  gave  an  average  weekly 
milk  yield  of  131.1  pounds,  and  on  the  beet  ration  they  gave 
an  average  weekly  milk  yield  of  127.4  pounds. 

F  ive  cows  on  the  pulp  ration  gave  an  average  weekly 
butter  yield  of  6.76  pounds,  and  on  the  beet  ration  an  aver¬ 
age  weekly  butter  yield  of  6.90  pounds.  The  milk  contained 
a  little  more  butter  fat  when  the  cows  were  fed  sugar  beets. 

A  little  more  than  three  times  as  much  profit  resulted 
from  feeding  24  pounds  of  pulp  per  day  than  was  realized 
from  12  pounds  of  beets  per  day,  at  one  dollar  and  four  dol¬ 
lars  per  ton  respectively. 

The  total  profits  indicated  a  feeding  value  of  the  pulp 
for  butter  production  of  $2.61  per  ton,  and  of  the  beets  of 
$5.06  per  ton  when  fed  in  small  amounts,  and  when  butter  is 
worth  20  cents  per  pound. 


Bulletin  74. 


September,  1902. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 


Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


BEET  PULP  AND  SUGAR  BEETS  FOR  FATTENING 

HOGS. 

HOME  GROWN  GRAINS  VS.  CORN  FOR  FATTENING 

HOGS. 

OTHER  TRIALS  WITH  CORN,  BARLEY,  ALFALFA 

AND  BEETS. 


B.  C.  BUFFUM  and  C.  J.  GRIFFITH. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1 9Q2. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

TERM 


Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 
Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS,  - 
Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 
Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, 


Canon  City, 

EXPIRES 

1903 

Denver, 

1903 

Denver, 

■  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

-  1905 

Denver,  - 

1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum,  - 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

1909 

Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN,  )  „ 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  \  ex'°nlcio 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF.  • 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ....  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . Chemist 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S.,* . Agriculturist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

E.  D.  BALL,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S„ . Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN.. .  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


*  Resigned  September  1  to  bccome'Director  Wyoming  Agr'l  Exp’t  Station. 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


{a)  Beet  Pulp  and  Sugar  Beets  for  Fattening  Hogs. 

(b)  Home-Grown  Grains  vs.  Corn  for  Fattening  Hogs. 

(c)  Other  Trials  with  Corn,  Barley,  Alfalfa  and  Beets. 


BY  B.  C.  BUFFUM  AND  C.  J.  GRIFFITH.* 


The  general  conclusions  which  may  be  drawn  from  the 
experimental  investigations  reported  in  this  bulletin  will  be 
found  in  condensed  form  on  the  last  pages,  and  we  suggest 
that  the  busy  man  who  is  willing  to  accept  our  testimony 
may  profitably  omit  the  reading  of  all  intermediate  material, 
except  the  pictures. 

The  last  enumeration  of  hogs  in  Colorado  (1901)  credit¬ 
ed  the  state  with  101,198  head.  There  are,  according  to 
the  census,  2,273,968  acres  of  land  irrigated,  and  the  farms 
and  ranches  number  24,700. 

The  scarcity  of  swine  in  the  state  is  due  largely  to  the 
system  of  farming  in  vogue  which  allows  a  great  majority 
of  the  stock  raised  on  ranches  to  run  at  large  on  the  range 
in  the  mountains  or  on  the  plains  a  large  part  of  the  year, 
keeping  them  on  the  ranch  only  during  the  cold  months. 
This  system  reduces  the  expense  of  raising  stock  to  a  mini¬ 
mum.  Every  animal  that  can  be  spared  from  the  ranch  is 
thus  grazed  on  lands  that  cannot  be  farmed  and  con¬ 
sequently  have  a  small  value.  Outside  of  the  dairies  there 
are  not  a  great  many  cows  milked.  The  total  number  of 
cows  in  the  state  is  about  20,157,  according  to  the  1900  cen¬ 
sus  report.  The  milk  cows  and  the  work  horses  constitute 
the  ranch  live  stock  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
Then,  too,  there  are  not  a  great  number  of  cattle  fattened 
in  the  state  and  so  there  is  not  the  demand  for  hogs  to  fol¬ 
low  the  cattle  in  the  feed  lots. 

A  third  reason  is  the  lack  of  information  among  our 
farmers  of  the  feeding  value  of  our  home-grown  grains  for 


instructor  in  Animal  Husbandry. 


4  BULLETIN  74. 

fattening  hogs.  Corn  is  not  grown  to  any  extent  in  Colo¬ 
rado,  except  for  fodder,  and  it  is  entirely  reasonable  that  it 
will  never  be  grown  extensively  because  of  existing  climatic 
conditions.  There  is  an  occasional  farmer  that  raises  some 
corn  each  year,  but  they  are  mostly  in  favored  localities 
where  the  nights  are  warmer  than  our  average  condition. 
It  will  follow  then  that  our  steers  will  continue  to  be  ship¬ 
ped  to  the  corn  belt  states  to  be  fattened,  and  the  demand 
for  hogs  to  follow  cattle  in  the  feed  lots  will  be  small. 

Will  it  then  pay  to  raise  and  fatten  hogs  for  market  in 
Colorado?  If  it  will  pay,  will  it  pay  better  than  some  oc¬ 
cupation  to  which  our  farmers  have  access  at  present?  Let 
us  look  first  at  the  products  of  the  farming  or  ranching  com¬ 
munities.  In  the  Cache  la  Poudre,  Big  Thompson,  St. 
Vrain  and  South  Platte  Valleys,  which  constitute  the  irri¬ 
gated  section  of  northeastern  Colorado,  alfalfa  is  the  princi¬ 
pal  product  grown.  Wheat  comes  next,  with  oats  and  po¬ 
tatoes  following  in  succession.  The  raising  of  sugar  beets 
is  assuming  remarkable  proportions  and  may  eclipse  some 
of  the  former  products  in  acreage  and  importance.  The 
cultivating  and  harvesting  of  these  crops  occupy  the  sum¬ 
mer  months.  Lamb  feeding  is  the  principal  winter  occupa¬ 
tion  and  assumes  larger  and  larger  proportions  each  year, 
as  it  affords  profitable  disposition  for  the  immense  quantities 
of  alfalfa  raised,  and  earns  a  large  percent  for  the  skill  of 
the  feeder  and  the  capital  invested.  Cattle  raising  is  the 
chief  agricultural  industry  of  the  whole  state,  and  together 
with  the  raising  of  horses  and  sheep,  doubtless  must  ever  be 
foremost,  because  of  the  many  million  acres  of  semi-arid 
plains  that  grow  nutritious  native  grasses,  and  which  do  not 
produce  a  paying  crop  under  cultivation.  Then  there  is  the 
vast  mountain  region  that  supports  on  its  precipitious  slopes 
sleek  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  Together  these  two  ranges 
maintain,  according  to  the  last  statistics,  1,333,202  cattle; 
236,546  horses,  and  2,044,814  sheep.  As  stated  before,  this 
stock  is  kept  on  the  ranches  only  about  two  months  each 
year,  and  it  is  only  those  that  have  the  best  of  care  that  re¬ 
main  that  long  where  there  is  shelter  and  hay.  So  this 
class  of  stock  would  not  interfere  with  hog  raising  in  the 
least,  and  hog  raising  and  lamb  feeding  would  be  mutually 
beneficial.  The  time  spent  in  caring  for  a  bunch  of  hogs 
would  not  interfere  with  the  farming  operations  any  more 
than  it  does  in  other  places. 

The  one  consideration  then  should  be  whether  capital 
invested  in  hogs  would  yield  as  good  returns  as  in¬ 
vested  elsewhere  on  the  farm.  This  may  be  judged,  in  part 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


5 

at  least,  by  the  results  of  these  experiments.  We  must  de¬ 
cide  whether  we  have  forage  crops  and  grains  to  properly 
raise  and  fatten  hogs,  or  whether  it  would  be  advisable  to 
ship  in  such  foods. 

Unlike  lambs,  hogs  will  not  consume  a  large  amount  of 
rough  forage  and  make  as  profitable  a  gain  therefrom,  but 
they  must  be  fed  a  more  concentrated  or  less  bulky  ration. 
The  stomach  of  the  sheep  holds  only  30  to  34  quarts,  while 
the  stomach  of  the  hog  holds  from  7  to  9  quarts.  Under 
our  conditions  profitable,  lamb  feeding  and  profitable  hog 
feeding  must  be  different  questions  carried  out  along  differ¬ 
ent  lines.  Lambs  naturally  fit  into  our  system  of  farming 
to  use  up  the  surplus  alfalfa  hay.  Unless  we  can  feed  home 
grown  products  to  hogs  with  profit  they  will  not  fit  into  our 
conditions  in  the  same  way,  though  our  pasture  conditions 
for  them  are  ideal. 

ALFALFA  FOR  PASTURE. 

It  is  essential  in  raising  hogs  to  have  some  pasture  grass 
for  them.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  brood  sows  and  the 
young  pigs  which  need  not  only  the  green  feed  but  the  ex¬ 
ercise  and  sunshine  out  of  doors.  Alfalfa  fulfills  this  re¬ 
quirement  admirably,  as  it  makes  a  forage  which  is  perfect¬ 
ly  safe  for  hogs  to  pasture,  is  nutritious,  palatable,  grows 
early  in  the  spring  and  late  in  the  fall.  Alfalfa  produces  more 
green  forage  per  acre  than  any  other  forage  used  for  hog  pas¬ 
ture  in  the  central  west.  Colorado  is  credited  with  799,611 
acres  of  this  crop.  It  is  essential  to  every  ranch  where  mix¬ 
ed  farming  is  carried  on.  Alfalfa  is  grown  to  such  an  ex¬ 
tent  in  the  state  that  any  farmer  or  stockman  could  spare  a 
few  acres  for  hog  pasture.  The  value  of  an  acre  of  alfalfa 
throughout  the  season  for  laying  on  pork  has  not  been  re¬ 
ported  from  any  station,  but  long  experience  has  taught 
practical  hog  raisers  that  a  little  corn  or  a  small  amount  of 
other  grain,  together  with  good  alfalfa  pasture,  will  give 
excellent  returns.  Alfalfa  alone  seems  to  supply  little  more 
than  a  maintenance  ration,  but  as  such  is  very  valuable. 

BEET  PULP. 

With  the  growth  of  the  sugar  beet  industry  and  the 
building  of  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar, 
within  the  state,  an  important  by-product,  beet  pulp,  has 
been  added  to  the  list  of  foods  available  to  stock  feeders. 
Pulp  is  made  by  cutting  sugar  beets  up  into  shreds  about  one- 
half  the  size  of  an  ordinary  lead  pencil  in  order  to  extract  the 
sweet  juices  from  them  by  allowing  the  mass  of  shredded 


6 


BULLETIN  74. 

beet  to  soak  in  a  constantly  moving  bath  of  hot  water  until 
the  sugar  is  dissolved  out.  Thus  the  pulp  comes  in  contact 
with  no  chemicals  whatever  to  impair  its  healthfulness  as  a 
food  product.  Any  unhealthful  property  that  the  pulp 
might  have  must  therefore  be  laid  to  outside  contamination 
or  other  causes,  and  not  to  any  process  in  the  manufacture 
of  sugar  from  the  beets.  After  coming  out  of  the  hot  water 
bath,  the  pulp  is  run  into  an  immense  vat  or  storage  silo  for 
future  disposition. 

The  purchase  price  of  pulp  in  this  state  is  35  to  50  cents 
per  ton  at  the  factory  and  a  lower  price  than  this  is  often 
made  to  farmers  who  furnish  beets. 

Beets  produce  approximately  fifty  percent  of  their 
weight  of  pulp,  and  in  some  places  an  amount  of  pulp  is 
given  back  corresponding  to  the  amount  of  beets  furnished. 
Extravagant  prices  have  been  paid  for  pulp  in  some  in¬ 
stances.  A  note  published  in  one  of  the  eastern  farm 
papers  quoted  a  price  per  ton  obtained  for  pulp  one  dollar 
in  excess  of  the  price  paid  originally  for  the  beets.  Where 
the  pulp  has  to  be  shipped  from  the  factory  for  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  an  additional  sum,  say  fifty  cents  per  ton,  would  have 
to  be  added  to  the  price  to  pay  freight.  Then  there  is  the 
hauling  of  it  from  the  car,  which  makes  another  item  of  ex¬ 
pense  of  say  25  cents  per  ton  if  the  distance  is  two  miles  or 
less.  This  makes  the  total  expense  75  cents  per  ton  plus 
the  price  of  the  pulp  at  the  factory.  This  would  make  the 
total  cost,  within  a  reasonable  distance  of  the  factory,  $1.25 
per  ton  for  wet  pulp.  The  loss  of  water  will  cause  continual 
shrinkage.  The  amount  of  shrinkage  cannot  be  estimated, 
but  will  depend  largely  upon  whether  the  pulp  has  been 
pressed  at  the  factory,  or  whether  it  is  obtained  from  the 
discharge  pipe  or  taken  from  the  silo  where  it  has  drained 
for  a  greater  or  less  length  of  time. 

The  palatability  of  pulp,  when  properly  handled,  is  un¬ 
questioned.  Our  experience  at  this  Station  is  that  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep,  and  especially  such  of  these  as  are  used  to 
roots,  relish  puip  and  will  eat  it  greedily.  Our  pure  bred 
sheep  that  are  kept  on  the  College  farm  broke  through 
the  fence  repeatedly  to  get  at  a  pile  of  pulp.  The  horses 
also  were  especially  fond  of  it,  and  while  the  cattle  did  not 
appear  so  greedy  they  ate  it  heartily.  A  little  difficulty  was 
encountered  in  getting  some  Mexican  lambs,  with  which  we 
were  experimenting,  to  eat  the  pulp,  but  in  a  few  weeks 
time  they  were  consuming  a  considerable  quantity  of  it. 
The  hogs  used  in  this  experiment  acted  much  the  same  way, 
not  caring  for  the  pulp  and  almost  absolutely  refusing  to 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


7 

eat  it  for  some  time.  The  grain  fed  was  mixed  with  the 
pulp  and  in  a  few  days  they  were  eating  the  mixed  pulp  and 
grain  greedily. 

The  low  per  cent  of  nutrients  in  pulp  does  not  give  it  a 
very  good  recommendation  as  a  food.  The  composition  of 
Colorado  pulp  as  determined  by  Dr.  Headden,  compared 
with  alfalfa,  runs  thus: 

Dry  Matter  in  100  lbs.  Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  lbs. 


Carbo-  Ether 

Protein.  hydrates.  Extract. 

Beet  Pulp .  10.0  0.38  ‘  7.36  .02 

Alfalfa .  91.6  *  11.00  39.60  1.20 


Dr.  Headden  states  that  his  analyses  were  made  of 
grated  pulp  which  probably  contained  a  minimum  amount 
of  nutrients.  The  California  Experiment  Station  gives  a 
somewhat  higher  composition  than  the  foregoing.  Analysis 
quoted  from  Herbert  Myrick’s  book  on  “The  American 
Sugar  Industry,”  p.  108. 

Digestible  Digestible  Digestible 

Dry  Matter.  Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Ether  Ext. 
Beet  Pulp . 10.0  1.3  6:7  0.4 


Taking  our  own  analysis  showing  the  smallest  amount 
of  foods  in  one  ton  of  beet  pulp  there  are  200  pounds  of  dry 
matter,  of  which  7.6  pounds  are  digestible  protein;  147.2 
pounds  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  4  pounds  digestible 
ether  extract.  In  alfalfa  there  are  1832  pounds  of  dry  mat¬ 
ter  in  one  ton,  of  which  220  pounds  of  protein  are  digestible 
and  792  pounds  of  carbohydrates  are  digestible,  and  there 
are  24  pounds  of  digestible  ether  extract.  As  alfalfa  is 
worth  about  four  times  as  much  as  pulp  costs  laid  down  on 
the  farm,  we  readily  see  that  in  the  matter  of  composition 
the  pulp  makes  a  poor  showing.  This  is  illustrated  in  the 
following  table  of  comparative  values: 


Dry  Matter 
in  2000  lbs. 


One  ton  Pulp  worth  $1.00 . 200 

500  lbs.  Alfalfa  worth  $1.00 . 458 


Digestible  Nutrients  in  2000  lbs. 

Carbo-  Ether 

Protein.  hydrates.  Extract. 
7.6  ‘  147.2  0.4 

55.0  198.0  6.0 


However  the  feeding  value  of  pulp  may  not  be  definite¬ 
ly  determined  by  the  percentage  composition  because  the 
pulp  is  not  used  as  a  basis  food  but  as  a  condiment  or  suc¬ 
culent  sauce  to  increase  the  appetite  and  aid  digestion,  and 
in  that  respect  it  may  have  a  value  which  would  make  it 
profitable  to  feed  under  certain  conditions.  If  two  or  even 
four  pounds  of  pulp  per  head  each  day  would  help  the  di¬ 
gestion  of  the  other  foods  fed,  or  if  in  a  preliminary  feeding 


8 


BULLETIN  74. 

period  pulp  could  be  used  in  a  ration  to  put  animals  in  a 
condition  to  fatten  readily,  then  it  might  have  a  value  even 
in  excess  of  the  $r.oo  or  $1.25  per  ton.  It  has  been  clearly 
demonstrated  that  for  fattening  hogs  the  corn  cob  has  a  value 
when  ground  up  with  corn,  because  it  lightens  the  meal  in 
the  stomach  and  thus  makes  it  more  digestible.  It  is  not 
beyond  the  range  of  possibility  that  pulp  may  serve  this 
same  purpose  in  a  region  where  ear  corn  is  uncommon,  and 
at  the  same  time  furnish  some  nutrients  in  the  ration. 

KEEPING  QUALITY  OF  PULP. 

There  are  various  methods  for  the  preservation  of 
pulp.  In  some  parts  of  Utah  where  rock  salt  is  plentiful,  large 
pits  are  dug  in  the  ground  and  quantities  of  salt  are  thrown 
into  the  pulp  when  it  is  being  put  into  this  pit,  which,  it  is 
claimed,  makes  a  splendid  silo.  When  the  pulp  is  exposed 
to  the  weather  the  top  layer  dries  out  and  the  pulp  further 
down  forms  a  thick  pasty  layer  five  or  six  inches  deep. 
This  layer  excludes  the  air  and  keeps  the  pulp  fresh  and 
sweet.  During  this  experiment  we  had  pulp  in  piles  on  the 
ground  from  the  first  of  January  until  late  in  June.  It  was 
preserved  in  an  unfermented,  or  only  slightly  fermented, 
condition  until  the  early  part  of  June,  when  warm  weather 
came  on.  When  it  is  desirable  to  keep  pulp  no  longer  in 
the  season  than  this,  it  is  just  as  well  to  pile  it  on  the 
ground.  If  it  is  to  be  kept  through  the  summer,  most  any 
form  of  silo  is  effiicent,  and  in  deep  piles  it  has  been  known 
to  keep  two  or  three  years. 

SUGAR  BEETS. 

A  conservative  estimate  of  the  sugar  beets  grown  in  the 
state  this  year  ( 1902)  for  the  factories  would  be  35,000  acres. 
This  will  yield  approximately  350,^00  tons  of  sugar  beets 
which,  if  made  into  sugar,  will  give  more  than  150,000  tons 
of  pulp.  Besides  this  there  is  a  large  acreage  being  grown 
for  feed.  Numerous  requests  have  been  received  by  this 
department  asking  for  information  of  the  feeding  value  of 
sugar  beets  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock.  Reports  have  come 
in  of  feeders  paying  more  for  sugar  beets  than  is  paid  by 
the  factories.  Large  quantities  have  been  fed  the  last  two 
years  with  evidently  good  results,  and  in  many  places  feed¬ 
ers  have  made  special  arrangements  for  sugar  beets  for 
their  stock  the  coming  season. 

There  is  no  question  about  the  feeding  value  of  these 
beets  for  stock-cattle,  sheep  and  hogs,  to  maintain  health, 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


Q 

thrift  and  breeding  qualities;  but  their  value  when  used  as 
the  basis  of  a  fattening  ration  is  not  so  well  determined. 
As  this  is  the  way  they  are  being  used  in  this  state,  several 
experiments  with  beets  were  planned  to  determine  whether 
or  not  they  can  be  made  a  part  of  a  fattening  ration  with 
profit.  Many  farmers  have  reported  feeding  them  alone  to 
hogs  with  good  results,  but  the  chemical  composition  of 
sugar  beets  is  prima  facia  evidence  that  hogs  cannot  make 
good  and  profitable  gains  when  fed  on  beets  alone,  because 
there  is  not  sustenance  enough  in  the  amount  of  them  a 
hog  can  eat  and  digest,  to  do  much  more  than  maintain  the 
animal  at  a  constant  weight.  According  to  feeding  stand¬ 
ards,  a  hog  weighing  200  pounds  to  make  the  best  gain, 
needs  digestible  nutrients  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Digestible  Digestible  Digestible 
Dry  Matter.  Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Ether  Ext. 
Standard  for  200  lb.  hog  0,41bs.  0.8  lbs.  4.8  lbs.  0.1  lbs. 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  SUGAR  BEETS. — POUNDS  IN  IOO. 

Dry  Digestible  Digestible  Digestible 

Matter.  Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Ether  Extract. 

20.0  1.135  16.007  0.051. 

In  25  pounds  of  sugar  beets  there  would  be  digestible 

nutrients  as  follows: 


Dry 

Matter. 

Sugar  Beets  \  n 
25  lbs.  /  °'u 


Digestible  Digestible  Digestible 

Protein.  Carbohydrates.  Ether  Extract. 


0.284 


4.002 


0.013- 


Twelve  and  a  half  pounds  was  all  we  could  get  a  hun¬ 
dred-pound  hog  to  eat  in  one  day  during  the  experiment. 
By  comparison  it  will  be  seen  how  far  short  of  the  standard 
25  pounds  of  beets  would  be  for  a  two  hundred-pound  hog, 
were  it  possible  to  get  him  to  eat  that  amount.  However, 
if  beets  could  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  some  grain  in 
the  fattening  ration  supplying  them  might  be  of  advantage. 


HOME  GROWN  GRAIN  VS.  CORN. 

By  home  grown  grains  is  meant  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
and  such  other  small  grains  as  are  grown  in  Colorado.  It 
would  be  hard  to  give  an  intelligent  estimate  of  the  amount 
of  corn  that  is  annually  shipped  into  the  state  for  feeding 
purposes.  Feeders  have  frequently  resorted  to  home  grown 
grains  during  periods  of  high  prices  of  corn.  It  is  a  com¬ 
mon  custom  to  trade  wheat  and  barley  off  for  corn.  Even 
this  last  winter  when  wheat  was  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds, 
and  at  one  time  as  low  as  90  cents  per  hundred,  feeders 


IO  BULLETIN  74. 

hauled  in  wheat  and  took  home  corn  at  $1.30  per  hundred. 
Barley  was  selling  at  about  the  same  figure  as  wheat.  The 
acreage  of  wheat  as  given  in  the  government  reports  for 
1 900,  was  estimated  at  318,899  acres;  barley,  12,672  acres, 
oats,  99,768  acres;  rye,  2,350  acres.  The  combined  yield  of 
these  four  grains  for  that  year  approximated  11,000,000 
bushels. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  under  irrigation  the  small 
grains  produce  plumper,  larger  kernels  giving  greater 
weight  per  bushel,  and  that  the  chemical  composition  dif¬ 
fers  widely  from  that  of  grains  grown  under  rainfall  condi¬ 
tions.  Repeated  feeding  experiments  in  other  states  have 
shown  wheat  to  be  fully  equal  to  corn  for  fattening  hogs, 
and  barley  to  be  worth  about  8  percent  less  than  wheat  or 
corn  Prof.  W.  W.  Cooke,  formerly  of  this  Station,  made 
an  extensive  and  exhaustive  experiment  comparing  barley 
and  corn,  both  whole  and  ground,  for  fattening  hogs,  with 
the  following  results: 


No. 

Tests. 

Av.  Weight 
at 

Beginning. 

Average 

Daily 

Gain. 

Average  Daily 

Feed. 

Food  per  lb. 

of  Growth. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Grain 

lbs. 

Skim 

Milk 

qts. 

Grain 

lbs. 

Skim 

Milk 

qts. 

Whole  Corn. . . 

6 

71 

0.39 

2.0 

0.7 

7.0 

1.1 

Ground  Corn  . 

5 

60 

0.46 

2.4 

1.0 

5.4 

1.1 

Whole  Bald  Barley . 

1 

8 

88 

0.58 

2.3 

1.2 

5.0 

1.3 

Ground  Bald  Barley . 

5 

67 

0.74 

2.4 

0.8 

3.6 

0.8 

Whole  Common  Barley.  . 

4 

68 

0.49 

2.3 

0.5 

5.4 

0.7 

Ground  Common  Barley . 

4 

47 

0.70 

2.4 

1.1 

4.3 

1.1 

Ground  Com  and  Barley  . 

4 

50 

0.77 

2.1 

1.0 

4.1 

0.8 

This  experiment  shows  the  superiority  of  irrigation 
grown  barley  over  rainfall  corn  and  thus  over  rainfall  grown 
barley. 

The  average  price  of  corn  in  Colorado  for  the  past  ten 
years  has  been  80.5  cents  per  hundred  pounds;  wheat  99.5 
cents;  barley  55.1  cents.  An  average  for  vvheat  and  barley 
of  77.3  cents,  or  3.2  cents  per  hundred  less  than  corn.  If 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


I  I 

then,  our  home  grown  grains  are  worth  less  money  right  on 
our  farms  than  corn  in  town,  and  in  turn  either  of  them 
singly  will  produce  more  pork  per  pound  than  will  corn,  and 
when  fed  mixed  are  far  superior  to  corn,  have  we  not  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  supplying  concentrates  which  will 
profitably  fatten  hogs?  (In  this  connection  special  atten¬ 
tion  is  called  to  Summary  of  Lot  IV.  in  the  1902  Experi¬ 
ment,  page  22).  Together  with  the  alfalfa  for  forage  and 
the  sugar  beets  and  their  by-products  for  roughage,  Colo¬ 
rado  should  become  a  factor  in  the  production  of  pork. 

OBJECT  OF  EXPERIMENT  IN  1902. 

To  test  the  value  of  pulp  and  sugar  beets  when  fed 
with  grain;  the  value  of  sugar  beets  alone;  and  these  three 
compared  with  corn,  wheat  and  barley,  was  the  purpose  of 
this  experiment.  It  is  reallv  a  comparison  of  home  grown 
foods  vs.  corn  and  is  a  continuance  of  experiments  previ¬ 
ously  carried  out  with  both  swine  and  sheep.  It  is  also 
important  at  this  time  to  be  able  to  give  something  definite 
about  the  value  of  sugar  beets  and  pulp  for  all  classes  of 
stock.  There  will  be  in  excess  of  150,000  tons  of  beet  pulp 
available  for  feeding  this  fall  and  winter.  To  be  able  to 
utilize  this  for  wintering  or  fattening  stock  would  add  vastly 
to  the  live  stock  industry.  So  large  a  subject  is  this  feeding 
of  pulp  that  this  bulletin  does  not  attempt  to  treat  more 
than  partially  the  utility  of  pulp  for  fattening  swine. 

PLAN  OF  EXPERIMENT. 

Twenty  shoats  were  divided  into  five  lots  of  four  each. 
Care  was  taken  in  selecting  the  individuals  for  each  lot,  that 
each  pen  should  be  as  representative  as  possible  for  the 
entire  number.  Each  lot  had  the  same  sized  pen  in  the 
piggery  and  each  had  access  to  the  small  yards  adjoining. 

Pigs  in  Pen  I.  were  fed  sugar  beets  alone. 

Pigs  in  Pen  II.  were  fed  beet  pulp  and  ground  wheat  and  barley. 

Pigs  in  Pen  III.  had  shelled  corn. 

Pigs  in  Pen  IV.  were  given  ground  wheat  and  barley . 

Pigs  in  Pen  V.  were  given  sugar  beets,  ground  wheat  and  barley. 

Eor  the  pigs  in  Pen  I.  the  sugar  beets  were  chopped 
into  small  pieces  and  the  pigs  were  given  all  that  they  would 
eat  of  them.  Fresh,  clean  water  was  supplied  twice  daily  at 
feeding  time.  Besides  this,  the  shoats  had  access  to  noth¬ 
ing  but  the  straw  used  for  bedding,  except  an  occasional 
small  quantity  of  ashes  or  coal  which  was  supplied  to  all 
pens  alike.  These  pigs  were  fed  to  see  just  what  hogs 


12 


BULLETIN  74. 

would  do  on  sugar  beets  alone,  because  some  of  our  farm¬ 
ers  had  been  doing  this  and  we  wished  accurate  data  for  a 
check. 

The  hogs  in  Pen  II.  were  fed  a  large  quantity  of  pulp, 
especially  during  the  first  part  of  the  experiment.  It  was 
necessary  to  mix  the  grain  with  the  pulp  to  get  the  pigs  to 
eat  the  pulp. 

The  hogs  in  Pen  III.  were  fed  shelled  corn  alone,  hav¬ 
ing  access  to  nothing  else  but  the  straw  used  for  bedding, 
besides  plenty  of  water  and  some  coal  and  ashes.  It  might 
have  been  better  to  have  fed  the  corn  ground,  especially  as 
the  pigs  were  young  and  growing  rapidly,  and  again  because 
ground  wheat  and  barley  were  fed. 

The  hogs  in  Pen  IV.  were  fed  equal  parts  of  ground 
wheat  and  barley,  for  comparison  with  Pen  III. 

The  pigs  in  Pen  V.  were  fed  in  all  respects  like  those  in 
Pen  II.,  except  that  sugar  beets  were  substituted  for  the 
pulp.  In  the  results  from  these  two  pens,  we  have  a  com¬ 
parison  of  the  value  of  pulp  and  the  value  of  sugar  beets 
when  fed  with  grain.  Pens  II.  and  V.  also  may  be  compared 
with  Pen  IV.,  thus  giving  the  advantage,  if  any,  of  feeding 
pulp  or  sugar  beets  with  grain  for  fattening  hogs. 

The  feed  given  was  carefully  weighed  and  any  remain¬ 
ing  uneaten  until  the  time  of  the  next  feeding  was  weighed 
back.  The  hogs  were  ear-tagged  and  weighed  separately 
once  a  week,  thus  giving  the  individual  differences  of  those 
in  the  same  pen.  Additional  notes  were  kept  as  to  the 
general  condition  of  the  individual  hogs  in  each  lot  so  that, 
at  the  end  of  the  experiment,  it  would  be  known  whether  or 
not  the  best  results  possible  had  been  attained  under  the 
conditions.  We  have  been  assisted  in  these  experiments 
by  Mr;  Fred  Bishopp  and  Mr.  W.  B.  Smith,  senior  agricul¬ 
tural  students,  who  carried  out  the  feeding  as  planned  and 
aided  in  keeping  the  records. 

KIND  OF  HOGS  FED. 

The  hogs  used  in  this  experiment  were  obtained  from 
the  slaughter  house  yards  of  wholesale  butchers  within  the 
city.  P  rom  appearances  the  hogs  were  grade  Poland  Chinas 
and  Berkshires.  From  the  information  that  could  be 
gleaned  from  those  in  charge,  the  pigs  had  been  bought 
from  different  farmers  in  the  vicinity  and  had  been  at  the 
yards  only  a  short  time  before  we  obtained  possession  of 
them.  They  were  only  common  scrub  shoats  and  did  not 
show  that  any  special  care  had  been  taken  of  them.  They 
were  probably  late  spring  pigs  and  approximately  eight 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


13 

months  of  age.  Their  average  weight  was  close  to  100 
pounds  at  the  time  they  were  put  on  the  experiment.  It 
was  necessary  to  pay  6  cents  a  pound  which  was  too  high  a 
price  for  pigs  of  their  weight  and  breeding. 

PULP  FED. 

The  pulp  fed  was  obtained  from  the  Loveland  factory 
of  the  Great  Western  Beet  Sugar  company,  whose  manager, 
Mr.  A.  V.  Officer,  courteously  supplied  us  a  carload  for  ex¬ 
perimental  use.  Laid  down  at  the  College  farm  it  cost  us 
approximately  $1 .00  per  ton.  This  pulp  was  piled  out  on 
the  ground  about  January  1,  1902,  and  was  used  as  it  was 
needed  for  feeding.  The  ground  on  which  it  was  piled  had 
good  drainage  and  the  moisture  from  the  pulp  drained 
away  as  it  seeped  out,  Thus,  in  a  few  days  time,  the  pulp 
was  in  nice  condition,  comparatively  dry,  and  was  preserved 
in  an  unfermented  condition  much  better  than  some  other 
piles  of  pulp  which  we  had  placed  where  the  moisture  did 
not  drain  away. 


BEETS  FED. 

The  sugar  beets  used  in  this  experiment  were  grown 
upon  the  College  farm,  put  in  a  root  cellar  after  digging, 
and  taken  out  as  there  was  need  of  them.  During  the  lat¬ 
ter  days  of  the  experiment,  the  supply  of  sugar  beets  was 
exhausted  and  a  stock  beet  was  substituted  in  their  stead. 
They  were  fed  stock  beets  only  about  two  weeks,  the  time 
being  so  short  the  final  result  was  probably  not  changed  by 
the  substitution.  The  beets  fed  were  figured  at  $4  per  ton. 
This  would  be  equal  to  from  $4.50  to  $5  per  ton  for  beets  de¬ 
livered  at  the  factory;  first  because  of  the  expense  of  haul¬ 
ing  or  shipping  them  to  the  factory,  and  second  the  work 
and  expense  of  trimming  the  beets,  which  would  amount  to 
at  least  50c  per  ton. 

GRAIN  FED. 

The  wheat  and  barley  fed  were  also  grown  upon  the 
College  farm.  The  wheat  was  of  the  common  Defiance 
variety  and  was  grown  in  a  field  producing  34  bushels  per 
acre.  The  barley  fed  was  of  the  common  hulled  variety 
and  was  grown  in  a  field  which  produced  25  bushels  per  acre. 
Together  they  were  rated  at  $1  per  hundred  pounds,  which 
we  think  is  not  too  low  an  estimate  to  put  upon  these  grains, 
as  there  was  considerable  time  during  the  late  fall  when 
either  wheat  or  barley  could  have  been  purchased  below 
that  mark. 


EXPERIMENT  OF  1902. 


SUGAR  BEET  PRODUCTS,  AND  HOME  GROWN  GRAINS. 

On  February  19th,  twenty  hogs  were  weighed  and  put 
upon  the  experiment.  Previous  to  this  time  they  had  been 
kept  together  on  the  same  ration  for  one  week.  In  their 
drinking  water  they  had  been  given  a  weak  solution  of  sul¬ 
phuric  acid  to  free  them  from  intestinal  worms.  They  had 
also  been  sprayed  for  lice  with  3  percent  solution  of  Zeno- 
leum.  The  pigs  at  this  time  were  in  a  healthy,  growing 
condition,  and  as  will  be  seen  in  the  summary,  they  aver¬ 
aged  approximately  100  pounds  each. 

Those  in  Pen  I.  did  not  take  very  readidly  to  the  sugar 
beets  and  it  was  evident  that  they  had  never  been  used  to  a 
ration  with  roots  in  it,  but  they  very  soon  began  to  eat  the 
beets  heartily. 

Those  in  Pen  II.  would  not  touch  the  pulp  fed  them  for 
several  days.  Prom  February  19th  to  22d  inclusive,  the 
four  pigs  in  this  lot  were  given  only  40  pounds  of  pulp,  and 
eight  pounds  of  this  were  weighed  back  as  orts  which  they 
did  not  eat. 

The  pigs  in  Pens  III.  and  IV.  took  hold  of  the  food 
given  them  readily,  as  also  did  those  in  Pen  V.,  fed  with  the 
wheat  and  barley  in  addition  to  the  beets.  They  ate  the 
sugar  beets,  but  apparently  did  not  relish  them  at  first. 

Table  I.  which  follows,  gives  the  amount  of  food  fed  in 
periods  of  one  week  each  for  each  pen,  also  the  total 
amount  of  food  eaten  by  the  pigs  in  each  pen.  On  May 
30th,  the  hogs  in  Pens  I.,  II.,  and  two  from  Pen  III.,  were 
slaughtered.  Those  remaining  were  slaughtered  on  June  6th. 

Table  I.  is  of  interest  as  it  shows  the  consumption  of 
food  week  by  week.  The  pigs  were  given  approximately 
all  they  would  eat.  The  pigs  in  Pen  I.  ate  an  increasing 
amount  of  sugar  beets  up  to  May  3d,  within  four  weeks  of 
the  end  of  the  experiment.  They  seemingly  had  eaten  so 
many  beets  during  the  week  ending  May  3d  that  they  be¬ 
came  tired  of  them  and  would  not  again  consume  as  large 
amounts. 

The  pulp  fed  to  the  pigs  in  Pen  II.  was  increased  until 
March  22d,  and  then  decreased  because  the  grain  was  in¬ 
creased  for  finishing  the  pigs  and  it  was  thought  advisable 
to  cut  down  the  large  amount  of  succulent  food. 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO 


15 


TABLE  I. 

FOOD  EATEN. 


Pen  I 

Pen  II 

Pen  III 

Pen  IV 

Pen  V 

Date. 

Sugar  Beets. 

Wheat  and 

Barley. 

Pulp. 

Corn. 

Wheat  and 
Barley. 

Wheat  and 
Barley. 

Sugar  Beets. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

February  19-22 . 

117 

35 

40 

48 

45 

31 

28 

February  22-March  1 . 

230 

72 

123 

89 

102 

74 

57 

March  1-8 . 

239 

70 

232 

70 

123 

75 

70 

March  8-15 . y 

tt  280 

70 

285 

79 

131 

98 

80 

March  15-22 . ( 

'  287 

79 

294 

98 

140 

j  98 

94 

March  22-29  . j 

.  302 

90 

291 

112 

149 

98 

116 

March  29-April  5 . 

-  308 

84 

251 

112 

154 

98 

126 

April  5-12 . 

‘  308 

116 

168 

112 

1 

154 

98 

126 

April  12-19  . 

/  324 

126 

168 

112 

154 

118 

126 

April  19-26 . 

'  324 

126 

168 

112  | 

154 

126 

134 

April  26-May  3 . 

'  318 

126 

168 

112 

154 

126 

130 

May  3-10 . 

/  [ 

126 

172 

112  j 

1 

154 

126 

140 

May  10-17 . 

| 

/  261 

126 

172 

112 

154 

130 

100 

May  17-21 . t 

'  182 

126 

172 

112 

154 

138 

80 

May  24-30 . |i 

/  270 

90 

120- 

96 

154 

126 

128 

To  J  une 1  . 

44 

110 

104 

30 

Totals . 

I 

4107 

1 

1372 

2824 

1584 

2186 

1664 

1565 

1 6  BULLETIN  74. 

The  pigs  in  Pen  III.  on  corn,  and  those  in  Pen  IV.  on 
wheat  and  barley,  practically  consumed  increasing  amounts 
of  food  up  to  the  end  of  the  experiment  and  the  respective 
lots  practically  consumed  the  same  amounts  of  grain  each 
week  for  the  last  nine  full  weeks.  The  last  four  weeks  the 
amount  of  sugar  beets  given  to  those  in  Pen  V.  was  re¬ 
duced,  but  the  grain  was  increased  as  they  would  consume 
it. 

Table  II.  page  17  gives  the  individual  weights  each 
week  for  all  the  pigs.  The  last  column  gives  the  total  gain 
of  each  pig  during  the  experiment  and  the  first  column  the 
ear-tag  number.  Food  given  each  lot  |is  given  in 
Table  I.  The  last  weight  of  each  pig,  taken  May  30th  or 
]une  6th,  was  made  after  they  had  been  off  feed  for  24 
hours  before  slaughter,  and  represents  the  gain  during  the 
last  week,  less  the  shrinkage.  Pig  No.  80,  in  Pen  II,  was  found 
to  be  in  pig  soon  after  the  feeding  began  and  was  left  with 
the  lot  to  see  what  the  final  effect  would  be.  She  dropped 
a  litter  of  three  pigs  March  29th  and  killed  all  of  them. 
She  was  left  on  feed  and  made  a  larger  total  gain  than  any 
other  pig  in  that  pen. 

Table  III.  gives  the  total  weekly  gains  made  by  the  four 
pigs  in  each  pen  and  the  last  column  gives  the  total  gain  of 
each  lot  for  the  whole  period,  less  the  24  hours  shrinkage 
before  slaughter.  The  minus  sign  before  a  number  indi¬ 
cates  a  loss  of  weight.  There  is  much  variation  in  the  gains 
made  week  by  week,  the  differences  being  especially  notice¬ 
able  in  Pen  I.,  fed  on  sugar  beets,  and  in  Pen  II.,  given  pulp 
and  grain.  The  gains  did  not  vary  so  much  with  the  grain 
rations. 

TABLE  III. 


EXPERIMENT  NO.  I. — SWINE  FEEDING.  POUNDS  GAIN  PER  WEEK. 


February  22 

March  1 

March  8 

March  15 

March  22 

March  29 

April  5 

April  12 

April  19 

April  26 

May  3 

May  10 

May  17 

May  24 

May  30 

June  4 

Total  Gain 

Pen  I . 

25 

-5 

-0 

6 

18 

-10 

6 

4 

6 

4 

-4 

19 

-11 

25 

-10 

67 

Pen  II . 

22 

8 

32 

6 

62 

-1 

29 

10 

39 

33 

41 

40 

o 

20 

11 

352 

Pen  III . 

30 

7 

-12 

30 

32 

5 

35 

12 

26 

21 

31 

16 

16 

7 

22 

7 

285 

Pen  IV . 

20 

24 

12 

51 

49 

11 

55 

w 

38 

29 

49 

47 

37 

14 

33 

-21 

481 

Pen  V . 

10 

10 

10 

2*3 

26 

25 

84 

24 

32 

32 

36 

38 

39 

22 

13 

-5 

392 

PLATE  I. 

Representative  Carcasses  from  Lots  III,  IV  and  V. 

No.  84,  Fed  Corn. 

No.  73,  Fed  Wheat,  Barley  and  Sugar  Beets, 
No.  73,  Fed  Wheat  and  Barley. 


PLATE  II. 

Representative  Carcasses  from  Lots  III,  IV  and  V. 

No.  84,  Fed  Corn. 

No.  75,  Fed  Wheat,  Barley  and  Sugar  Beets. 
No.  77,  Fed  Wheat  and  Barley. 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO 


I  7 


TABLE  II. 


*4 

March  29 

* 

' 

1 

® 

o' 

i-i 

d 

P 

>1 

VJ 

I-* 

® 

o' 

d 

P 

i-l 

to 

March  1 

March  8 

March  15 

March  22 

April  5 

April  12 

April  19 

April  26 

May  3 

May  10 

May  17 

May  24 

May  30 

June  6 

Total 

CO 

to 

No. 

lb 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Ta*? 

574 

110 

117 

124 

114 

115 

115 

116 

118 

119 

119 

124 

122 

121 

131 

128 

18 

Pen  I 

582 

90 

100 

91 

94 

94 

99 

97 

96 

96 

96 

99 

102 

100 

97 

104 

102 

12 

181 

106 

110 

108 

110 

112 

118 

115 

118 

118 

121 

122 

124 

127 

125 

130 

127 

21 

562 

95 

99 

98 

99 

101 

107 

102 

105 

107 

109 

109 

95 

115 

110 

113 

111 

16 

80 

107 

118 

121 

128 

140 

158 

148 

154 

163 

172 

18$ 

191 

196 

204 

207 

100 

hH 

b-l 

585 

90 

96 

100 

106 

108 

118 

115 

129 

125 

133 

139 

149 

157 

162 

162 

165 

75 

1 

CD 

In 

577 

95 

96 

95 

108 

100 

118 

121 

134 

140 

153 

162 

174 

181 

183 

190 

191 

96 

81 

95 

99 

101 

106 

106 

122 

121 

123 

135 

144 

153 

161 

179 

167 

172 

176 

81 

77 

110 

117 

117 

114 

124 

131 

131 

141 

145 

149 

156 

159 

169 

173 

174 

178 

68 

HH 

78 

90 

96 

98 

96 

103 

112 

116 

122 

126 

133 

139 

149 

147 

150 

154 

159 

162 

72 

HH 

d 

<D 

Ch 

79 

90 

91 

94 

91 

97 

105 

108 

117 

120 

128 

134 

142 

147 

150 

154 

159 

69 

84 

90 

106 

108 

104 

111 

119 

117 

127 

128 

135 

137 

147 

150 

156 

154 

162 

166 

76 

73 

115 

120 

123 

130 

143 

155 

158 

170 

180 

182 

193 

202 

219 

230 

239 

249 

241 

126 

{> 

rH 

70 

100 

109 

117 

114 

127 

140 

146 

157 

165 

176 

180 

193 

201 

210 

213 

221 

218 

118 

d 

® 

Ph 

74 

98 

104 

114 

122 

132 

143 

149 

166 

173 

181 

194 

209 

223 

230 

236 

244 

239 

141 

83 

65 

74 

77 

77 

92 

105 

101 

116 

120 

132 

133 

145 

153 

163 

159 

166 

161 

96 

75 

108 

118 

121 

126 

137 

145 

149 

158 

164 

176 

185 

193 

206 

215 

219 

225 

228 

110 

87 

95 

93 

97 

99 

105 

115 

116 

125 

131 

139 

148 

155 

161 

173 

179 

183 

184 

89 

o 

Ch 

72 

95 

97 

105 

109 

109 

109 

123 

131 

185 

14 1 

150 

156 

159 

175 

179 

175 

179 

84 

85 

'  105 

111 

112 

120 

129 

136 

142 

150 

158 

161 

169 

184 

200 

202 

210 

217 

204 

99 

t8 


BULLETIN  74. 

FOOD  EATEN  DAILY. 


The  average  amounts  of  food  eaten  per  day  through¬ 
out  the  experiment  for  each  hog  in  each  pen  were  as  follows: 

TABLE  IV. 

FOOD  CONSUMED  DURING  EXPERIMENT. 


No.  of 

Days 

Average  Food  per  Hog. 

Average  Weight  and 
Gain  per  Hog. 

Hogs. 

Fed. 

Corn 

Wheat 

and 

Barley. 

Sugar 

Beets 

Pulp. 

B  egin- 
Ding. 

End. 

Gain, 

Pen  I . 

4 

99 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1026.75 

lbs. 

lbs. 

100.25 

lbs. 

117.00 

lbs. 

16.75 

Pen  II . 

4 

|  99 

343.00 

706.00 

96.75 

184.75 

88.00 

Pen  III . 

4 

101 

38:4.50 

95.00 

1 

166 . 25 

71.25 

Pen  IV . 

1  4 

104 

540 . 50 

94.50 

214.75 

120.25 

Pen  V . 

4 

1 

104 

| 

410.00 

391 . 25 

100.75 

198.75 

98.00 

DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 

In  Table  IV.  is  given  the  amount  of  food  consumed, 
stated  in  averages  for  each  animal  in  the  different  lots,  and 
the  average  weight  and  gain  of  che  four  pigs  in  each  pen  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  the  experiment. 

TABLE  V. 

FOOD  EATEN  DAILY. 


Average  Food  Per  Day. 

Gain 
per  Head 
per  Day. 

Sugar 

Beets. 

Wheat 

and 

Barley. 

Pulp. 

Corn. 

Pen  I  . 

lbs. 

10.37 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

0.17 

Pen  II . 

3.46 

7.10 

0.89 

1 

Pen  III . . 

3.80 

0.70 

Pen  IV . 

5.25 

,  1 

1.16 

Pen  V . 

3.76 

4.01) 

0.94 

Table  V.  gives  the  average  food  per  head  eaten  daily. 
The  pigs  in  Pen  Late  1,026.75  pounds  of  sugar  beets,  or  10.37 
pounds  per  day,  on  which  they  made  average  total  gains  of 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO.  1 9 

16.75  pounds.  The  pigs  in  pen  V.  ate  391.25  pounds  of 
sugar  beets,  or  3.76  pounds  per  day,  and  416  pounds  of 
grain,  or  4  pounds  per  day,  or  a  total  of  807.25  pounds  of 
food,  making  an  average  gain  of  88  pounds. 

The  food  given  to  Pen  1.  did  little  more  than  maintain 
the  original  weight  of  the  animals,  while  in  Pen  V.  one- 
third  the  amount  of  beets  in  addition  to  four  pounds  of 
grain  per  day  produced  substantial  gains.  The  pigs  in  Pen 
II.  ate  706  pounds  of  beet  pulp,  or  7  pounds  per  day,  and 
343  pounds  of  grain,  or  3.64  pounds  per  day.  The  total 
amount  of  feed  consumed  by  each  pig  was  1049  pounds,  a 
little  more  in  weight  than  was  eaten  by  Pen  I.  The  total 
gain  was  88  pounds,  or  only  ten  pounds  less  than  that  made 
in  Pen  V.  on  63  pounds  more  grain  and  a  little  more  than 
one-half  the  weight  of  beets,  but  the  ration  in  Pen  V.  is  ap¬ 
preciably  greater  in  cost  than  that  given  in  Pen  II. 

Pens  III.  and  IV.  give  us  a  comparison  of  the  amounts 
of  corn  and  wheat  and  barley  consumed,  with  their  respect¬ 
ive  gains.  The  pigs  in  Pen  III.  ate  383.5  pounds  of  corn,  or 
3.8  pounds  per  day,  making  average  gains  of  71.25  pounds. 
In  Pen  IV.  each  pig  ate  546.5  pounds  of  grain  (equal  parts 
wheat  and  barley)  or  5.25  pounds  per  day,  making  average 
gains  of  t  20.25  pounds. 

Wheat  and  barley  is  shown  to  have  had  a  decided  ad¬ 
vantage  over  corn  in  this  experiment.  When  the  chemical 
composition  of  corn  and  wheat  and  barley  is  taken  into  ac¬ 
count,  these  results  are  not  surprising.  In  corn  there  is  not 
sufficient  digestible  protein, — or  the  muscle,  blood  and  bone¬ 
building  element — in  proportion  to  the  carbohydrates — or 
fat  and  heat-producing  element — for  the  most  economic 
gain.  This  porportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  is  called 
“nutritive  ratio.”  For  fattening  hogs  this  nutritive  ratio 
should  be  about  1  to  7  (one  part  protein  to  seven  carbo¬ 
hydrates) ,  to  obtain  the  best  results.  In  corn  this  ratio  is  1 
to  9.7,  while  in  equal  parts  wheat  and  barley  it  is  1  to  7.5. 
It  is  usual  to  feed  some  substance  richer  in  nitrogen  with 
corn  in  order  to  make  the  ration  nearer  the  correct  stand¬ 
ard.  The  fact  that  wheat  and  barley  mixed  in  equal  parts 
furnishes  a  ratio  so  nearly  correct  may  account  for  their 
greater  palatabilit> ,  making  the  pigs  consume  so  much 
larger  quantities  of  these  grains  than  they  would  eat  of  corn 
alone,  and  as  would  be  expected,  they  made  greater  gains. 

cost'  AND  PROFIT. 

The  true  measure  of  the  efficiency  of  a  food  ration  for 
fattening  stock  is  the  value  of  the  resulting  product  after 


20 


BULLETIN  74. 

the  cost  has  been  deducted.  In  Table  VI.  will  be  found  a 
comparison  of  the  cost  of  the  food  consumed  by  each  ani¬ 
mal  and  the  first  cost  of  the  feeders  and  the  profit  at  selling 
prices  of  six  cents  and  seven  cents  per  pound.  Six  cents 
per  pound  for  the  feeders  was  too  high  a  price  in  the  be¬ 
ginning.  Seven  cents  per  pound  at  the  close  of  the  experi¬ 
ment  was  not  too  high  a  price,  so  our  statement  of  profit 
based  on  this  buying  and  selling  price  is  a  conservative  one. 
Feeding  in  small  lots  and  experimentally  as  we  did,  makes 
it  impossible  to  state  fairly  the  cost  of  the  labor  used,  but 
this  is  not  necessary  in  order  to  make  a  true  comparison  of 
the  different  foods  under  investigation.  The  farmer  who 
has  had  any  experience  in  feeding  swine  can  estimate  this 
item  for  himself.  The  feeding  is  usually  done  at  a  season 
when  the  farmer  s  time,  or  that  of  his  men,  is  not  consider¬ 
ed  so  valuable,  and  the  pig  feeding  comes  in  after  hours  any 
way  as  chores.  This  is  not  an  attempt  to  slight  or  ignore 
the  question  of  labor  at  all,  for  it  is  a  real  one,  but  every 
*  farmer  must  estimate  this  item  of  expense  for  himself. 
There  is  no  attempt  made  in  this  bulletin  to  show  the  cost 
of  raising  pigs  up  to  the  time  they  weigh  100  pounds. 
They  were  bought  at  6  cents  per  pound  and  the  results  are 
figured  from  that  basis.  A  large  profit  would  be  realized  on 
pigs  grown  to  that  weight  which  could  be  sold  at  six  cents 
per  pound. 

The  total  cost  of  the  food  eaten  by  pigs  in  Pen  I. 
averaged  $2.05.  The  total  profit  on  each  head  at  7  cents 
was  13  cents,  and  at  6  cents  there  was  a  loss  of  $1.04  on 
each.  Although  the  cost  of  the  food  was  small,  the  profits 
were  unsatisfactory  because  the  gain  in  weight  was  so  small. 

Pen  V.,  with  a  total  cost  of  food  of  $4.94  per  hog,  made 
a  total  profit  of  $.95  at  6  cents  per  pound,  and  at  7  cents 
per  pound  a  total  profit  of  $2.93.  The  pigs  in  Pen  II.  ate 
$3.78  worth  of  food  per  hog  and  made  a  total  profit  of  $1.50 
when  figured  at  6  cents  per  pound,  and  $3.35  at  7  cents  per 
pound. 

Pen  II  did  not  make  as  large  a  total  gain  by  ten  pounds 
per  hog  as  Pen  V.  (see  Table  VI),  but  they  did  not  consume 
as  much  grain  by  73  pounds  for  each  animal.  While  the 
pigs  in  Pen  II.  ate  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  pulp,  the 
cost  of  the  pulp  given  each  hog  was  not  one-half  as  much 
as  the  cost  of  the  beets  given  to  Pen  V.  In  the  total  profit 
then,  the  extra  gain  in  live  weight  made  by  Pen  V.  was 
more  than  balanced  by  the  cheapness  of  the  ration  fed  to 
Pen  II. 

Pen  III.,  with  $4.98  charged  against  each  animal  for 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


21 


corn,  made  a  total  profit  of  $.95  per  hog,  figured  at  7  cents 
per  pound,  and  at  6  cents  they  made  a  loss  of  $.71.  The 
value  of  the  food  consumed  by  Pen  IV.  was  $5.46  per  hog. 
The  total  profit  at  6  cents  was  $1.75  each,  and  $3  90  at  7  cents. 

TABLE  VI. 

COST  OF  FOOD  AND  TOTAL  PROFIT. 


Average  Cost  of  Food  Eaten. 

Average 

Total 

Cost 

Food 

Eaten. 

First 
Cost 
@  6  cts 
per  lb. 

Average 
Total  Profit. 

Corn 
@  $1.30. 

Wheat 
and 
BarJey 
@  $1.00. 

Sugar 
Beets 
@  20  cts 
cwt. 

Pulp 
@  5  cts 
cwt. 

@  6  cts 
per  lb. 

@  7  cts 
per  lb . 

Pen  I . 

$2.05 

$2.05 

$6.01 

-$1.04 

$0.13 

Pen  II . 

$3.13 

$0.35 

3.78 

5.80 

1.50 

3.35 

Pen  III . 

$1.98 

4.98 

5.70 

—0.71 

0.95 

Pen  IV . 

5.46 

5.46 

5.67 

1.75 

3.90 

Pen  V . 

4.16 

0.78 

4.94 

6.04 

0.96 

2.93 

POUNDS  OF  FOOD  AND  COST  FOR  ONE  POUND  OF  GAIN. 

Table  VII.  gives  the  cost  of  the  average  amount  of  food 
eaten  by  each  pig,  at  the  current  prices  for  the  feeds  used, 
and  the  actual  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain  made  during  the 
fattening  period.  In  next  to  the  last  column  of  the  table  is 
given  the  final  cost  for  each  pound  of  dressed  pork  which 
shows  the  amount  per  pound  which  would  have  to  be  re¬ 
ceived  for  the  dressed  meat  in  order  to  merely  balance  the 
cost  of  the  food  consumed. 

TABLE  VII. 

FOOD  FOR  ONE  POUND  GAIN. 


* 

Average  hood  for  One  Pound  Gain. 

Average 
Cost  per 
pound 
of  Gain. 

Average 
Cost  per 
Pound  of 
Dressed 
Pork. 

Percent 

of 

Dressed 

Meat. 

Corn 

Wheat 

and 

Barley. 

Sugar 

Beets. 

Pulp. 

Pen  I . 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

61.3 

lbs. 

cts. 

12.3 

cts. 

8.9 

i 

77 

Pen  II . 

3.9 

8. 

4.3 

6.5 

80 

Pen  III  . 

5.4 

7. 

8.. 

I 

80 

Pen  IV . 

4.5 

4.5 

6.1 

84 

Pen  V . 

4.2 

4. 

5. 

6.8 

84 

22 


BULLETIN  74. 

While  sugar  beets  cost  less  per  pound  than  any  other 
food,  except  pulp,  it  took  61.3  pounds  of  beets  for  each 
pound  of  gain  made  at  a  cost  of  over  twelve  cents.  There 
was  a  comparatively  large  amount  of  waste  in  the  beet  fed 
lot,  as  they  dressed  only  77  percent  of  the  live  weight. 

The  pigs  in  Pen  II.  ate  3.9  pounds  of  grain  and  8  pounds 
of  beet  pulp  for  each  pound  of  gain.  This  made  the  cost  of 
each  pound  of  gain  4.3  cents  and  the  cost  of  each  pound  of 
dressed  pork  6.5  cents.  They  dressed  80  percent  of  the  live 
weight  which  is  a  little  better  than  the  beet  fed  lot  and  is 
the  same  as  the  corn  fed  lot. 

The  pigs  in  Pen  V.  which  were  given  the  same  kind  of 
grain  as  the  pulp  fed  lot  in  Pen  II.  and  sugar  beets  instead 
of  pulp,  ate  just  a  little  more  grain,  4.2  pounds,  and  one-half 
the  amount  of  beets,  or  4  pounds,  compared  with  8  pounds 
of  pulp  in  Pen  II.  However,  each  pound  of  gain  cost  5 
cents  in  the  beet  fed  lot  and  the  dressed  pork  cost  6.8  cents 
per  pound.  In  this  trial,  then,  the  pulp  gave  a  better  return 
in  dollars  and  cents  than  the  sugar  beets.  It  is  believed  the 
results  would  have  been  still  more  favorable  to  the  pulp  if 
we  had  fed  only  one-half  as  much,  or  three  and  one-half 
pounds  instead  of  seven  pounds,  which  was  consumed  per 
day.  The  beet  fed  lot  actually  ate  three  and  three-fourths 
pounds  of  beets  per  day. 

The  pigs  in  Pen  III.  ate  5.4  pounds  of  corn  for  each 
pound  of  gain,  making  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain  7 
cents,  or  8  cents  per  pound  for  dressed  pork. 

The  pigs  in  Pen  IV.  ate  only  4.5  pounds  of  grain  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  wheat  and  barley  for  each  pound  of  gain, 
at  a  cost  of  4.5  cents,  or  of  6.1  cents  for  each  pound  of 
dressed  pork.  These  pigs  grew  better  and  dressed  better 
than  those  fed  on  corn  alone.  (See  illustration.)  This 
shows  that  one  pound  of  wheat  and  barley  was  equal  to  1.2 
pounds  of  corn  for  making  gains,  where  the  corn  is  fed 
alone.  But  since  corn  cost  $1.30  per  hundred  pounds  while 
the  wheat  and  barley  cost  only  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds, 
there  is  even  greater  difference  in  the  respective  values  of 
the  dressed  pork  produced.  If  wheat  and  barley  were 
worth  $j.oo,  then  in  the  light  of  this  experiment  the  farmer 
could  not  afford  to  pay  more  than  83.3  cents  for  corn  if  he 
contemplated  feeding  it  alone  to  swine  as  is  usual.  Instead 
of  that,  many  farmers  paid  46  cents  to  over  50  cents  per 
hundred  more  for  corn  than  it  was  worth  to  them  and  even 
sold  their  other  grains  to  enable  them  to  do  it. 

Comparing  the  values  of  pulp  with  grain  in  Pens  II.  and 
IV.,  we  see  that  eight  pounds  of  pulp  in  Pen  II.  was  made 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO.  23 

to  take  the  place  of  0.6  pounds  of  grain  in  Pen  IV.  This 
would  give  the  pulp  a  value  of  $1.50  per  ton  when  wheat 
and  barley  were  worth  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds.  It  was 
noticed  that  the  pigs  given  pulp  and  beets  in  Pens  II.  and  V. 
made  much  larger  growth  of  frame  than  those  in  the  other 
pens.  This  is  nicely  shown  in  the  photograph  here  repro¬ 
duced,  of  the  representative  pigs  of  Pens  IIP,  IV.  and  V., 
and  indicates  that  such  ration  given  to  young  pigs  during 
the  first  feeding  period  may  produce  larger  ultimate  gains 
and  have  a  greater  value  than  is  here  indicated  where  they 
were  also  used  in  the  last  fattening  period. 

Comparing  the  foods  given  to  pigs  in  Pens  IV.  and  V., 
it  is  evident  that  4  pounds  of  sugar  beets  in  Pen  V.  took  the 
place  of  0.3  pounds  of  grain  in  Pen  IV.  This  shows  the 
sugar  beets  to  have  a  value  of  $i.5o  per  ton  when  mixed 
with  grain  for  pig  feeding,  or  exactly  the  same  value  which 
we  obtained  for  the  pulp.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  different 
values  might  have  been  obtained  if  different  proportions  of 
these  foods  were  given,  but  we  would  feel  safe  in  advising 
any  farmer  not  to  pay  $4.5°  or  $5-00  per  ton  for  beets  for 
feeding  to  swine.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  beets 
were  more  valuable  than  this  for  sheep  and  cattle  which 
naturally  require  a  more  bulky  ration  than  hogs  can  profit¬ 
ably  use.  A  bulletin  reporting  experiments  to  show  the 
value  of  beets  and  pulp  when  fed  to  cows  has  been  pub¬ 
lished,  and  another  reporting  experiments  with  lambs  is 
now  ready  for  press.  These  publications  should  be  con¬ 
sulted  by  intending  feeders. 


PIG  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS  OF  1900-1901. 


ADDING  ROUGHAGE  OR  ROOTS  TO  A  RATION. 

An  experiment  to  indicate  whether  dry  alfalfa  roughage 
could  be  given  a  place  in  a  ration  for  swine,  was  begun  on 
December  ist,  1900.  Nine  Berkshire  pigs  were  divided 
into  three  lots  of  three  each  and  fed  rations  of  mixed  grain, 
mixed  grain  and  dry  alfalfa  hay,  and  mixed  grain  and  sugar 
beets.  The  mixed  grain  consisted  approximately  of  two 
parts  of  corn  and  one  of  barley.  The  pigs  would  not  eat 
the  dry  alfalfa  at  first,  but  they  were  made  to  eat  it  by  chop¬ 
ping  the  hay  rather  fine  and  mixing  with  barley  slop. 

The  pigs  were  thrifty  Berkshires  raised  on  the  College 
farm  and  were  given  a  value  of  4  cents  per  pound  at  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment.  The  corn  was  worth  80  cents 
per  hundred  pounds  and  the  ground  barley  $1.05  per  hun¬ 
dred  pounds.  The  pigs  were  fed  97  days  and  their  value  is 
given  at  five  cents  per  pound  live  weight  at  the  end  of  the 
fattening  period. 

Table  VIII.  gives  the  kinds  of  food  eaten,  the  average 
amount  of  each  food  consumed  by  each  pig  in  the  ninety- 
seven  days,  the  live  weight  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
experiment,  and  the  average  dressed  weight. 

TABLE  VIII. 


AVERAGE  FOOD,  WEIGHT  AND  GAIN  PER  HEAD. 


Average  Food  Eaten 

• 

Average  Weight. 

Percent 

Dressed 

Weight. 

Corn . 

Barley, 

Sugar 

Beets. 

Alfalfa. 

At 

Begin¬ 

ning. 

At 

End. 

Gain. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

* 

Pen  I . 

409 . &0 

190.70 

55.30 

102.20 

272.30 

101.10 

86.10 

Pen  II . 

381.30 

173.50 

154.70 

259.70 

105.00 

87.40 

Pen  III . 

350.30 

184.30 

99.30 

148.30 

244.70 

96.40 

87.10 

In  addition  to  their  grain  ration  the  pigs  in  Pen  I.  con¬ 
sumed  an  average  of  55.3  pounds  of  dry  alfalfa  hay,  a  little 
more  than  one-half  pound  per  day.  They  made  the  best 
gain  but  did  not  dress  quite  as  well  as  the  pigs  in  the  other 
pens.  Those  in  Pen  III.  ate  approximately  one  pound  of 
sugar  beets  apiece  per  day  in  addition  to  the  grain  ration, 
but  they  made  the  poorest  gains. 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


25 

In  Table  IX.  is  given  the  average  food  eaten  for  each 
pound  of  gain  produced,  the  average  gains  made,  and  the 
comparative  cost  and  profit.  In  Pen  I.  it  took  5.44  pounds 
of  grain  and  .49  pounds  of  alfalfa  to  make  a  pound  of  gain, 
and  while  the  pigs  in  this  lot  made  the  best  gains  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  food  eaten,  it  was  at  a  slightly  greater  cost 
than  where  grain  was  fed  alone  in  Pen  II.  With  the  corn 
and  barley  mixture  it  seems  that  it  took  a  large  amount  of 
grain  for  each  pound  of  gain,  not  making  as  good  a  show¬ 
ing  as  did  wheat  and  barley  in  other  experiments.  While 
only  a  small  amount  of  sugar  beets  was  eaten  by  the  pigs  in 
Pen  III.,  adding  beets  to  the  ration  seemed  to  produce  no 
beneficial  effect.  The  pigs  made  smaller  gains  at  greater 
expense  that  either  of  the  other  lots. 

TABLE  IX. 

FOOD  PER  POUND  OF  GAIN,  COST  AND  PROFIT. 


A  verage 

Food  for  One  Pound  Gain. 

Gain 

per 

Head 

per 

Day. 

Cost 

per 

Pound 

of 

Gain. 

Aver’ge 

Cost 

of 

Food 

Eaten. 

Aver’ge 
First 
Cost  of 
Hogs 
@  4  cts. 

Aver’ge 
Total 
Profit 
@  5  cts. 

Aver’ge 
Cost 
per  lb. 
of 

Dress’d 

Pork. 

Corn. 

Barley. 

Sugar 

Beets. 

Alfalfa. 

Pen  I . 

lbs. 

3.72 

lbs. 

1.72 

lbs. 

lbs. 

0.49 

lbs. 

1.13 

cts. 

4.9 

$ 

5.40 

$ 

6.49 

$ 

1.73 

cts. 

5.10 

Pen  II . 

3.63 

1.65 

1.08 

4.6 

4.86 

6.18 

1.94 

4.90 

Pen  III.... 

3.64 

1.91 

1.03 

.99 

5.2 

5.04 

5.93 

1.26 

5.30 

SWINE  FEEDING  EXPERIMENT  OF  19OI. 

An  experiment  planned  to  test  the  value  of  shorts  when ' 
fed  with  corn  and  to  compare  the  value  of  a  ration  of  corn 
with  a  combination  of  wheat,  oats  and  barley  with  the  value 
of  a  ration  of  shorts  fed  in  a  like  combination.  The  feed¬ 
ing  was  done  from  March  23d  to  May  31,  1901.  Eleven 
pure  bred  Berkshire  pigs  were  used  in  this  experiment, 
averaging  about  five  months  of  age.  The  trial  was  con¬ 
ducted  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  other  experiments  re¬ 
ported  in  this  bulletin.  The  following  foods  were  fed: 

Pen  I.— Corn. 

Pen  II. — Corn  and  shorts. 

Pen  III.— Shorts,  wheat,  oats  and  barley  fed  in  rotation.  Shorts 
with  wheat  and  oats  one  day,  and  with  wheat  and  barley  the  next,  oats 
and  barley  the  third  day  and  so  on. 

Pen  lV.— Corn,  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  The  corn  rotated  with 
two  other  grains  as  indicated  for  pigs  in  Pen  III. 

In  Pen  I.  there  were  two  pigs  averaging  164.5  pounds. 
They  were  two  months  older  than  the  remaining  ones  used 


26 


BULLETIN  74. 

in  the  experiment  and  weighed  a  little  over  sixty  pounds 
over  the  average  in  the  other  pens.  The  three  pigs  in  each 
of  the  remaining  pens  were  quite  evenly  divided  as  to  age, 
size,  etc. 

The  following  prices  were  charged  in  computing  the 
results  of  the  experiment: 

Corn,  83  cents  per  cwt. 

Shorts,  75  cents  per  cwt. 

Wheat,  Q5  cents  per  cwt. 

Oats,  $1.20  per  cwt. 

Barley,  $1.20  per  cwt. 

Table  X.  gives  the  average  food  eaten  by  each  animal 
in  the  respective  pens,  the  average  weight  and  gain  of 
same,  and  the  percent  each  dressed. 

TABLE  X. 

AVERAGE  FOOD,  WEIGHT  AND  GAIN  PER  HEAD. 


Average  Food  Eaten. 

Average  Weight. 

Percent 

Dressed 

Weight. 

Corn. 

Shorts. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

At 

Begin¬ 

ning. 

At 

End. 

Gain. 

Pen  I . . 

lbs. 

423.25 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

164.50 

lbs. 

230.00 

lbs. 

65.50 

78.60 

Pen  II . 

227.00 

221.66 

l 

104.00 

177.60 

73.30 

77.40 

Pen  III . 

226.50 

76.50 

73.60 

75.50 

112.50 

188.20 

l 

88.20 

81.60 

Pen  IV . 

208.60 

72.30 

68.50 

• 

68.30 

98.00 

185.30 

85.60 

79.20 

TABLE  XI. 

FOOD  FOR  ONE  POUND  GAIN,  COST  AND  PROFIT. 


Average  Food  for  One  Pound  of  Gain. 

Gain 

per 

head 

per 

day 

Cost 

per 

pound 

of 

grain. 

Av. 

cost 

of 

food 
eaten . 

Av.  1st 
cost  of 
hogs 

@ 

.4  cts. 

Av. 

total 

profit 

@ 

5  cts. 

Av.cost 
per  lb. 
of 

dressed 

pork 

Corn. 

Shorts. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

P 

lbs. 

6.43 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

.98 

cts. 

5.30 

$ 

3.51 

$ 

6.58 

$ 

1.41 

cts. 

4.03 

a  . 

a>i— 1 

Q.H 

3.08 

3.01 

1.11 

4.80 

2-54 

4.16 

1.18 

4.33 

©LJ 

2.61 

0.88 

0.85 

0.87 

1.31 

4.70 

4.22 

4.50 

0.69 

4.20 

g> 

cut*— « 

2.43 

0.84 

0.80 

0.80 

1.27 

4.70 

4.06 

3.92 

1.19 

4.35 

Table  XI.  gives  the  details  of  the  food  eaten  for  each 
pound  of  gain  and  cost  and  the  profit.  The  results  corres- 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO. 


27 

pond  with  those  reported  on  other  experiments  in  this 
bulletin,  in  showing  that  corn  alone  is  not  a  balanced  ration 
and  does  not  produce  the  gains  that  result  from  feeding 
other  grains  with  or  without  corn.  This  is  not  so  apparent 
at  first  from  this  table  as  it  is  after  carefully  studying  the 
conditions  and  results. 

The  pigs  in  Pen  I.  were  older  and  larger  than  those  in 
the  other  pens.  It  took  6.43  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain  and  their  average  gain  per  day  was  only  .98 
pounds,  compared  with  much  larger  gains  in  the  other  pens. 
The  cost  per  pound  of  gain  is  high,  but  the  apparent  profit 
and  cost  per  pound  of  dressed  meat  is  low.  This  is  because 
they  were  64  pounds  heavier  than  the  other  pigs  and  at  the 
increase  of  one  cent  per  pound  this  weight  makes  the  ap¬ 
parent  profit  64  cents  higher  that  it  should  be  when  com¬ 
pared  with  the  smaller  pigs  in  the  other  pens.  The  real 
profit  in  such  comparison  would  be  97  cents  instead  of  $1.41 
as  actually  shown  in  the  table.  The  cost  of  one  pound  of 
dressed  meat  figured  on  the  basis  of  these  smaller  100 
pound  pigs  in  the  other  lots,  would  be  5.77  cents  instead  of  4.03 
cents,  and  the  corn  ration  would  be  the  most  expensive  one 
in  this  series.  This  shows  the  fallacy  of  figuring  all  of  the 
pigs  at  the  same  price  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment, 
regardless  of  size  and  age,  and  illustrates  the  advantage  of 
selecting  larger  animals  for  feeding.  With  this  understand¬ 
ing  it  appears  that  mixed  grain  was  superior  in  every  case 
to  corn  alone. 

The  gains  per  day  increased  with  the  increase  in  the 
variety  of  food  eaten,  and  the  amount  of  grain  for  each 
pound  of  gain  decreased  with  the  same  condition.  In  Pen 

I.  it  took  6.43  pounds  of  corn  for  each  pound  of  gain;  in  Pen 

II.  6.09  pounds  of  corn  and  shorts  per  pound  of  gain;  in  Pen 

III.  5.31  pounds  of  mixed  grain  per  pound  of  gain.  In  Pen 

IV.  4.87  pounds  mixed  grain  per  pound  of  gain.  Comparing 
Pens  III.  and  IV.  gives  an  idea  of  the  comparative  value  of 
corn  and  wheat  shorts.  It  took  more  shorts  with  other 
grains  in  Pen  III.  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  than  it  did 
corn  with  other  grains  in  Pen  IV.  and  although  the  shorts 
were  figured  at  a  less  price  than  corn,  the  total  profit  from 
the  pen  is  less  than — approximately  one-half — that  in 
Pen  IV. 

It  is  likely  that  the  ration  given  in  Pen  III  is  as  much 
too  narrow  as  the  corn  ration  in  Pen  I.  is  too  wide.  The 
nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  about  1:9.4,  and  °f  the  ratio  in  Pen 
III.  is  1:5.9.  The  nutritive  ratio  called  for  in  the  German 
feeding  standard  for  fattening  hogs  is  1:7.  The  nutritive 


28 


BULLETIN  74. 

ratio  of  the  ration  given  Pen  II.  is  1:6.3  and  that  supplied 
Pen  IV.  is  1:8.1.  The  best  gains,  and  for  the  least  amount 
of  food,  were  made  in  Pen  IV.  This  study  is  interesting 
when  compared  with  the  wheat  and  barley  ration  fed  in  the 
first  experiment  reported  in  this  bulletin.  Equal  parts  of 
wheat  and  barley  have  a  nutritive  ratio  very  near  the  Ger¬ 
man  standard  and  have  produced  the  best  results  for  us. 
Other  factors  probably  influence  the  effect  of  a  ration  as 
much  as  will  small  differences  in  the  ratio.  The  cost  and 
profit  is  influenced  by  the  prices  of  the  different  grains  so  it 
is  not  so  good  a  measure  of  the  actual  fattening  quality  of 
the  mixtures. 

The  results  in  Pen  IV.  show  that  4.87  pounds  of  grain 
used  was  worth  as  much  as  6.43  pounds  of  corn  in  Pen  I. 
This  grain  mixture  consisted  of  2.44  pounds  of  wheat,  oats 
and  barley,  equal  parts,  and  2.43  pounds  of  corn.  Then  if 
corn  is  worth  83  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  the  wheat,  oats 
and  barley  to  mix  with  it  in  this  fattening  ration  were  worth 
$1.36  per  hundred.  At  the  present  prices  farmers  could  not 
afford  to  feed  corn  at  all  and  it  would  be  better  to  elimi¬ 
nate  the  oats  from  the  ration,  feeding  wheat  and  barley  as 
indicated  in  the  first  experiment  reported  in  this  bulletin. 
All  these  experiments  show  the  advantage  of  our  home 
grown  grains  in  unmistakable  terms. 

GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS. 

The  salient  points  shown  in  the  series  of  pig  feeding 
experiments  reported  in  this  bulletin  are  briefly: 

1.  Home  grown  grains  fed  in  proper  proportion  to  bal¬ 
ance  the  ration  are  more  valuable  than  corn. 

2.  A  well  balanced  ration  gives  better  returns  in  every 
case  than  a  poorly  balanced  ration,  and  a  mixture  of 
grains  is  better  than  a  single  grain  fed  alone. 

3.  Sugar  beets  for  swine  feeding  were  unprofitable  with 
us,  either  fed  alone  or  in  combination  with  grain. 
Green  pasture  would  probably  serve  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  succulent  food  for  growing  pigs  at  less  ex¬ 
pense. 

4.  Sugar  beets  are  little  more  than  a  maintenance  ration 
when  fed  alone  to  hogs. 

5.  Sugar  beets  and  sugar  beet  pulp  proved  equally  valu¬ 
able  in  our  experiments  and  because  of  its  cheapness 
and  effect  on  growth  we  believe  pulp  may  be  profitable 
to  feed  to  growing  pigs  in  connection  with  a  grain 
ration,  or  during  the  first  part  of  a  fattening  period. 


SWINE  FEEDING  IN  COLORADO.  29 

6.  These  experiments  indicate  that  sugar  beets  may  have 
a  value  of  about  $1.50  per  ton  when  fed  to  hogs  in  com¬ 
bination  with  grain. 

7.  Beet  pulp  gave  a  return  of  $1.50  per  ton  when  fed  in 
combination  with  grain. 

8.  Sugar  beet  pulp  served  the  same  purpose  in  our  hog 
rations  as  did  sugar  beets  and  at  less  expense. 

9.  It  was  necessary  to  mix  beet  pulp  with  grain  in  order  to 
educate  the  pigs  to  eat  it.  We  would  not  recommend 
feeding  more  than  two  pounds  of  pulp  to  a  pound  of 
grain  in  a  ration  for  pigs  which  are  from  100  to  200 
pounds  in  weight. 

10.  Our  trials  indicate  that  pigs  take  some  of  the  nutritive 
property  from  beets,  but  their  principal  use,  as  well  as 
that  of  pulp,  seems  to  be  mechanical. 

11.  Dry  alfalfa  hay  as  roughage,  may  be  made  use  of  by 
the  growing  pigs.  In  our  trials  the  pigs  ate  more  grain 
and  made  more  gain  than  on  a  similar  grain  ration  mi¬ 
nus  the  alfalfa. 

12.  Comparing  our  results  with  pig  feeding  experiments  in 
other  states,  indicates  that  our  small  grains,  more  espe¬ 
cially  our  barley  and  wheat,  are  worth  more  compared 
with  corn  than  similar  grains  raised  under  rainfall  con¬ 
ditions. 

13.  Mixed  wheat  and  barley  ground  together  make  a  well 
balanced  ration  for  pigs  and  one  upon  which  they  will 
make  better  growth  and  gain  than  they  will  on  a 
ration  composed  of  corn  alone.  The  farmer  in  Colora¬ 
do  cannot  ordinarilv  afford  to  sell  his  home  grown  grain 
and  purchase  corn  for  fattening  hogs.  Wheat  and  bar¬ 
ley  in  equal  parts  were  worth  17  percent  more  than  corn 
fed  alone. 

14.  If  wheat  and  barley  are  worth  $1.00  per  100  pounds, 
corn  is  worth  only  83.3  cents,  but  many  farmers  sold 
their  home  grown  grains  for  $1.00  to  purchase  corn  at 

$1.30. 

15.  There  is  enough  food  at  home,  including  grain,  alfalfa 
pasture,  by-products  of  dairies  and  beet  sugar  facto¬ 
ries,  to  make  swine  growing  and  fattening  a  profitable 
industry  on  Colorado  farms. 


EXPRESS  BOOK  PRINT 
FORT  COLLINS,  COLO 


f 


Bulletin  75.  September,  1902. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 

1900-1902. 


I.  SUGAR  BEETS  AND  BEET  PULP.- 

II.  HOME  GROWN  GRAINS  AND  CORN. 

III.  (a)  SMALL  GRAINS  AND  CORN. 

(6)  WARM  AND  COLD  WATER. 

(c)  SHROPSHIRE  GRADES  AND  NATIVE  LAMBS. 


B.  C.  BUFFUM  and  C.  J.  GRIFFITH. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPEBIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1902. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 
Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS,  - 
Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH 


Canon  City, 

TERM 

EXPIRES 

1903 

Denver, 

1903 

Denver, 

-  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

-  1905 

Denver,  - 

•  1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum, 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

|  ex-officio. 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . -  -  Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . Chemist 

B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S.,* . Agriculturist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

E.  D.  BALL,  M.  S.,  -  ...  Assistant  Entomologist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B  S.,  -  Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S„ . Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S.,  -------  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGL  vSS.  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M„  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN., .  Stenographer  and  Clerk 

*  Resigned  September  1  to  become  Director  Wyoming  Agr'l  Exp’t  Station. 


I  ' 


I  • 


■*-*v 


PLATE  I. 

Fed  Oats ,  Wheat,  Barley  and  Alfalfa. 
Given  Cold  Water  to  Drink. 


PLATE  II. 

Fed  Oats,  Wheat,  Barley  and  Alfalfa. 
Given  Warm  Water  to  Drink. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


By  B.  C.  BUFFUM  AND  C.  J.  GRIFFITH.* 


The  value  of  the  by-products  from  the  beet  sugar  fac¬ 
tories  is  a  prominent  subject  among  lamb  feeders.  With 
the  remarkable  growth  of  the  beet  industry  within  the 
state  there  will  be  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  tonnage 
of  pulp  available  to  feeders.  The  pulp  sells  at  a  low  price 
per  ton,  so  low  indeed  that  if  it  has  any  virtue  at  all  either 
for  fattening  or  for  preparing  the  lambs  to  make  more 
profitable  gains  when  put  on  full  feed,  it  will  be  a  valuable 
addition  to  our  supply  of  stock  food  in  Colorado. 

•  T°  comPare  value  of  pulp  when  fed  with  alfalfa,  or 
with  alfalfa  and  grain,  and  the  value  of  sugar  beets  when 
fed  in  the  same  manner,  we  carried  out  an  experiment  at 
the  College  during  the  past  spring.  The  pulp  was  furnish¬ 
ed  gratis  for  this  purpose  by  the  Great  Western  Sugar 
Company  at  Loveland,  through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  A.  V. 
Officer.  Early  in  February  a  car  load  of  pulp  was  received 
and  hauled  to  the  College  barn  where  it  was  placed  in  con¬ 
venient  piles  on  the  ground  near  the  feeding  pens. 

Much  has  been  written  and  said  during  the  past  year 
about  the  value  of  beet  pulp,  and  many  of  the  statements 
nave  been  extravagant,  or  were  without  any  basis  of  fact. 
It  is  not  our  intention  to  put  any  account  of  the  feeding  of 
pulp  which  has  been  complied  from  other  sources  in  the  body 
of  this  bulletin,  but  will  state  simply  our  own  results.  In 
our  bulletin  No.  73  of  this  Station,  on  the  “Feeding  Value 
ot  Beet  Pulp  and  Feeding  Sugar  Beets  and  Pulp  to  Cows,” 
has  been  published  a  brief  resume  of  such  data  as  we  con¬ 
sider  authentic,  compiled  from  all  sources  to  which  we  have 
had  access.  Our  tests  of  sugar  beet  pulp  for  fattening  hogs 
are  reported  in  Bulletin  No.  74  on  “Swine  heeding  in  Colo- 

r-°L  Thus  last  bulletin  gives  the  only  information  with 
wruch  we  are  acquainted  on  feeding  beet  pulp  to  swine. 

Instructor  iu  Animal  Husbandry. 


4 


BULLETIN  75. 

Many  of  our  farmers  have  been  convinced  of  the  great 
worth  of  sugar  beets  in  a  ration  for  fattening  stock,  and  in 
some  instances  they  have  paid  more  for  beets  for  feeding 
than  the  factory  would  pay  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
This  makes  the  question  of  the  value  of  sugar  beets  for 
feeding  a  live  one,  and  we  here  report  experiments  which 
were  carried  out  to  throw  light  on  this  subject. 

Sugar  beets  for  fattening  hogs  were  tried  last  year,  and 
the  results  indicated  that  they  were  not  so  valuable  for  that 
purpose  as  many  have  supposed.  These  experiments  are 
reported  in  the  bulletin  on  “Swine  Feeding  in  Colorado.” 
It  is  well  known,  however,  that  a  food  suitable  for  one  class 
of  stock  may  not  be  suitable  for  another,  and  the  results 
obtained  with  beets  or  pulp  when  fed  to  swine  do  not  indi¬ 
cate  what  their  nutritive  quality  would  be  when  fed  to 
lambs  or  cattle.  Pigs  require  a  concentrated  ration,  and 
while  they  may  be,  and  in  our  trials  were,  able  to  live  and 
make  small  gains  when  fed  with  beets  alone,  the  ration  was 
a  bulky  one  and  did  not  prove  profitable.  Pigs  do  not 
ordinarily  live  on  dry  hay,  while  lambs  or  cattle  may  lay  on 
fat  with  such  bulky  rations,  making  good  returns  for  the 
roughage  consumed.  Feeding  beets  or  pulp  to  lambs  along 
with  alfalfa  is  very  different  from  feeding  these  products  to 
pigs  when  given  either  with  or  without  grains  or  other  con¬ 
centrated  foods. 

The  second  experiment  reported  was  inaugurated  to 
compare  home  grown  or  small  grains  with  corn,  which  is 
shipped  in  in  great  quantities  by  our  sheep  feeders,  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  past  year,  at  least,  has  cost  them  much  more  than 
the  grains  which  they  raise  on  their  own  farms  could  be 
sold  for.  Many  have  an  idea  that  stock  of  any  kind  can¬ 
not  be  fattened  and  properly  fitted  for  market  without  us¬ 
ing  corn.  Investigations  in  eastern  states  have  shown  that 
wheat  is  as  valuable  as  corn  for  fattening  stock.  Our  own 
experiments  with  fattening  swine  reported  in  the  bulletin 
entitled  “Swine  Feeding  in  Colorado,”  show  that  mixtures 
of  wheat  and  barley  are  preferable  to  corn  for  fattening 
pigs  when  either  grain  can  be  obtained  at  the  same  price 
as  corn. 

Occasionally  there  is  introduced  into  the  state,  some¬ 
thing  new,  either  a  new  grain  or  a  new  variety  which  is 
given  notoriety  through  the  papers  and  which  many  go  to 
considerable  expense  to  obtain  before  they  can  know  much 
about  it.  The  Russian  Spelt  or  Emmer  is  one  of  these,  and 
in  our  sheep  feeding  trials  its  value  has  been  carefully  in¬ 
vestigated.  Russian  Spelt,  as  it  is  popularly  called  (more 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


5 

accurately  "emmer”) ,  is  a  primitive  sort  of  wheat  which 
does  not  shell  out  of  the  hull  when  threshed.  As  the  ker¬ 
nels  remain  in  the  chaff,  the  grain  is  lighter  than  wheat, 
weighing  about  the  same  per  bushel  as  oats,  but  it  produces 
large  yields  and  is  said  to  be  a  good  drouth  resistant  vari¬ 
ety.  In  iqoi,  a  field  of  this  spelt  on  the  College  farm 
yielded  sixty-three  bushels  per  acre.  The  grain  is  very 
hardy.  The  present  season  we  have  a  field  of  emmer  grow¬ 
ing  on  very  poor  land  which  is  somewhat  alkalized,  parts  of 
which  would  heretofore  produce  nothing  but  a  crop  of 
poverty  weed.  On  this  land  we  will  get  a  very  fair  crop  of 
grain. 

The  third  experiment  given  in  this  bulletin  was  plan¬ 
ned  along  the  same  line  as  the  second  one  reported — a 
comparison  of  home  grown  grains  with  corn.  Cold  water 
was  also  compared  with  warm  water  in  this  same  trial.  A 
third  comparison  made  in  this  experiment  was  the  relative 
gain  made  by  Shropshire  crosses  and  native  western  lambs. 
These  so-called  Shropshire  crosses  were  the  first  cross  of 
pure  bred  Shropshire  bucks  on  the  native  merino  grade  • 
ewes.  They  were  raised  at  the  College  farm  from  some 
old  native  ewes  which  had  been  purchased  for  an  experi¬ 
ment. 

Seven  years  ago  the  Station  published  Bulletin  No.  32 
on  “Sheep  Feeding  in  Colorado,”  prepared  by  Professor 
W.  W.  Cooke.  That  bulletin  contains  some  information  of 
general  value  and  some  interesting  feeding  experiments  are 
reported.  Those  who  are  making  a  study  of  the  lamb 
feeding  problem  will  be  interested  enough  to  compare  the 
results  reported  at  that  time  and  those  given  in  the  present 
bulletin,  more  especially,  perhaps,  the  results  from  feeding 
sugar  beets.  The  cost  for  each  pound  of  gain  where  beets 
formed  a  portion  of  the  ration  was  higher  than  the  cost  per 
pound  of  gain  with  grain  rations,  and  the  profit  was  not 
sufficiently  large  to  make  beet  feeding  remunerative.  Pro¬ 
fessor  Cooke  reported  a  maximum  return  from  feeding  beets 
of*$2.77  Per  ton  and  gives  a  low  value  of  grain  when  added 
to  a  beet  ration.  The  investigations  reported  in  the  pres¬ 
ent  bulletin  tend  to  substantiate  that  view.  Because  of  the 
low  cost  of  beet  pulp,  however,  it  forms  a  cheap  substitute 
for  the  more  expensive  roots  and  the  pulp  seems  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  adding  a  succulent  food  so  well  that  there  is 
considerable  advantage  to  be  gained  from  its  proper  use. 

The  comparative  value  of  wheat  and  corn  for  lamb 
feeding  where  the  lambs  are  finished  on  either  of  these 
grains,  as  reported  in  Bulletin  No.  32,  shows  wheat  to  be 


6 


BULLETIN  75. 

worth  15  percent  more  than  corn,  but  under  other  con¬ 
ditions  and  for  the  entire  trials  then  made,  the  wheat  and 
corn  were  almost  exactly  equal  to  each  other.  The  results 
with  corn  in  our  more  recent  trials  show  that  the  high 
prices  paid  by  our  farmers  for  corn  during  the  past  year 
were  more  than  it  was  actually  worth  when  compared  with 
our  home  grown  grains  at  their  prevailing  market  prices. 
The  high  prices  received  for  fattened  lambs  made  the  feed¬ 
ing  of  corn  at  $1.30  per  hundred  pounds  profitable,  but  the 
man  who  properly  fed  wheat  and  barley  at  one  cent  per 
pound  would  have  an  appreciably  larger  balance  on  the 
right  side  of  his  ledger.  It  is  the  province  of  the  Experi¬ 
ment  Station  to  investigate  these  subjects  and  furnish  the 
information  to  all  who  desire  it.  In  addition  to  Bulletin 
No.  32  on  sheep  feeding,  the  Station  has  published  Bulletin 
No.  52  on  “Pasturing  Sheep  on  Alfalfa  and  Raising  Early 
Lambs.” 


EXPERIMENT  1.— SUGAR  BEETS  AND  BEET  PULP. 


KIND  OF  LAMBS  FED. 

In  the  first  and  second  experiments  here  reported,  we 
used  Mexican  lambs  which  averaged  55  pounds  per  head 
March  5th,  1902.  They  were  in  very  poor  condition  when 
we  received  them,  a  few  days  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment.  They  had  trailed  a  long  distance  to  Albu¬ 
querque,  New  Mexico,  at  which  place  they  were  held  until 
they  could  be  dipped  twice.  During  the  interval  between 
the  dippings  they  were  kept  on  the  sand  hills  where  there 
was  practically  no  food  to  be  had.  This  class  of  lambs 
would  represent  the  most  unprofitable  kind  that  could  be 
had  for  feeding  anywhere  in  the  west.  The  resulting  profit 
obtained,  then,  may  be  considered  a  minimum  In  April 
the  lambs  were  shorn  and  the  wool  credited  at  ten  cents 
per  pound. 


OBJECT  AND  PLAN  OF  EXPERIMENT  I. 

The  object  of  this  trial  was  to  determine  the  compara¬ 
tive  value  of  sugar  beets  and  beet  pulp  when  fed  with  al¬ 
falfa  hay  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  grain.  Fifty 
lambs  had  been  divided  into  ten  lots  of  five  each  and  five  of 
these  lots  were  to  receive  beet  and  pulp  rations.  Lots  I.  to 
IV.  are  regularly  reported.  Lot  X.  was  given  a  ration  of 
beets,  grain  and  straw,  in  order  to  show  the  comparative 
return  from  feeding  alfalfa  and  to  determine  whether  the 
beets  and  straw  could  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  alfalfa. 
Some  of  our  farmers  have  thought  that  sugar  beets  had 
such  a  high  feeding  value  that  they  could  be  made  to  take 
the  place  largely  of  both  hay  and  grain.  We  failed  to  get 
the  lambs  in  Lot  X.  fat  enough  to  turn  and  considered  the 
trial  so  much  out  of  the  ordinary  that  it  would  not  be  worth 
while  to  compare  the  results  more  than  in  a  general  way. 
So  this  lot  does  not  appear  in  our  tables.  The  following 
rations  were  fed  to  those  in  the  sugar  beet  and  pulp  trial: 

Lot  I. — Alfalfa  and  beet  pulp. 

Lot  II. — Alfalfa  and  beet  pulp  with  grain  consisting  of 
equal  parts  of  barley  and  wheat  added  during  the  last  eight 


8  BULLETIN  75. 

weeks  the  lambs  were  fed;  cutting  off  all  the  pulp  during 
the  last  thirty  days. 

Lot  III. — Alfalfa  and  sugar  beets. 

Lot  IV. — Alfalfa  and  sugar  beets  with  grain  consisting 
of  equal  parts  of  wheat  and  barley  added  during  the  last 
eight  weeks  the  lambs  were  on  feed,  cutting  off  the  supply 
of  sugar  beets  during  the  last  thirty  days. 

The  alfalfa  was  fed  ad  libitum ,  a  complete  record  being 
kept  of  amount  of  fed  and  amount  not  eaten.  It  was  the 
intention  to  feed  all  the  pulp  and  beets  that  the  lambs  would 
eat,  but  it  was  not  kept  before  them  all  the  time. 

Each  lamb  was  marked,  and  weighed  separately  once  a 
week  in  order  to  keep  complete  individual  records  of  them 
as  well  as  accounts  of  the  lots.  The  lambs  were  selected 
carefully  in  order  that  there  should  be  no  advantage  of  any 
one  lot  over  another  by  having  in  it  a  superior  class  of  in¬ 
dividuals. 

In  Experiments  I.  and  II.,  the  feeding  was  done  and  the 
notes  taken  by  senior  students  under  the  direction  and 
supervision  of  one  of  us.  Our  acknowledgments  are  due 
more  especially  to  Mr.  E.  P.  Taylor  and  Mr.  H.  J.  Faulkner. 

In  computing  comparative  values  and  the  cost  of  food 
eaten,  cost  for  each  pound  of  gain,  etc.,  local  market 
prices  of  the  food  used  are  as  follows: 

Alfalfa  on  the  farm,  $4.00  per  ton. 

Beet  pulp  delivered,  $1.00  per  ton. 

Sugar  beets  on  the  farm,  $4.00  per  ton. 

Wheat  and  barley.  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds. 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  I. 

Nothing  occurred  to  mar  or  interfere  with  this  experi¬ 
ment  except  the  necessity  of  feeding  a  small  amount  of 
grain  during  the  first  week  to  induce  the  lambs  to  begin 
eating  the  pulp  and  beets  at  once  and  a  mistake  which  was 
made  during  the  last  three  weeks  when  Lot  III.  receiving 
the  beets  were  given  grain.  As  all  the  lots  received  the 
same  amount  of  grain  the  first  week,  the  value  of  the  com¬ 
parisons  of  one  lot  with  another  are  not  disturbed.  By 
drawing  the  conclusions  for  the  first  five  weeks  and  for  the 
first  ten  weeks,  we  are  able  to  eliminate  the  effect  of  the 
grain  given  during  the  last  thirty  days  to  the  pulp  and  beet 
lots,  and  show  the  comparative  value  of  beets  and  pulp. 

The  beets  showed  a  tendency  to  scour  the  lambs  when 
they  ate  too  large  a  quantity  of  them.  The  lambs  in  Lot 
IV.  and  one  lamb,  No.  7,  in  Lot  II.,  were  out  of  condition 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


9 

once  during  the  feeding  period  by  having  been  fed  too 
liberally. 

Table  I.  gives  the  amounts  of  food  supplied  to  each  lot 
during  each  week,  with  the  total  amount  fed  each  lot  and 
the  orts  not  eaten  which  were  weighed  back  each  day. 

TABLE  I. 

LAMB  FEEDING.  SUGAR  BEETS  AND  BEET  PULP. 

FOOD  EATEN  IN  POUNDS. 


Lot  I. 


Lot  II. 


Lot  III. 


Lot  IV. 


Palp . 

Pulp  Orts . 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

— 

Barley  and  Wheat. 

Pulp . 

Palp  Orts . 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Barley  and  Wheat. 

Sugar  Beets . 

Sugar  Beet  Orts.. . 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Barley  and  Wheat. 

Sugar  Beets . 

Sugar  Beet  Orts. .. 

Alfalfa . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

1  Barley  and  Wheat. 

Mar.  5  to  Mar.  12.. 

107 

40 

96 

32 

8.0 

103 

53 

96 

42 

8 

81 

15 

96 

38 

8 

75 

31 

96 

32 

8 

Mar.  12  to  Mar.  15 . 

42 

2 

36 

12 

.... 

42 

14 

36 

1 

9 

42 

2 

36 

14 

42 

3 

36 

19 

Mar.  15  to  Mar.  22. 

102 

4 

84 

29 

102 

7 

84 

22 

98 

3 

84 

33 

98 

5 

84 

45 

. .. 

Mar.  22  to  Mar.  29. 

124 

5 

84 

19 

124 

1 

84 

20 

... 

94 

4 

84 

27 

104 

84 

23 

Mar.  29  to  April  5  . 

132 

9 

84 

22 

132 

5 

84 

15 

108 

1 

84 

21 

108 

84 

26 

... 

April  5  to  April  12. 

142 

10 

84 

20 

.... 

97 

84 

15 

18 

112 

2 

84 

24 

79 

84 

19 

17 

April  12  to  April  19 

147 

6 

84 

24 

.... 

94 

84 

32 

22 

128 

84 

37 

97 

84 

25 

23 

April  19  to  April  26 

147 

8 

112 

39 

94 

1 

84 

18 

33 

140 

84 

18 

97 

84 

18 

33 

April  26  to  May  3 . . 

193 

4 

112 

35 

90 

37 

94 

40 

47 

151 

3 

94 

27 

84 

6 

91 

40 

51 

May  3  to  May  10. .. 

280 

10 

112 

11 

.... 

98 

20 

51 

160 

98 

12 

98 

11 

60 

May  10  to  May  17 . . 

272 

21 

112 

32 

5.5 

98 

22 

49 

39 

102 

23 

31 

98 

21 

73 

May  17  to  May  21 . . 

217 

38 

113 

30 

6.0 

98 

41 

45 

18 

112 

41 

63 

98 

28 

81 

May  21  to  May  28. . 

90 

22 

45 

7 

.... 

40 

8 

29 

.... 

45 

6 

26 

40 

8 

30 

Totals . 

1974 

199 

1155 

314 

19.5 

878 

113 

1164 

279 

302 

1166 

30 

1087 

321 

128 

784 

45 

1061 

315 

376 

Table  II.  gives  the  average  amount  of  food  actually 
consumed  by  each  lamb  daily.  The  alfalfa  left  uneaten 


TO 


BULLETIN  75. 


consisted  of  the  coarser  stems  and  these  were  consumed 
readily  by  the  stock  sheep.  It  was  necessary  at  first  to 
sprinkle  the  pulp  with  grain  in  order  to  get  the  lambs  to  eat 
it  at  all.  Near  the  end  of  the  trial  the  supply  of  sugar  beets 
gave  out  and  a  little  grain  was  added  to  the  ration  given 
Lot  III. 

TABLE  II. 


AVERAGE  FOOD  EATEN  DAILY  IN  POUNDS. 


Alfalfa.  Pulp. 


Lot  1 .  2.02  4.22 

Lot  II .  2.10  1.82 

Lot  III .  1.82 

Lot  IV .  1.77 


Sugar 

Wheat  and 

Total  Food 

Beets. 

Barley. 

Daily. 

0.04 

6.28 

0.72 

4.64 

2.70 

0.30 

4.82 

1.76 

0.90 

4.43 

The  amount  of  alfalfa,  pulp  and  grain  consumed  by  the 
five  lambs  in  Lot  I.  was  6.28  pounds  per  head  daily;  2.02 
pounds  of  alfalfa,  4.22  pounds  of  pulp  and  .04  pounds  of 
grain;  or  a  total  of  168.2  pounds  of  alfalfa,  375  pounds  of 
pulp  and  3.9  pounds  of  grain  per  head  during  the  84  days 
feeding. 

Lot  III.  ate  a  ration  of  1.82  pounds  of  alfalfa,  2.70 
pounds  of  sugar  beets  and  .30  pounds  of  grain  per  head 
daily,  making  a  total  ration  of  4.82  pounds  consumed  daily; 
or  a  total  amount  of  food  eaten  per  lamb  through  the  ex¬ 
periment  of  153.2  pounds  of  alfalfa,  227.2  pounds  of  sugar 
beets  and  25.6  pounds  of  grain. 

There  were  2.10  pounds  of  alfalfa,  1.82  pounds  of  pulp 
and  .72  pounds  of  grain  consumed  daily  by  the  average 
lamb  in  Lot  II.,  a  total  daily  food  of  4.64  pounds,  or  a  total 
through  the  period  of  177  pounds  of  alfalfa,  153  pounds  of 
pulp,  and  6.04  pounds  of  grain. 

Lot  IV.  consumed  an  average  dailv  ration  of  1.77 
pounds  of  alfalfa,  1.76  pounds  of  sugar  beets  and  .90  pounds 
of  wheat  and  barley,  a  total  daily  ration  of  4.43  pounds  per 
lamb.  This  makes  a  total  of  149.2  pounds  of  alfalfa,  147.2 
pounds  of  sugar  beets,  and  75.2  pounds  of  grain  consumed 
through  the  experiment  by  the  average  lamb  in  this  lot. 

The  total  amounts  of  food  consumed  for  the  entire 
period  are  as  we  should  expect  to  find  them,  greater  in 
those  lots  having  pulp  than  in  those  having  the  beets,  prob¬ 
ably  because  of  the  greater  percent  of  nutrients  in  the 
beets. 


WEIGHT  AND  GAINS  PER  WEEK  ON  PULP  AND  BEET  RATIONS. 

Table  III.  gives  by  weeks  the  individual  weights  of  the 
lambs  in  the  four  lots  during  the  trial,  and  the  total  gain 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


1 1 

made  by  each.  Lamb  No.  4  in  Lot  I.  did  poorly,  making  a 
gain  of  only  eight  pounds  for  the  whole  time,  while  the  other 
four  lambs  in  the  pen  made  an  average  of  17  pounds  each. 
For  the  first  five  weeks  while  on  pulp  and  alfalfa  the  other 
four  lambs  in  Lot  I.  made  average  gains  of  9.7  pounds, 
while  lamb  No.  4  gained  only  three  pounds.  This  lamb 
making  a  gain  so  much  smaller  than  the  normal  will  ex¬ 
plain  in  part  at  least  the  difference  in  gains  of  Lot  I.  and 

_ _  TABLE  III. 

INDIVIDUAL  WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS  IN  POUNDS. 


Lot  I. 

Lot  II. 

Lot  III. 

1 

Lot  IV. 

Tag  No . 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

March  5 . 

61 

53 

57 

53 

60 

59 

64 

58 

54 

54 

60 

39 

52 

56 

52 

69 

57 

60 

54 

49 

March  12 . 

68 

54 

60 

58 

64 

64 

69 

61 

60 

63 

60 

47 

56 

58 

57 

73 

63 

64 

60 

55 

March  15 . . 

66 

57 

61 

56 

65 

63 

67 

60 

60 

61 

61 

45 

58 

58 

57 

77 

68 

67 

60 

59 

March  22 . 

68 

57 

63 

55 

67 

64 

69 

63 

62 

64 

64 

51 

59 

61 

59 

75 

66 

64 

63 

52 

March  29 . 

67 

59 

63 

53 

71 

67 

64 

63 

66 

68 

65 

52 

61 

63 

62 

77 

70 

61 

64 

55 

April  5 .  . 

71 

62 

64 

56 

73 

69 

69 

64 

65 

73 

68 

56 

65 

65 

64 

79 

72 

65 

66 

56 

April  12 . 

69 

62 

65 

57 

74 

71 

70 

62 

67 

75 

66 

56 

65 

67 

68 

80 

76 

67 

68 

59 

Sheared 

April  19 . 

67 

61 

61 

56 

74 

70 

68 

64 

65 

75 

67 

58 

65 

64 

61 

78 

77 

69 

68 

55 

April  26 . 

70 

63 

66 

55 

82 

75 

71 

64 

70 

79 

69 

59 

63 

68 

65 

83 

75 

72 

73 

61 

May  3 . 

74 

69 

69 

53 

85 

77 

73 

69 

65 

78 

71 

63 

73 

63 

69 

86 

83 

75 

75 

60 

May  10 . 

75 

69 

70 

62 

83 

78 

73 

71 

72 

77 

72 

63 

70 

69 

71 

84 

87 

78 

78 

65 

May  17 . 

74 

71 

71 

60 

84 

74 

74 

71 

74 

81 

77 

61 

72 

69 

74 

87 

89 

78 

81 

68 

May  24 . 

77 

72 

73 

62 

86 

80 

78 

73 

73 

83 

78 

63 

75 

71 

77 

90 

90 

82 

80 

71 

May  28 . 

74 

71 

72 

61 

82 

80 

77 

72 

73 

81 

78 

68 

74 

69 

76 

90 

87 

82 

79 

72 

Fleece  . 

4 

3 

3 

4 

2 

4 

4 

2 

4 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

3 

6 

2 

2 

3 

4 

Total  Gain . 

17 

21 

18 

12 

24 

25 

17 

16 

23 

30 

22 

31 

25 

17 

27 

27 

32 

24 

28 

27 

12 


BULLETIN  75. 

Lot  II.  during  the  first  five  weeks  when  both  lots  were  re¬ 
ceiving  the  same  ration  of  pulp  and  hay. 

TABLE  IV. 


POUNDS  GAIN  PER  WEEK — WITHOUT  GRAIN. 


Lot  I.* 

Lot  II.* 

Lot  Ill.t 

Lot  IV.t 

March  8 . 

.  20 

28 

19 

26 

March  15 . 

.  1 

6 

1 

16 

March  22 . 

. .  5 

11 

15 

-11 

March  29 . 

.  3 

6 

9 

7 

April  5 . 

.  13 

12 

15 

11 

Gain . 

. .  42 

51 

59 

49 

*Lots  I. 

and  II.  fed  pulp  and  alfalfa. 

tLots  III.  and  IV.  fed  beets  and  alfalfa. 

TABLE 

V. 

BOUNDS  GAIN  PER  WEEK — WITH 

GRAIN. 

Lot  I.* 

Lot  II. t 

Lot  III4 

Lot  IV4 

April  12 . 

.  1 

5 

2 

12 

April  19 . 

.  11 

15 

11 

14 

April  26 . 

.  14 

16 

12 

17 

May  3 . 

.  14 

6 

17 

15 

May  10 . 

.  9 

6 

1 

13 

May  17 . 

. .  1 

3 

8 

11 

May  24 . 

. _  10 

13 

11 

10 

May  28 . 

.  -10 

-4 

1 

-3 

Gain . 

.  50 

60 

63 

89 

Total  Gain  Flesh  (March  8- 

May  28) . 

.  76 

94 

106 

121 

Fleece . 

. . .  16 

17 

16 

17 

Total  Gain  with  Fleece  Mar. 

8-May  28). 

.  92 

111 

122 

138 

*Lot  I.  fed  pulp  and  alfalfa. 

tLot  II.  fed  pulp,  alfalfa  and  grain. 

tLot  III.  fed  beets,  alfalfa  (grain  three  weeks.) 

$Lot  IV.  fed  beets,  alfalfa  and  grain. 

Table  IV.  shows  that  the  ten  lambs  of  Lots  I.  and  II. 
fed  pulp  and  alfalfa  for  five  weeks  gained  93  pounds.  In 
order  to  get  the  lambs  to  eat  the  pulp  16  pounds  of  grain 
was  mixed  with  it  for  the  two  lots  during  the  first  week,  and 
during  this  time  while  receiving  the  grain  they  made  a 
total  gain  of  38  pounds,  leaving  55  pounds  gain  due  to  the 
pulp  and  alfalfa  fed  the  other  four  weeks. 

Lots  III.  and  IV.  consisted  of  10  lambs  fed  on  sugar 
beets  and  alfalfa,  and  they  gained  108  pounds  during  the 
first  five  weeks.  They  were  fed  the  same  amount  of  grain 
during  the  first  week  as  Lots  I.  and  II.  The  gains  made  by 
the  10  lambs 'Ted  ^with  beets  during  the  first  week  amount¬ 
ed  to  45  pounds,  leaving  63  pounds  of  gain  due  to  sugar 
beets  and  alfalfa  in  the  remaining  four  weeks,  or  eight 
pounds  more  gain  for  the  beets  than  for  the  pulp. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


13 

Table  V.  shows  that  the  five  lambs  in  Lot  I.  made  a 
total  gain  of  92  pounds,  16  pounds  of  which  was  fleece, 
while  those  fed  beets  and  alfalfa  made  a  total  gain  of  122 
pounds,  16  pounds  of  which  was  fleece.  However,  the  beet 
fed  lambs  received  99  pounds  of  grain  more  than  those 
which  were  fed  pulp.  The  pulp  fed  lambs  in  Lot  I.  were 
given  ii|  pounds  of  grain  in  the  two  weeks  from  May  to  to 
May  24,  and  Lot  III.  which  was  fed  beets  received  120 
pounds  of  grain  during  the  last  three  weeks  of  the  ex¬ 
periment. 

In  our  plan  of  the  experiment  it  was  not  the  intention 
that  the  pulp  and  beet  fed  lambs  should  have  any  grain  at 
all. 

Referring  to  Table  V.  it  will  be  seen  that  the  pulp  fed 
lambs  made  but  one  pound  gain  during  the  last  three 
weeks,  while  the  beet  fed  lambs  made  an  appreciable  gain 
during  this  time  when  the  grain  was  given  them.  The  gain 
made  by  Lot  III.  during  the  last  three  weeks  was  20 
pounds,  but  during  this  time  they  received  only  57  pounds 
of  beets,  and  the  principal  part  of  the  gain  was  due,  no 
doubt,  to  the  grain  fed. 

Lot  III.,  fed  beets  and  alfalfa,  gained  122  pounds  dur¬ 
ing  the  experiment,  16  pounds  of  which  was  fleece.  De¬ 
ducting  the  20  pounds  gain  while  being  fed  grain,  and  the 
amount  of  fleece,  and  comparing  with  Lot  II.,  the  results 
would  indicate  that  the  beet  and  alfalfa  lot  gained  10 
pounds  more  than  the  lot  which  received  pulp  and  alfalfa. 
This  statement  must  be  taken  with  due  allowance  because 
the  five  lambs  ate  almost  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  beets 
per  day  during  the  last  three  weeks  and  they  may  have  pro¬ 
duced  an  appreciable  effect  on  the  gains. 

Lot  II.,  which  was  fed  pulp,  alfalfa  and  grain,  gained 
in  pounds,  17  pounds  of  which  was  fleece,  and  Lot  IV.  fed 
beets,  alfalfa  and  grain,  gained  138  pounds,  17  pounds  of 
which  was  fleece.  Then  the  lots  fed  beets  and  grain  gained 
27  pounds  more  than  the  lot  fed  pulp  and  grain,  the  fleece 
being  the  same  in  each  case. 

Adding  grain  to  the  pulp  and  alfalfa  ration  gives  an  in¬ 
creased  gain  of  io  pounds  over  the  pulp  and  alfalfa  ration 
during  the  last  eight  weeks  of  the  experiment.  No  com¬ 
parison  can  be  made  between  the  beet,  alfalfa  and  grain 
ration  and  the  beet  and  alfalfa  ration  for  the  whole  time, 
because  of  the  amount  of  grain  given  to  Lot  III.  during  the 
last  three  weeks.  However,  by  taking  the  first  10  weeks 
of  the  feeding  period,  leaving  out  the  last  three  weeks,  we 
are  able  to  make  a  fair  comparison  between  the  lots. 


14  BULLETIN  75. 

Briefly  stated  up  to  this  time,  (May  10),  Lot  I.,  on  pulp, 
gained  in  flesh  75  pounds,  Lot  III.,  on  beets,  gained  86 
pounds,  or  eleven  pounds  more  for  the  beet  ration  than  for 
the  pulp  ration.  Lot  II.,  fed  pulp  and  grain,  gained  82 
pounds,  or  seven  pounds  more  than  those  on  pulp  without 
grain,  and  four  pounds  less  than  Lot  III.  on  beets  and  al¬ 
falfa.  Lot  IV.,  on  beets  and  grain,  gained  103  pounds  for 
this  ten  weeks’  period,  or  28  pounds  more  than  Lot  I.  on 
pulp;  27  pounds  more  than  those  on  beets  and  alfalfa,  and 
21  pounds  more  than  those  on  pulp  and  grain. 

For  the  ten  weeks’  period  Lot  I.  ate  1277  pounds  of 
pulp  and  640  pounds  of  hay  worth  $1 .82.  Lot  III.  ate  1079 
pounds  of  beets  and  577  pounds  of  hay  worth  $3.31.  The 
beet  lot  gained  11  pounds  more  than  the  pulp  lot,  worth  66 
cents.  Then  $1.82  worth  of  pulp  and  hay  was  equal  to 
$2.65  worth  of  beets  and  hay  when  fed  without  grain.  The 
hay  being  the  same,  the  pulp  would  be  worth  $1.46  per  ton 
compared  with  beets  at  $4.00  per  ton  when  fed  with  hay 
alone.  There  was  actually  more  hay  eaten  with  the  pulp 
than  with  the  beets  so  the  difference  would  not  be  quite  so 
great.  Making  the  same  comparison  between  the  lots 
which  were  fed  grain  with  pulp  and  with  beets,  Lot  II.  ate 
in  the  ten  weeks  765  pounds  of  pulp,  720  pounds  of  hay  and 
179  pounds  of  grain,  while  Lot  IV.  ate  784  pounds  of  beets, 
566  pounds  of  alfalfa  and  192  pounds  of  grain.  The  food 
eaten  by  Lot  II.  was  worth  $3.62  and  that  eaten  by  Lot  IV. 
was  worth  $4.62.  Lot  IV.  gained  21  pounds  more  than  Lot 
II.  which  was  worth  $1.26.  Then  $3.62  worth  of  pulp,  al¬ 
falfa  and  grain  was  equal  to  $3.36  worth  of  beets,  alfalfa 
and  grain.  The  beets  would  be  worth  a  little  more  than 

TABLE  VI. 


FOOD  EATEN  AND  GAINS  IN  POUNDS. 


No.  lambs 

z 

G. 

v» 

X 

•-b 

C-I 

Food  Eaten 

Average  Weight 

Total 

gain 

flesh 

Fleece 

Alfalfa 

Sugar 

Beets 

Pulp 

Wheat 

Barley 

At  be- 
gin’ing 

At  end 

Lot  1 . 

5 

81 

1 

811 

1775 

9.75 

9.75 

56  8 

72.2 

76.0 

16.0 

Lot  11 . 

5 

81 

885 

765 

151.00 

151.00 

57.8 

76.6 

91.0 

17.0 

Lot  III 

5 

81 

766 

1136 

61.00 

61.00 

51.8 

73.0 

106.0 

16.0 

Lot  IV 

5 

84 

7  ll> 

739 

188.00 

188  0t 

57.8 

82.0 

121.0 

17.0 

LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS.  1 5 

$4.00  per  ton  compared  with  pulp  at  $1.00  per  ton  when  fed 
in  this  way  with  grain  at  one  cent  per  pound. 

The  whole  discussion  indicates  that  so  far  as  the  results 
of  this  experiment  are  reliable,  pulp  at  $1.00  per  ton,  with 
alfalfa  at  $4.00  per  ton,  is  a  much  more  economical  ration 
than  beets  at  $4.00  per  ton,  with  hay  at  the  same  price, 
when  no  grain  is  given,  but  that  a  ration  of  pulp,  alfalfa  and 
grain  is  approximately  equal  to  beets,  alfalfa  and  grain  at 
$1.00  and  $4.00  per  ton  respectively. 

Table  VI.  gives  the  total  amount  of  food  eaten  by  each 
lot  and  the  gains  made. 

AMOUNT  AND  COST  OF  FOOD  COMPARED  WITH  GAINS. 

Table  VII.  gives  the  amount  and  cost  of  food  consumed 
for  one  pound  of  gain  made  in  each  lot,  also  the  average 
percent  of  dressed  weight  for  the  respective  lots. 

TABLE  VII. 


FOOD  EATEN  FOR  ONE  POUND  GAIN. 


Food  for  One  Pound  Gain 

Cost 

1  lb. 
Gain 

Percent 

Dressed 

Weight 

Alfalfa 

Sugar 

B^ets 

Pulp 

Wheat 

Barley 

Lot  I . 

lbs. 

9.14 

lbs. 

lbs. 

19.30 

lbs. 

0.02 

lbs. 

0.02 

cts. 

2.83 

1 

j  45.7 

Lot  II..  . 

7.97 

6.90 

1.36 

1.36 

4.65 

48.1 

1 

Lot  III  .  . 

6.28 

...1 

0  52 

0.52 

4.16 

46.6 

Lot  IV  . 

1 

5.40 

5.35 

1.36 

1.86 

4.87 

46.6 

Comparing  Lots  I.  and  II.  we  find  that  9.14  pounds  of 
alfalfa;  19.3  pounds  of  pulp,  and  .04  pounds  of  grain  in  Lot 
I.  was  equal  to  7.97  pounds  of  alfalfa;  6.9  pounds  of  pulp 
and  2.72  pounds  of  grain  in  Lot  II.  In  Lot  III.  where  sugar 
beets  took  the  place  of  the  pulp  in  the  ration  of  Lot  I.  it 
required  6.28  pounds  of  alfalfa,  9.31  pounds  of  beets  and 
1.04  pounds  of  grain  to  produce  one  pound  of  gain;  or  it 
took  9.31  pounds  of  beets  and  1. 00  pound  of  grain  in  Lot 

III.  to  replace  19.3  pounds  of  pulp  and  2.86  pounds  of  al¬ 
falfa  in  Lot  I. 

Lot  IV.,  which  had  a  similar  ration  to  Lot  II.,  except 
that  the  pulp  in  Lot  II.  was  replaced  with  with  beets  in  Lot 

IV. ,  required  5.4  pounds  of  alfalfa,  5.35  pounds  of  beets  and 
2.72  pounds  of  grain  for  one  pound  of  gain.  T.  he  extra 


1 6  BULLETIN  75. 

grain  in  Lot  IV.  of  1.68  pounds  for  each  pound  of  gain  re¬ 
placed  .88  pounds  of  alfalfa  and  3.96  pounds  of  sugar  beets 
in  the  ration  of  Lot  III. 

Because  of  the  cheapness  of  the  food  the  pulp  and  al¬ 
falfa  made  the  gain  cheaper  than  the  other  rations.  The 
cost  of  each  pound  of  gain  was  2  83  cents  in  Lot  I.  fed  pulp, 
4.16  cents  in  Lot  III.  fed  beets,  4.65  cents  in  Lot  II.  fed  pulp 
and  grain  and  4.87  cents  in  Lot  IV.  fed  beets  and  grain.  As 
would  be  expected,  the  percent  of  dressed  weight  was 
smallest  with  the  pulp  fed  lambs.  They  dressed  out  45.7 
percent  of  the  live  weight  against  46.6  percent  for  the  sugar 
beet  lot,  48.1  percent  for  the  pulp  and  grain  lot  and  46.6 
percent  for  the  beet  and  grain  lot.  The  amount  of  alfalfa 
consumed  for  each  pound  of  gain  was  greatest  in  the  pulp 
fed  lot  and  least  with  the  lot  fed  beets  and  grain. 

When  the  lambs  were  slaughtered  pieces  of  the  meat 
were  sent  to  a  number  of  people  with  the  request  that  they 
furnish  an  opinion  in  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  mutton. 
With  one  exception  all  those  who  received  the  samples  of 
mutton  stated  that  the  first  piece,  which  was  pulp  and  al¬ 
falfa  fed,  possessed  good  flavor  and  quality,  but  was  not  so 
fat  as  the  second  piece  which  was  corn  fed.  The  following 
letter  irom  Mrs.  Carpenter  is  typical  of  the  general  opinion. 
Those  receiving  the  samples  did  not  know  what  kind  of 
food  had  been  given  the  lambs: 

“We  received  the  two  samples  of  mutton  and  I  cooked  them  both 
by  boiling.  The  flavor  of  the  first  piece  was  so  delicate  that  it  was  hard 
to  realize  that  it  was  mutton.  Yet  we  liked  the  second  piece  better  as 
it  was  fatter  and  juicier,  and  we  prefer  fat,  juicy  mutton.  The  flavor  of 
the  second  piece  was  more  like  the  mutton  we  are  are  accustomed  to.” 

Note.  Lot  X.  was  fed  straw,  beets,  wheat  and  barley 
and  made  a  total  gain  of  74  pounds.  They  consumed  436 
pounds  of  wheat  and  barley,  worth  $4.36,  683  pounds  of 
sugar  beets,  worth  $1.37,  512  pounds  of  straw  which  we  will 
estimate  at  $1.00  per  ton  or  25.6  cents.  The  total  cost  for 
the  food  is  $5.99.  The  value  of  the  gain  is  62  pounds  of 
flesh  at  6  cents,  equals  $3.72,  and  12  pounds  of  fleece  at  10 
cents,  $1.20,  or  $4.92.  This  gives  a  loss  of  $1.07,  providing 
the  lambs  had  been  fit  for  market.  As  they  were  not  fat 
enough  to  slaughter  this  does  not  express  the  total  loss. 
The  alfalfa,  beet  and  grain  ration  in  Lot  IV.  above  gave  a 
profit  on  the  gain  of  $2.23.  This  forcibly  illustrates  the 
value  of  alfalfa  and  the  fact  that  sugar  beets  must  be  sup¬ 
plemented  with  other  nutritious  roughage  in  order  to  give 
profitable  returns. 


PLATE  III. 

Fed  Corn  and  Alfalfa. 
Given  Warm  Water  to  Drink. 


COLO.  -EXPERIMENT  STATION 


■5«i  j-ifc  * 

c  D 


PLATE  IV. 

Fed  Corn  and  Alfalfa. 
Given  Cold  Water  to  Drink 


PLATE  V. 

Representative  Carcasses  of  Lots 
I,  II,  III,  IV  and  V. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


17 


COST  AND  PROFIT. 

Table  VIII.  gives  the  cost  and  profit  from  feeding  lambs 
with  sugar  beets  and  beet  pulp  rations.  The  estimate  of 
profit  is  based  on  a  price  of  six  cents  per  pound  for  the 
gain  made  during  the  feeding  period  and  is  the  comparative 
rather  than  the  total  profit.  The  total  profit  would  vary 
with  the  first  cost  of  the  lambs  and  the  selling  price.  Our 
lambs  cost  us  almost  five  cents  per  pound,  and  if  sold  at  an 
advance  of  one  cent,  or  six  cents  per  pound  when  fat,  the 
profit  would  be  increased  by  the  cent  per  pound  for  the 
weight  of  the  lambs  when  put  on  feed,  or  an  average  of 
about  55  cents,  amounting  to  $2.75  more  for  the  fat  lambs 
in  each  pen  than  the  profit  indicated  in  the  last  column 
of  the  table. 

TABLE  VIII. 


COST  AND  PROFIT. 


Feed. 

Cost 

of 

Feed. 

Cost 

1  lb. 
Gain. 

Value 
Gain 
@  6  cts. 

Value 
Wool 
@  10  cts. 

Total 
Value  of 
Gain. 

Profit. 

Lot  I . 

Palp,  Alfalfa, 

$ 

2.76 

Ct8. 

2.83 

$ 

4.56 

$ 

1.60 

$ 

6.16 

$ 

3.40 

Lot  II . 

Palp,  Grain,  Alfalfa 

5.17 

4.65 

5.64 

1.70 

7.34 

2.17 

Lot  III.... 

Beets,  Alfalfa,* 

5.08 

4.16 

6.36 

1.60 

7.96 

2.88 

Lot  IV . 

Beets,  Grain,  Alfalfa 

6.73 

4.87 

7.26 

1.70 

8.96 

2.23 

*Fed  grain  last  three  weeks. 

The  cost  for  each  pound  of  gain  was  the  lowest  for  Lot 
I.  fed  pulp  and  alfalfa.  A  good  gain  was  made  by  this  lot 
and  the  low  cost  of  the  food  made  the  cost  per  pound  of 
gain  only  2.83  cents,  while  the  total  profit  on  the  gain  is 
$3.40  which  is  the  highest  return  made  by  any  lot  in  either 
experiment  I.  or  experiment  II.  (See  Table  XV.  Experi¬ 
ment  II).  While  the  profit  was  greater  than  that  from  any 
other  lot  their  total  gain  and  the  percent  of  dressed  weight 
was  lower  than  any  of  the  others  which  might  have  pro¬ 
duced  an  appreciable  effect  on  their  selling  price  in  the 
open  market.  All  the  figures  here  given  account  for  one 
day’s  shrinkage  in  the  yards,  but  if  shipped  a  long  distance 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  shrinkage  would  be  greater  from 
the  pulp  fed  lambs. 

The  next  best  profit  was  from  Lot  III.  given  sugar  beets 
and  alfalfa  with  some  grain  the  last  thirty  days.  This  lot 


I  8  BULLETIN  75. 

ate  less  food  and  made  larger  gains  than  the  pulp  fed  lambs, 
but  the  increased  cost  of  food  reduced  the  profit.  Lot  IV. 
fed  beets  and  grain  made  a  greater  profit  than  Lot  II  fed 
pulp  and  grain,  though  the  difference  is  small.  The  total 
value  of  the  food  steadily  increases  as  the  grain  and  beets 
are  added  to  the  ration,  and  the  total  gains  made,  also  in¬ 
crease  but  not  in  proportion  to  the  increased  cost  of  food. 

T  he  object  of  lamb  feeding  in  Colorado  is  to  find  a 
market  for  the  surplus  alfalfa  and  the  profit  for  such  feed¬ 
ing  is  often  expressed  by  the  value  received  for  the  hay  so 
used.  Then  giving  the  other  foods  their  local  market  values 
the  hay  made  returns  in  this  experiment  of  $12.20  per  ton 
in  Lot  I.;  $7.36  per  ton  in  Lot  II.;  $9.86  per  ton  in  Lot  III. 
and  $8.18  per  ton  in  Lot  IV.  Giving  the  alfalfa  a  local  value 
of  $4.00  per  ton  on  the  farm,  the  profit  for  the  gains  made 
would  show  a  return  from  feeding  pulp  with  it  in  Lot  I.  of 
$4.28  per  ton  and  $4.88  per  ton  on  Lot  II.  Allowing  $4.00 
per  ton  for  alfalfa  and  one  cent  per  pound  for  the  grain, 
the  sugar  beets  made  a  return  in  Lot  III.  of  $7.96  per  ton 
and  in  Lot  IV.  the  return  from  the  beets  would  be  $8.22  per 
ton.  When  one  begins  to  compute  returns  made  by  any 
one  food  in  this  way  he  realizes  at  once  that  at  best  the  re¬ 
sults  are  only  comparative.  There  is  nothing  to  show  that 
the  food  which  appears  to  have  given  the  return  indicated 
actually  did  produce  its  proportion  of  the  gain.  Again  the 
final  value  will  vary  greatly  with  the  proportion  of  each  food 
consumed  in  the  ration.  However,  as  a  means  of  compari¬ 
son  it  serves  a  purpose.  The  figures  we  have  given  show 
that  pulp  gave  approximately  one-half  the  return  pound  for 
pound  that  was  obtained  from  beets,  but  because  of  its 
cheapness  it  gave  an  apparently  large  value  for  the  hay  fed 
with  it  in  Lot  I.  All  of  our  estimates  of  cost  and  profit  are 
based  on  amount  of  food  eaten  and  the  value  of  the  gain. 
This  method  is  sufficient  for  reliable  comparisons  and  is 
used  with  the  assumption  that  the  increased  selling  price 
over  the  price  paid  for  feeders  will  meet  all  labor  expense 
and  necessary  waste. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENT  NO.  2. 


Experiment  No.  2  was  planned  and  carried  out  coincident 
with  and  as  a  part  of  Experiment  No.  1.  The  lambs  used 
in  these  trials  were  from  the  same  flock.  The  separate  lots 
in  the  two  experiments  were  all  selected  at  the  same  time 
in  order  to  avoid  as  much  as  possible  any  error  in  individu¬ 
ality  due  to  improper  care  in  selecting.  The  object  of  this 
experiment  was  to  compare  our  home  grown  grains  and 
combinations  of  them  with  corn.  These  two  experiments — 
first  and  second — having  the  same  conditions  throughout, 
and  there  being  no  apparent  difference  in  the  class  of  ani¬ 
mals  used,  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  to  check  the  com¬ 
parative  profits  of  pulp,  sugar  beets,  corn  and  our  home 
grown  grains  when  fed  with  alfalfa  for  fattening  lambs. 

As  stated  before,  these  were  Mexican  lambs  and  were 
in  very  poor  condition  for  that  class.  The  returns  then 
should  represent  the  minimum  profits  at  the  price  per 
pound  allowed  for  the  grain.  In  order  to  eliminate  any 
confusing  data  the  profits  are  figured  on  gain  only  and  no 
attempt  was  made  to  show  actual  profits  by  taking  into  con¬ 
sideration  the  initial  cost  to  us  and  the  final  income  when 
the  lambs  were  sold.  The  lambs  in  both  these  experiments 
were  treated  alike  in  everything  except  the  kinds  of  food 
given.  They  were  fed  and  watered  at  regular  hours,  twice 
each  day,  and  the  waste  not  eaten  was  weighed  back  daily. 
The  lambs  were  sheared  during  the  week,  April  12th  to 
April  19th  and  the  wool  credited  to  them  at  the  selling 
price,  which  was  ten  cents  per  pound.  Careful  notes  were 
kept  to  put  on  record  complete  information  of  the  progress 
of  the  experiment.  No  unusual  incidents  or  accidents  oc¬ 
curred  which  would  seriously  mar  the  experiment.  Lamb 
No.  37  in  Lot  VIII.  became  entangled  in  the  fence  and  was 
found  dead  the  morning  of  the  day  the  other  lambs  were 
slaughtered.  His  live  weight  at  the  end  of  the  previous 
week  having  been  secured,  and  the  fact  that  the  gain  for 
the  last  week  so  nearly  offset  the  shrinkage  during  the  last 
twenty-four  hours  when  they  were  off  feed,  makes  no  cor¬ 
rection  necessary  in  reporting  the  results.  The  per  cent  of 
dressed  weight  for  Lot  VIII.  is  averaged  for  four  instead  of 
for  five  lambs. 

April  10th  lamb  No.  43  in  Lot  IX.  dropped  a  buck  lamb 
which  was  taken  away  and  she  was  allowed  to  remain  on 


20 


BULLETIN  75. 

feed  until  the  end  of  the  experiment.  She  did  so  poorly, 
however,  that  in  order  to  compare  this  lot  with  the  others 
in  profits,  the  averages  for  Lot  IX.  are  taken  from  the  re¬ 
maining  four  lambs  as  indicated  by  foot  notes  in  the  tables 
when  the  correction  is  necessary. 


TABLE  IX. 

FOOD  EATEN,  IN  POUNDS. 


Lot  V. 

Lot  VI. 

Lot  VII. 

Lot  VIII. 

Lot  IX. 

O 

0 

a 

p 

Alfalfa . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

£ 

•d 

© 

S 

<  0 

' 

3 

3 

© 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Barley . 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Wheat  and  Barley. 

Alfalfa  . 

1 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Wheat  and  Emmer 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

March  5— March  8 . 

6.9 

52 

24l 

6.9 

52 

22 

6.9 

52 

in 

6.9 

52 

10 

6.9 

52 

13 

March  8 — March  15 - 

17.5 

105 

46 

17.5 

105 

45 

17.5 

105 

38 

17.5 

105 

48 

17.5 

105 

43 

March  15 — March  22. .. 

19.4 

97 

41 

19.4 

97 

42 

19.4 

97 

42 

19.4 

97 

44 

19.4 

97 

41 

March  22 — March  29... 

21.9 

114 

54 

21.9 

114 

51 

21.9 

114 

45 

21.9 

114 

53 

21.9 

114 

50 

March  29 — April  5 . 

23.1 

120 

53 

23.1 

120 

51 

23.1 

120 

51 

23.1 

120 

54 

23.1 

120 

52 

April  5— April  12 . 

26.2 

122 

58 

26.2 

122 

53 

26.2 

122 

52 

26.2 

122 

61 

26.2 

122 

57 

April  12 — April  19 . 

26.2 

122 

55 

26.2 

122 

49 

26.2 

122 

49 

26.2 

131 

53 

26.2 

122 

60 

April  19— April  26 . 

32.5 

132 

55 

32.5 

132 

46 

32.5 

132 

47 

32.5 

132 

57 

32.5 

132 

54 

April  26— May  3 . 

36.2 

136 

67 

36.2 

135 

56 

36.2 

135 

55 

36.2 

135 

81 

36.2 

135 

67 

May  3 — May  10 . 

40.0 

117 

44 

40.0 

117 

85 

40.0 

117 

39 

40.0 

117 

64 

40.0 

117 

55 

May  10 — May  17 . 

48.8 

130 

76 

48.8 

130 

62 

48.8 

130 

67 

41.1 

130 

54 

48.8 

130 

74 

May  17— May  24 . 

43.7 

106 

55 

43.8 

106 

40 

43.7 

106 

46 

43.7 

106 

59 

43.7 

106 

53 

May  24 — May  31 . 

43.7 

105 

47 

43.7 

105 

36 

43.7 

105 

46 

43.7 

105 

58 

43.7 

105 

56 

May  81— June  6 . 

15  9 

37 

18 

43.7 

87 

17 

15.9 

37 

19 

63.6 

136 

54 

49.8 

106 

55 

Totals . 

402.0 

1495 

693 

430.0 

1494 

605 

402.0 

1494 

606 

442.0 

1602 

750 

436.0 

1563 

730 

PLATE  VI. 

Representative  Carcasses  of  Lots 
VI  and  VII. 


A  MSB 


PLATE  VII. 


Representative  Carcasses  of  Lots 
VIII  and  IX. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


21 


PLAN  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  2. 

I  he  plan  of  the  experiment  was  as  follows: 

Lot  V.  was  fed  corn  and  alfalfa. 

Lot  VI.  was  fed  spelt  (emmer)  and  alfalfa. 

Lot  VII.  was  fed  barley  and  alfalfa. 

Lot  VIII.  was  fed  wheat,  barley  and  alfalfa,  the  wheat  and  barley 
in  equal  amounts. 

Lot  IX.  was  fed  wheat,  spelt,  (emmer)  and  alfalfa,  the  wheat  and 
spelt  in  equal  amounts. 

Lots  V.,  VI.  and  VII.  were  fed  ninety  days.  Lots  VIII. 
and  IX.  ninety-five  days. 

The  alfalfa  was  fed  in  such  quantities  that  it  would  be 
before  the  lambs  all  the  time.  The  corn  and  other  grains 
were  fed  in  small  quantities  at  first,  increasing  the  amount 
gradually  to  one  and  one-quarter  and  one  and  one-half 
pounds  daily  per  lamb.  The  larger  amount  was  fed  only 
a  short  time.  The  feed  was  charged  at  local  prices,  which 
were  at  the  time  of  the  experiment  $4.00  per  ton  for  alfalfa 
on  the  farm,  $1.30  per  hundred  pounds  for  cqrn,  and  one 
cent  per  pound  for  the  wheat,  barley  and  spelt. 

Table  IX.  shows  the  amount  of  food  given  .each  lot  for 
periods  of  one  week,  also  the  total  amounts  given  each  lot 
and  the  amount  of  waste.  This  table  shows  the  details  of 
the  feeding,  the  increase  in  the  gain,  and  any  irregularity 
which  may  have  occurred  in  the  appetites  of  the  animals. 

Table  X.  shows  the  average  amount  of  each  kind  of 
food  and  the  total  daily  consumption  by  each  lamb.  Lot 
VI.  fed  alfalfa  and  spelt,  ate  more  food  than,  any  of  the 
others,  although  the  total  daily  consumption  of  food  differs 
little  in  any  of  the  lots.  The  lambs  in  Lot  IX.  ate  less 
alfalfa  than  those  in  any  of  the  other  lots,  and  less  total 
food  daily.  They  were  given  wheat  and  spelt,  which  could 


TABLE  X. 

AVERAGE  FOOD  EATEN  DAILY,  IN  POUNDS. 


Alfalfa. 

Corn. 

Wheat. 

Barley. 

Spelt. 

Total 

Food. 

Lot  V . 

1.78 

0.88 

2.66 

Lot  VI . 

1.97 

0.95 

2.92 

Lot  VII . 

1.96 

0.88 

2.84 

Lot  VIII . 

1.80 

0.465 

0.465 

2.73 

Lot  IX . 

1.75 

0.459 

. 

0.459 

2.67 

22 


BULLETIN  75. 

hardly  be  considered  a  variety  of  food  because  the  spelt  is 
a  wheat,  differing  from  the  common  variety  principally  in 
the  chaff  which  encloses  the  spelt  kernels.  The  lambs  got 
off  feed  more  quickly  on  this  ration  than  on  any  other  and 
made  comparatively  poor  gains. 

TABLE  XI. 


INDIVIDUAL  WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS,  IN  POUNDS. 


Lot  V. 


Lot  VI. 


Lot  VII. 


Lot  VIII. 


Lot  IX. 


Tag  No. 


21  22 


23 


24 


25 


26  27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


1 86  37 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


Marr*h  5  . 

58 

54 

49 

56 

50 

55 

54 

54 

59 

58 

58 

58 

54 

51 

43 

48 

44 

50 

61 

54 

55 

52 

62 

March  8 . 

59 

68 

57 

57 

53 

57 

59  62  60 

64 

52 

63 

63 

63 

63 

I 

50 

51 

50 

49 

52 

65 

58 

60 

55 

67 

March  15  . 

65 

72 

65 

60 

56 

65 

60 

65 

63 

62 

69  64 
) 

62 

64 

62 

57 

54 

59 

56 

60 

67 

60 

65 

54 

69 

March  22 . 

64 

71 

63 

60 

57 

I 

61  61 

65 

1 

63 

60 

66 

62 

63 

61 

63 

54 

54 

57 

55 

59 

66 

57 

64 

53 

61 

March  29 . 

67 

76 

65 

60 

61 

1 66 

63 

68 

66 

63 

68 

67 

68 

67 

68 

54 

59  61 

59 

63 

69 

60 

69 

56 

69 

April  5 . 

69 

80 

69 

65 

64 

&' 

66 

71 

68 

66 

72 

68 

70 

68 

68 

63 

61 

62 

60 

65 

71 

64 

72  58 

72 

April  12 . ' . 

68 

80 

65 j 63  64 

71 

65 

69 

66 

66 

68 

67 

69 

70 

66 

61 

60 

62 

60 

66 

72 

63 

66 

58 

72 

April  19 . 

h 

76 1 62 

64 

59 

«7 

65 

67 

64  62 

64 

67 

69  67 1 62 

66 

62 

61 

59 

Of 

71 

58 

55 

56|68 

April  26 . 

1 

66 

81  65 

<M 

sQ 

00 

SO 

70 

65 

70 

68 

64 

68 

68 

70 

69 

68 

64  64 

63 

60 

66 

73 

61 

57 

58 

70 

May  3 . . 

72 

88 

63 

76 

67 

76 

75 

74 

73 

68 

76 

75 

74 

75 

74 

68 

63 

62 

62 

70 

76 

60 

61 

63 

75 

May  10 . 

70 

82 

68 

73 

66 1 

78 

75 

80 

74 

69 

74 

75 

77 

74 

74 

70 

69 

69 

65 

75 

79 

68 

63 

64 

78 

May  17 . 

68 

84 

88  75 

68 

78 

72 

79 

72 

70 

72 

70 

76 

71 

72 

64 

O 

SO 

10 

so 

59 

69 

65 

65 

56 

59 

72 

May  24 . 

73 

88 

I 

69  75 

1 

69 

78 

75 

81 

74 

71 

73 

74 

76 

72 

77 

70 

68 

61 

62 

75 

79 

66 

58 

64 

77 

May  31 . 

75 

91 

74 

78 

74 

82 

80 

84 

77 

75 

75 

75 

79 

76 

79 

76 

71 

69 

65 

75 

82 

67 

59 

64 

76 

June  3  . 

76 

81 ! 

73 

79 

73 

82 

77 

84 

78 

75 

76 

76 

79 

75 

78 

75 

V 

*3 

66 

65 

76 

82 

69 

60 

71 

77 

Fleece . 

2 

3 

5 

3 

4 

3 

3 

4 

2 

3 

3 

3 

5 

3 

6 

3 

1 

3 

4 

3 

2 

4 

3 

2 

3 

Total  Gain . 

33 

26 

25 

28 

H 

29 

30 

33 

26 

24 

20 

2 1  j  26 

20 

30 

27 

29 

21 

25 

29 

23 

19 

8 

21 

18 

LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


23 


WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS  PER  WEEK — CORN  AND  SMALL  GRAINS. 

Table  XI.  reports  the  individual  weights  and  gains 
made  by  each  lamb.  I  he  weights  for  April  19th  were  made 
after  shearing,  and  the  apparent  loss  that  week  is  due  to 
the  removal  of  the  fleece. 

Lamb  No.  43  in  Lot  IX.  is  one  previously  spoken  of 
which  it  is  necessary  to  drop  out  in  making  the  final  aver¬ 
ages.  All  the  others  make  fair  gains. 

Table  XII.  gives  the  gain  or  loss  each  week  for  the  five 
lambs  in  each  lot. 


TABLE  XII. 


POUNDS  GAIN  PER  WEEK. 


Lot  V. 

Lot  VI. 

Lot  VII. 

Lot  VIII. 

Lot  IX. 

March  8 . 

...  25 

33 

-  27 

16 

21 

March  15 . 

...  24 

13 

7 

34 

10 

March  22 . 

....  -3 

-5 

-6 

-7 

14 

March  29 . 

....  14 

16 

23 

17 

22 

April  5 . 

....  18 

7 

8 

15 

14 

April  12 . 

...  -7 

4 

-6 

-2 

-6 

April  19 . 

....  1 

3 

9 

17 

-9 

April  26 . 

....  18 

12 

14 

5 

11 

May  3 . 

...  24 

29 

31 

8 

16 

May  10 . 

...  -7 

10 

0 

23 

17 

May  17 . 

...  4 

-5 

-13 

-31 

-35 

May  24 . 

...  11 

8 

11 

19 

27 

May  31 

...  18 

19 

12 

20 

4 

June  9 

....-10 

-2 

0 

-3 

11 

Total  Gain  Flesh . 

...113 

127 

97 

117 

75 

Fleece . 

...  17 

15 

20 

14 

14 

Total  Gain  with  Fleece. 

...130 

142 

117 

131 

89 

The  losses  on  April  19th  were  due  to  taking  away  the 
fleece  that  week.  There  is  much  variation  in  the  gains 
week  by  week.  The  table  shows  that  all  the  lambs  except 
those  in  Lot  V.  lost  weight  during  the  week  of  May  10th  to 
17th.  This  was  evidently  due  to  the  over  feeding  of  grain. 
On  May  9th  the  ration  of  grain  was  increased  in  all  the  lots, 
from  one  to  one  and  one-quarter  pounds  per  head  daily  to 
one  and  one-half  pounds  per  head.  Our  notes  show  that 
during  this  week  the  lambs  refused  to  eat  up  all  of  their 
grain.  This  was  especially  true  with  Lots  VIII.  and  IX. 
where  wheat  was  a  part  of  the  ration.  The  ration  was  re¬ 
duced  to  one  and  one-quarter  pounds  daily  per  lamb  on 
May  16th,  and  all  the  lambs  again  began  to  make  gains. 
Corresponding  losses,  but  not  in  quite  such  a  marked  degree, 
seemed  to  have  occurred  during  the  third  and  sixth  weeks 
after  the  lambs  were  put  on  feed.  The  largest  total  gain 


24  BULLETIN  75. 

was  made  by  Lot  VI.  which  received  the  spelt  ration  and 
the  smallest  gain  was  made  by  Lot  IX.  which  was  fed 
wheat  and  spelt. 

FOOD  EATEN  AND  GAINS  MADE. 

Table  XIII.  gives  the  total  amount  of  each  kind  of  food 
eaten,  the  initial  average  weight  of  the  lambs  in  each  lot, 
and  the  total  gain.  The  weights  and  gains  in  Lot  IX.  are 
computed  from  the  averages  of  the  four  lambs  which  made 
normal  gains  during  the  feeding  period. 

TABLE  XIII. 

FOOD  EATEN  AND  GAINS,  IN  POUNDS. 


No.  of  Lambs. 

No.  Days  Fed . . 

Food  Eaten. 

Average 

Weight 

Total  gain  flesh 

Fleece . 

Alfalfa. 

Corn . . . 

Wheat . 

Barley. 

Spelt  . . 

At  Be¬ 
ginning 

> 

et- 

•  M 

p 

a 

Lot  Y . 

5 

90 

803 

402 

53.8 

78.4 

113. 

17 

Lot  VI . 

5 

90 

889 

430 

53.8 

78.2 

127.0 

15 

Lot  YII . 

5 

90 

888 

402 

57.4 

76.8 

97.0 

20 

Lot  VIII . 

5 

95 

852 

.... 

221 

221 

. 

47.2 

70.6 

117.0 

14 

Lot  IX . 

5 

95 

833 

218 

218 

* 

57.5 

* 

75.0 

** 

87.5 

14 

*  Average  of  four  lambs. 

**Estimated  gain  of  five  lambs  from  averages  of  four. 


TABLE  XIV. 

FOOD  EATEN  FOR  ONE  POUND  GAIN. 


Food  for  One  Pound  Gain. 

1 

Cost 

1  lb. 
Gain 

Percent 

Dressed 

Weight 

Alfalfa 

Corn 

Wheat 

Barley 

Spelt 

LotV . 

lbs. 

6.17 

lbs. 

3.09 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

cts. 

5.25 

52.1 

Lot  VI . 

6.26 

3.03 

4.28 

49.2 

Lot  VII . 

7.59 

3.43 

4.95 

48.8 

Lot  VIII . 

6.50 

1.69 

1.69 

4.68  J 

49.6 

Lot  IX . 

8.20 

2.14 

2.14 

5.93 

J 

59.0 

LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS.  25 

Table  XIV.  gives  the  amount  of  each  kind  of  food 
eaten  for  each  pound  of  gain  produced  and  the  per  cent  of 
dressed  weight,  with  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain.  There 
is  a  marked  variation  in  the  per  cent  of  dressed  weight. 
Lot  IX.  dressed  59  per  cent  and  Lot  VII.  48.8  per  cent,  a 
difference  of  over  10  per  cent.  This  condition  would  have 
much  to  do  with  their  value  on  the  market  and  those  with 
the  low  per  cent  of  dressed  weight  would  give  less  profit. 

The  best  general  result  was  obtained  with  the  spelt  and 
alfalfa  ration  fed  to  Lot  VI.  These  lambs  consumed  6.26 
pounds  of  alfalfa  and  3.30  pounds  of  spelt  at  a  cost  of  4.28 
cents  for. each  pound  of  gain.  This  is  very  close  to  the 
amount  of  hay  and  corn  for  each  pound  of  gain,  but  because 
of  the  high  price  of  corn,  which  cost  us  $1.30  per  hundred 
pounds,  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain  was  nearly  one  cent 
higher  than  in  the  spelt  ration.  If  corn  was  obtained  for 
$1.00,  which  was  the  price  allowed  for  the  spelt,  the  cost  of 
each  pound  of  gain  would  be  4.32  cents,  or  within  .04  cents 
of  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain  with  the  spelt  ration. 
This  difference  is  very  small  and  the  corn  ration  lambs 
dressed  almost  three  percent  better  than  the  spelt  ration 
lambs. 

The  next  best  result  was  obtained  with  Lot  VIII.  fed 
wheat,  barley  and  alfalfa.  These  lambs  ate  6.5  pounds  of 
alfalfa  and  3.38  pounds  of  grain  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
wheat  and  barley,  for  each  pound  of  gain,  making  the  gain 
cost  4.68  cents  per  pound.  At  the  same  price  the  corn  ra¬ 
tion  would  have  produced  a  little  cheaper  gain  than  this, 
but  the  farmer  could  not  afford  to  sell  his  wheat  and  barley 

TABLE  XV. 


COST  AND  PROFIT. 


Feed. 

Cost 

of 

Feed. 

Cost 

1  lb. 
brain. 

Value 
Gain 
@  6  cts. 

Value 
Wool 
@  10  cts. 

Total 
Value 
of  Gain. 

Profit. 

Lot  V . 

Corn,  Alfalfa, 

$ 

6.83 

cts. 

5.25 

$ 

6.78 

$ 

1.70 

$ 

8.48 

$ 

1.65 

Lot  VI . 

Spelt,  Alfalfa, 

6.08 

4.28 

7.62 

1.50 

9.12 

3.04 

Lot  VII.... 

Barley,  Alfalfa, 

5.80 

4.95 

5.82 

2.00 

7.82 

2.02 

Lot  VIII... 

Wheat,  Barley, 
Alfalfa, 

6.12 

4.68 

7.02 

1.40 

8.42  . 

2.30 

Lot  IX . 

Wheat,  Spelt,  Alfalfa 

6.13 

5.93 

5.25 

1.40 

6.65 

.52 

26 


BULLETIN  75. 

or  spelt  at  one  cent  a  pound  and  pay  the  prices  which  pre¬ 
vailed  for  corn  the  past  year. 

COST  AND  PROFIT. 

Table  XV.  presents  the  results  of  the  experiment  in  the 
dollars  and  cents  form. 

Here  is  given  the  cost  of  food  consumed  by  each  lot  of 
five  lambs,  the  value  of  gain  made  at  six  cents  per  pound, 
and  the  total  profit  on  the  gains.  As  before  stated,  this 
profit  would  be  increased  by  the  amount  of  the  increased 
price  of  the  fat  lambs  over  the  original  cost  of  the  feeders, 
and  the  cost  would  be  increased  by  adding  the  cost  of 
labor,  interest  on  the  investment,  etc.  Here  again  the  best 
results  were  obtained  from  spelt  and  alfalfa,  the  total  profit 
being  $3.04.  The  next  best  results  were  obtained  with  Lot 
VIII.,  fed  wheat  and  barley,  which  produced  a  profit  of 
$2.30.  Lot  VII.,  fed  on  barley  and  alfalfa,  gave  a  profit  of 
$2.02,  and  the  profit  with  the  corn  and  alfalfa  fed  lot  was 
$1.65.  Lot  IX.,  fed  wheat  and  spelt,  produced  a  profit  of 
only  52  cents,  probably  because  this  ration  was  not  well 
balanced. 

Had  the  corn  been  obtained  at  the  same  price  as  other 
grains,  $1.00  per  hundred,  the  total  profit  from  Lot  V.  would 
have  been  $2.86.  This  is  still  not  so  good  a  profit  as  was 
produced  by  the  spelt  ration,  but  was  better  than  the  other 
grains  or  combinations  of  them  used  in  this  series  of  ex¬ 
periments. 

It  would  appear  from  comparisons  of  Lots  V.  and  VIII. 
that  when  wheat  and  barley  are  worth  $1.00  per  cwt.,  corn 
would  be  worth  approximately  $1.1 1  per  hundred  pounds. 
This  experiment  indicates  that  spelt  has  a  high  feeding 
value,  but  it  would  hardly  be  safe  to  recommend  it  without 
reservation  from  a  single  experiment.  Further  trial  will  be 
made  with  it  in  the  near  future.  Computing  the  value  of 
spelt  from  this  experiment,  compared  with  wheat  and  bar¬ 
ley  at  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds,  it  would  appear  to  have  a 
value  of  $1.13  per  hundred,  or  two  cents  per  hundred  more 
than  corn. 

Crediting  all  the  profit  to  the  alfalfa  as  we  did  in  Ex¬ 
periment  I.,  we  have  a  return  for  the  alfalfa  fed  to  Lot  V. 
of  $6.42  per  ton.  The  profit  on  Lot  VI.  would  give  the  al¬ 
falfa  a  value  of  $9.48  per  ton,  Lot  VII.  $6.77  per  ton,  Lot 
VIII.  $8.00  per  ton,  Lot  IX.  $4.19  per  ton. 

Comparing  profits  in  Experiment  I.  and  Experiment  II., 
which  cover  the  nine  lots  of  lambs,  we  have  the  largest 
profit  from  Lot  I.,  fed  pulp  and  alfalfa,  and  the  second  best 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


2  7 

profit  from  Lot  VI.,  fed  spelt  and  alfalfa.  The  third  best 
combination  of  foods  seems  to  be  that  given  to  Lot  III., 
which  was  fed  beets  and  alfalfa  and  a  small  ration  of  grain 
during  the  last  thirty  days.  The  wheat  and  barley  gave  us 
slightly  better  profit  than  the  lot  fed  pulp,  grain  and  alfalfa. 
The  corn  ration  gave  a  lower  profit  than  either  of  the  lots 
fed  pulp  or  beets  with  or  without  grain. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENT  NO.  3, 


COMPARISON  OF  HOME  GROWN  GRAINS  WITH  CORN, 
WARM  AND  COLD  WATER.  SHROPSHIRE 
GRADES  AND  NATIVE  LAMBS. 


OBJECT  AND  PLAN  OF  EXPERIMENT. 

During  the  winter  of  1900-01  an  experiment  was 
planned  to  test  the  value  of  a  mixture  of  home  grown  grains 
compared  with  corn  for  fattening  lambs,  and  to  determine 
whether  or  not  there  would  be  any  advantage  in  giving 
lambs  warm  water  to  drink  instead  of  cold  water.  For  this 
purpose  twenty  western  lambs,  half  of  them  Shropshire 
crosses  raised  on  the  College  farm,  were  divided  into  four 
lots  of  five  each  and  given  the  following  rations: 

Lot  I.  was  given  an  equal  mixture  of  oats,  wheat  and  barley  with 
alfalfa  and  cold  water. 

Lot  II.  was  fed  the  same  as  Lot  I.,  excepting  warm  water  (80-100 
F.)  was  given  twice  daily  instead  of  cold  water. 

Lot  III.  was  fed  corn,  alfalfa  and  warm  water. 

Lot  IV.  was  fed  the  same  as  Lot  III.,  except  cold  water  was  given 
in  place  of  warm  water. 

Each  lamb  was  marked  with  an  ear  tag  and  weighed 
separately  once  a  week.  Each  lot  of  lambs  was  given  an 
equal  amount  of  shed  room  and  the  same  sized  yard  to  run 
in,  and  were  treated  alike  in  every  respect.  Grain,  hay  and 
water  were  supplied  twice  daily  and  the  orts  were  weighed 
back  daily.  Previous  to  the  time  the  experiment  was  begun 
the  lambs  had  been  fed  alfalfa  and  a  very  small  amount  of 
grain,  and  were  in  a  good  thrifty  growing  condition.  One 
half  pound  of  grain  per  head  was  fed  daily  the  first  week 
and  this  amount  was  increased  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound 
the  second  week.  The  grain  was  gradually  increased  until 
March  16,  when  they  were  receiving  one  and  three-fourths 
pounds  per  head  per  day. 

The  prices  of  food  used  in  this  experiment  were  as  fol¬ 
lows: 

Alfalfa  hay  on  the  farm,  $4.00  per  ton. 

Corn,  local  market,  $0.80  per  hundred  pounds. 

Wheat,  oats  and  barley,  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS.  29 

Table  XVI.  gives  for  periods  of  one  week,  the  amounts 
of  the  different  rations  fed  and  the  orts  weighed  back. 


TABLE  XVI. 

FOOD  EATEN,  IN  POUNDS. 


Lot  I. 


Lot  II. 


Lot  III. 


Lot  IV. 


Oats, Wheat, Barley 

Alfalfa . 

Alfalfa  Orts . | 

Water . 

Water  Orts . 

Oats,  Wheat,  Barley 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Warm  Water . 

Warm  Water  Orts, 

Corn . | 

Alfalfa  . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Warm  Water . 

Warm  Water  Orts, 

Corn  . 

Alfalfa . 

Alfalfa  Orts . 

Water . 

[Water  Orts . 

Jan  23-BO . 

17 

96 

27 

233 

60 

17 

95 

21 

233 

33 

17 

96 

19 

233 

50 

17 

96 

24 

233 

50 

Jan.  30-Feb.  7. . . 

26 

90 

13 

185 

41 

26 

90 

17 

185 

18 

26 

90 

17 

185 

21 

26 

90 

17 

185 

28 

Feb.  7-13 . 

35 

105 

28 

210 

29 

1 

35 

105 

25 

210 

27 

35 

105 

24 

• 

210 

26 

35 

105 

26 

210 

37 

Feb.  13-20 . 

41 

103 

27 

210 

43 

44 

103 

30 

210 

29 

44 

103 

28 

210 

20 

44 

103 

30 

210 

30 

Feb.  20-27 . 

52 

91 

24 

210 

22 

52 

91 

28 

210 

H 

52 

91 

24 

210 

21 

52 

91 

24 

3 

210 

31 

Feb.  27-Mar.  7 . . . 

61 

104 

38 

240 

36 

61 

104 

30 

240 

77 

61 

104 

28 

240 

23 

61 

104 

29 

240 

60 

Mar.  7-14 . 

56 

91 

30 

225 

29 

i 

56 

91 

24 

225 

43 

56 

91 

26 

225 

27 

56 

91 

21 

225 

47 

Mar.  14-21 . 

60 

91 

52 

245 

40 

60 

91 

54 

245 

53 

60 

91 

45 

245 

31 

1 

60 

91 

58 

245 

58 

Mar.  21-28 . 

61 

91 

39 

241 

37 

61 

91 

! 

42  {  241 

34 

61 

91 

35 

241 

26 

61 

91 

52 

241 

38 

Mar.  28-Apr.  4 . . . 

61 

89 

37 

245 

72 

61 

91 

38 

245 

48 

61 

91 

31 

245 

36 

24 

81 

33 

245 

99 

Apr  4-11 . 

49 

7o 

32 

245 

84 

59 

84 

36 

245 

48 

54 

91 

15 

245 

33 

41 

70 

23 

245 

98 

Apr.  11-18 . 

49 

70 

28 

245 

81 

49 

70 

42 

245 

99 

52 

91 

40 

245 

64 

45 

70 

27 

245 

107 

Apr.  18-25 . 

49 

70 

21 

245 

73 

49 

70 

34 

245 

82 

31 

70 

26 

245 

66 

45 

70 

23 

245 

72 

Apr.  25-May  2. . . 

10 

40 

26 

137 

26 

13 

45 

43 

139 

50 

22 

45 

32 

145 

47 

22 

45 

33 

137 

46 

Totals . . 

630 

1201 

422 

3116 

673 

643 

1221 

484 

3118 

676 

632 

1250 

390 

3124 

491 

589 

1198 

420 

3116 

802 

Totals  for  4  sheep 
Jan.  23-May  2 . 

536 

1091 

V 

355 

2672 

t 

593 

538 

1014 

403 

2620 

589 

518 

1123 

326 

2597 

414 

509 

1026 

363 

2717 

727 

FOOD  AND  WATER  CONSUMED. 

One  ewe  was  thrown  out  of  each  lot  on  account  of  drop¬ 
ping  a  lamb;  from  Lot  I.  on  April  4,  Lot  II.  on  April  11, 


30  BULLETIN  75. 

Lot  III.  on  April  17,  and  Lot  IV.  on  March  27.  The  ‘‘totals 
for  four  sheep”  at  the  bottom  of  the  table  are  corrected 
totals,  and  the  ones  from  which  the  results  are  computed. 
Since  one  lamb  was  thrown  out  of  each  lot  the  results  are 
all  computed  by  using  averages  of  the  remaining  four 
lambs. 

The  lambs  in  Lots  I.  and  II.  ate  more  of  the  mixed 
grains  than  the  lambs  in  Lots  III.  and  IV.  ate  of  corn.  The 
corn  fed  lots  in  turn  consumed  more  alfalfa  than  the  grain 
fed  lots.  The  water  drank  by  the  two  grain  lots  and  that 
drank  by  the  two  corn  lots  is  practically  equal.  The  two 
lots  which  were  given  warm  water  drank  145  pounds  in  ex¬ 
cess  of  that  drank  by  the  two  lots  which  received  cold 
water.  This  would  be  and  average  of  one-fifth  of  a  pint 
per  head  daily. 

Table  XVII.  gives  the  average  amounts  of  food  and 
water  actually  consumed  by  each  lamb  daily. 

Lots  I.  and  II.  ate  more  of  the  mixed  grain  daily  than 
Lots  III.  and  IV.  ate  of  corn,  but  the  grain  fed  lots  ate  a 
little  less  hay  per  day  than  the  corn  fed  lots. 

TABLE  XVII. 


AVERAGE  FOOD  EATEN  DAILY,  IN  POUNDS. 


Water. 

Alfalfa. 

Corn. 

Mixed 

Grain. 

Total 

Food 

Lot  I . 

.  5.17 

1.85 

1.35 

3.20 

Lot  II . 

.  5.12 

1.54 

1.36 

2.80 

Lot  III 

.  5.51 

2.01 

1.30 

3.31 

Lot  IV . 

.  5.02 

1.67 

1.28 

2.95 

WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS. 

Table  XVIII.  gives  the  individual  weights  and  gains 
for  each  week  while  the  lambs  were  on  feed.  This  table 
also  gives  the  amount  of  wool  produced  by  each  lamb,  and 
the  total  gain  including  the  fleece.  The  Shropshire  crosses 
are  indicated  in  the  table  and  enable  comparison  to  be 
made  between  them  and  the  western  lambs. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  Shropshire  crosses  made 
much  better  individual  gains  than  did  the  other  lambs.  The 
two  Shropshire  crosses  in  Lot  I.  made  an  average  total  gain 
of  35.5  pounds,  which  was  the  same  as  the  gains  made  by 
the  other  two  lambs.  In  Lot  II.  the  two  Shropshire  crosses 
made  an  average  total  gain  of  36.5  pounds,  and  the  other 
two  lambs  gained  an  average  of  26.5  pounds. 

In  Lot  III.  the  three  Shropshire  crosses  made  an  aver¬ 
age  total  gain  of  40.6  (plus)  pounds,  and  the  other  lamb 
made  a  total  gain  of  36  pounds. 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


31 


In  Lot  IV.  the  two  Shropshire  crosses  made  an  average 
total  gain  of  43  pounds,  the  other  two  lambs  an  average 
gain  of  29  pounds. 

TABLE  XVIII. 

INDIVIDUAL  WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS,  IN  POUNDS. 


Lot  I. 


Lot  II. 


Lot  III. 


Lot  IV. 


GC 

?r 

i-t 

o 

V 

n 

■-s 
O 
a i 
OD 

Shrop  Cross. . . 

GC 

5r 

O 

tJ 

C 

o 

tr 

QD 

Shrop  Cross. . . 

Shrop  Cross. .. 

Shrop  Cross. . . 

Shrop  Cross . . . 

Shrop  Cross. . . 

Shrop  Cross. . . 

Tag  No . 

594 

666 

669 

674 

% 

682 

670 

673 

675 

679 

683 

663 

664 

681 

685 

591 

593 

668 

678 

684 

686 

January  23 . 

55 

109 

81 

81 

85 

74 

92 

97 

78 

98 

80 

91 

96 

93 

i 

66 

71 

84 

90 

92 

92 

January  30 . 

55 

110 

83 

82 

89 

75 

90 

99 

79 

97 

81 

92 

98 

94 

68 

71 

85 

92 

94 

94 

February  7 . 

57 

114 

83 

86 

90 

79 

93 

101 

80 

103 

84 

1 

94 j 102 

98 

68 

76 

92 

98 

95 

96 

February  13 . 

62 

118 

86 

90 

94 

80 

95 

102 

i 

80 | 107 

87 

1 

99)104 

101 

70 

77 

94 

9^ 

101 

97 

February  20 . 

64 

121 

91 

93 

95 

82 

95 

106 

87 

110 

90 

103 

111 

107 

74 

81 

97 

104 

105 

100 

February  27 . 

67 

126 

90 

97 

97| 

84 

99 

110 

87 

115 

9 

106 

111 

110 

81  j 

84 

101 

109 

110 

104 

March  7 . 

72 

131 

94 

97 

103 

88 

| 

104 

116 

89 

118 

97 

112 

114 

113 

85 1 

1  86 

105 

112 

113 

108 

March  14 . 

74 

136 

94 

103 

106 

90 J 108 

119 

92 

124 

98 

117 

120 

115 

90 

88 

109 

116 

117 

112 

March  21 . 

77 

138 

105 

106 

110 

91 

110 

124 

91 

126 1 

102 

122 

124 

120 

94 

1  90^ 

112 

118 

121 

115 

March  28 . | 

l  81 

147 

104 

111 

112 

93 

115 

128 

96 

135 

105 

129 

128 

122 

102 

94 

119 

120 

128 

118 

April  4 . 

85 

150 

102 

114 

115 

95 

116 

133 

98 

136 

106 

133 

129 

120 

101 

93 

11.4 

117 

* 

116 

April  11 . 

88 

* 

109 

119 

114 

102 

122 

139 

103 

* 

110 

138 

133 

127 

108 

98 

124 

125 

124 

April  18 . 

90 

* 

114 

122 

122 

103 

123 

136 

104 

* 

112 

* 

137 

129 

109 

100 

125 

126 

* 

126 

April  25 . 

86 

* 

105 

111 

115 

93 

115 

131 

95 

* 

103 

* 

125 

122 

102 

93 

119 

115 

* 

119 

May  2 . 

89 

’  * 

104 

113 

110 

96 

121 

125 

90 

* 

109 

* 

121 

119 

110 

91 

122 

112 

* 

122 

Fleece . 

4 

7 

9 

8 

10 

7 

9 

9 

8 

11 

9 

6 

5 

9 

11 

9 

Total  Gain . 

38 

30 

41 

33 

32 

36 

37 

21 

37 

36 

35 

50 

25 

17 

32 

39 

♦Thrown  out. 


32 


BULLETIN  75. 

The  nine  Shropshire  crosses  in  the  experiment  aver¬ 
aged  39.1  pounds  gain.  The  seven  native  lambs  averaged 
31  pounds  gain,  or  21.8  percent  less  than  the  Shropshire 
crosses.  This  shows  the  advantage  of  good  blood,  and  of  a 
mutton  cross  on  the  native  sheep  to  produce  profitable 
feeders.  The  Shropshire  grades  averaged  7.7  pounds  of 
fleece,  and  the  native  lambs  averaged  nine  pounds  of  fleece. 

The  table  indicates  that  the  lambs  made  remarkably 
even  gains. 

Table  XIX.  gives  the  pounds  gain  per  week  by  each 
lot.  There  are  some  variations  week  by  week,  but  the 
weeks  which  record  losses  are  few.  Except  in  the  final 
week  of  the  experiment,  when  the  weights  were  taken  after 
24  hours  shrinkage  with  the  lambs  off  feed,  there  are  but 
two  instances  of  recorded  loss  of  weight,  both  of  them  in 
the  corn  fed  lots.  The  gains  for  May  2d  were  from  the 
final  live  weight  of  the  lambs  after  they  had  been  off  feed 
and  water  for  twenty-four  hours. 

TABLE  XIX. 

POUNDS  GAIN  PER  WEEK. 


January  30 . 

Lot  I. 
.  7 

Lot  II. 

2 

Lot  III. 

6 

Lot 

5 

February  7 . 

.  7 

10 

11 

20 

February  13 . 

.  16 

4 

10 

5 

February  20 . 

.  11 

10 

20 

15 

February  27 . 

.  8 

13 

12 

16 

March  7 .  . 

.  15 

17 

15 

13 

March  14 . 

.  11 

12 

14 

14 

March  21 . 

.  21 

rr 

i 

17 

10 

March  28 . 

.  10 

16 

17 

16 

April  4 . 

.  8 

10 

1 

-11 

Apri  1  11 . 

.  14 

24 

22 

31 

April  18 . 

.  18 

0 

9 

6 

April  25 . 

.  -3 

3 

-1 

3 

May  2 . 

.  -1 

-2 

7 

1 

Total  Gain  Flesh . 

. 114 

91 

124 

110 

Fleece . 

.  28 

35 

32 

34 

Total  Gain  with  Fleece . 

. 142 

126 

156 

144 

Lot  III.  fed  corn,  alfalfa  and  given  warm  water  to 
drink  made  the  largest  total  gain.  Lot  IV.,  fed  the  same 
ration  as  Lot  III.,  except  that  they  were  given  cold  water 
to  drink,  made  the  second  largest  gain.  Then  followed 
Lot  I.  and  II.  in  order.  The  average  total  gain  of  Lots  I. 
and  II.,  the  mixed  grain  lots,  is  134  pounds;  the  average 
total  gain  of  Lots  III.  and  IV.,  the  corn  fed  lots,  is  151 
pounds,  or  an  average  of  17  pounds  more  of  the  four  lambs 
in  the  corn  fed  lots  than  in  the  two  mixed  grain  lots.  As 
shown  in  Table  XX.,  Lot  I.  given  cold  water,  gained  16 


LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 


33 

pounds  in  excess  of  Lot  II.,  given  the  same  ration,  but  hav¬ 
ing  warm  water  instead  of  cold  water.  Lot  III.,  given  the 
same  ration  as  Lot  IV.,  except  they  were  given  warm  water 
to  drink,  gained  14  pounds  more.  Warm  water  appeared 
to  have  the  advantage  in  the  latter  lots,  but  in  the  former 
the  greater  gain  was  made  when  cold  water  was  given. 

If  then  warm  water  had  any  effect  either  way,  there 
are  other  conditions  which  obscured  the  results. 

AMOUNT  AND  COST  OF  FOOD  COMPARED  WITH  GAINS. 

Table  XX.  gives  the  total  amount  of  food  eaten  and 
water  drank  and  the  total  gain  made  by  each  lot  during  the 
experiment.  By  the  use  of  this  table  the  feeder  can  com¬ 
pute  for  himself  the  cost  of  food  and  value  of  gains  under 
his  own  conditions. 

TABLE  XX. 


FOOD,  WATER  AND  GAIN  IN  POUNDS. 


No.  of  Lambs. 

No.  Days  Fed. 

Food  Eaten  and 
Water  Drank. 

Average 

Weight. 

Total  gain  flesh 

Fleece . 

- - - 

Alfalfa 

Mixed 

Grains 

Corn. 

Water 

Drank 

T5  ? 

At  End 

Lot  I . 

4 

99 

736 

536 

2079 

75.50 

104.0 

114 

28 

Lot  II . 

4 

99 

611 

538 

2031 

85.25 

108.0 

91 

35 

Lot  III . 

4 

99 

797 

518 

2183 

83.75 

114.75 

124 

32 

Lot  IV . .  .. 

4 

99 

663 

509 

1990 

1 

84.25 

111.75 

110 

34 

The  corn  fed  lots  show  a  total  average  gain  of  151 
pounds,  which  is  to  be  compared  with  a  total  average  gain 
of  134  pounds  in  the  small  grain  lots.  For  this  gain  it  took 
an  average  of  513.5  pounds  of  corn  in  Lots  III.  and  IV.,  and 
537  pounds  of  oats,  wheat  and  barley  in  Lots  I.  and  II. 

In  Table  XXI.  will  be  found  the  amount  of  food  eaten 
to  produce  each  pound  of  gain,  the  cost  of  each  pound  of 
gain  and  the  average  percent  of  dressed  weight  in  each  of 
the  trials.  As  no  effect  can  be  traced  to  the  warmth  of  the 
water  supplied  we  may  average  the  results  from  Lots  I.  and 
II.  fed  the  grain  mixture,  and  those  of  Lots  III.  and  IV.  fed 
corn.  Then  with  the  corn  ration  it  took  4.89  pounds  of  al¬ 
falfa  and  3.37  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  each  pound  of 
gain  at  an  average  cost  of  3. 67  cents.  With  the  home  grown 
grain  mixture  it  took  5.01  pounds  of  alfalfa  and  4.02  pounds 


34  '  BULLETIN  75. 

of  grain  to  produce  each  pound  of  gain  at  a  cost  of  5.02 
cents.  The  corn  fed  lots  made  an  average  dressed  weight 
one  and  one-half  percent  higher  than  the  small  grain  fed 
lots.  Then  the  alfalfa  eaten  is  so  nearly  equal  in  each  lot, 
we  may  say  that  100  pounds  of  corn  was  equal  in  fattening 
value  to  1 19  pounds  of  wheat,  oats  and  barley. 

TABLE  XXI. 

FOOD  EATEN  FOR  ONE  POUND  GAIN. 


Food  and  Water  for  One  Pound  Gain. 

Cost 

Percent 

Alfalfa. 

Mixed 

Grains. 

Corn. 

Water. 

1  lb. 
Gain. 

Dressed 

Weight. 

Lot  I . 

lbs. 

5.18 

lbs. 

3.77 

lbs, 

lbs. 

14.454 

cts. 

4.81 

63.4 

Lot  II . 

4.81 

4.27 

16.12 

5.24 

61.2 

Lot  III . 

5.17 

3.21 

14.17 

3.60 

63.2 

Lot  IV . 

4.60 

3.53 

13.82 

3.74 

64.7 

COST  AND  PROFIT. 

The  comparative  cost  and  profit  of  the  different  lots  is 
obtained  by  figuring  the  gain  made  at  six  cents  per  pound 
and  the  wool  produced  at  10  cents  per  pound.  This  gives 
the  total  value  of  the  gain  from  which  is  subtracted  the  cost 
of  the  food  consumed.  There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the 
cost  of  the  food  for  the  different  lots  even  when  fed  on  the 
same  ration.  Referring  to  Table  XXII.  it  will  be  noted 
that  Lot  I.  ate  23  cents  worth  more  of  food  per  lamb  than 
Lot  II.,  although  both  were  fed  the  same  ration  of  grain, 

TABLE  XXII. 

COST  AND  PROFIT. 


Feed. 

Cost 

of 

Feed. 

Cost 

1  lb. 
Gain. 

Value 
Gain 
@  6  cts. 

Value 
Wool 
@  10  cts. 

Total 
Value  of 
Gain. 

Profit. 

Lot  I . 

Cold  Water, 
Alfalfa.  Mixed  Grain 

$ 

6.83 

cts. 

4.81 

* 

6.84 

$ 

2.80 

$ 

9.64 

$ 

2.81 

Lot  II . 

Warm  Water, 
Alfalfa,  Mixed  Grain 

6.60 

5.24 

5.46 

3.50 

8.96 

2.30 

Lot  III. .  . 

Warm  Water, 
Alfalfa  and  Corn. 

5.73 

3.60 

7.44 

3.20 

10.64 

4.91 

Lot  IV . 

Cold  Water, 
Alfalfa  and  Corn. 

5.40 

3.74 

6.60 

3.40 

10.00 

4.60 

LAMB  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS.  35 

and  Lot  III.  ate  33  cents  worth  more  of  food  per  lamb  than 
Lot  IV.,  both  being  fed  corn. 

The  cost  of  the  food  eaten  by  Lots  I.  and  II.  is  higher 
than  that  eaten  by  Lots  III.  and  IV.,  principally  because  the 
small  grains  were  more  valuable  than  corn  at  the  time  the 
experiment  was  carried  on.  The  small  grains  fed  Lots  I. 
and  II.  were  worth  $1.00  per  hundred  pounds,  which  at  that 
time  was  20  cents  more  than  the  selling  price  of  corn.  The 
total  profit  from  the  eight  lambs  which*were  fed  wheat,  oats 
and  barley  was  $5.1 1,  while  the  total  profit  from  the  eight 
lambs  fed  corn  was  $9.51. 

Attributing  all  the  profit  to  the  alfalfa  eaten  we  find 
that  the  average  of  the  small  grain  fed  lot  gives  a  return  of 
$7.58  per  ton  for  the  alfalfa  consumed,  and  the  corn  fed  lots 
gave  an  average  return  of  $13.03  per  ton  for  the  alfalfa  con¬ 
sumed.  7'aking  into  account  the  oats  in  this  ration,  which 
are  of  doubtful  value  for  sheep  feeding,  and  the  fact  that 
the  lambs  wrere  larger  than  those  reported  in  Experiments  I. 
and  II.  and  were  in  much  better  condition  at  the  beginning 
of  the  feeding  period,  the  comparative  values  of  the  small 
grains  and  corn  for  lamb  feeding  correspond  very  closely  in 
all  of  the  experiments  reported  in  this  bulletin. 


3^ 


BULLETIN  75. 


GENERAL  SUMMARY. 

Beet  pulp  is  a  valuable  roughage  to  feed  with  alfalfa,  and  we  be¬ 
lieve  would  be  especially  valuable  to  use  during  the  first  part  of  a  feed¬ 
ing  period.  Pulp  fed  mutton  had  good  flavor,  but  was  not  very  fat. 

Pulp  and  alfalfa  fed  lambs  made  gains  at  the  least  cost  per  pound, 
and  gave  us  the  largest  profit  last  winter.  The  second  best  profit  was 
from  lambs  which  were  fed  spelt  and  alfalfa.  The  third  best  combi¬ 
nation  of  foods  used  from  the  profit  standpoint  was  beets  and  alfalfa  with 
a  ration  of  grain  the  last  thirty  days,  decreasing  the  amount  of  beets 
fed  at  the  end  of  the  feeding  period.  Wheat,  barley  and  alfalfa  gave  a 
little  better  profit  than  alfalfa,  beet  pulp  and  grain.  The  corn  ration 
gave  the  least  profit  when  compared  with  any  of  the  lambs  which  were 
fed  beets  or  pulp. 

Beet  pulp,  which  does  not  cost  the  feeder  more  than  $1.50  per  ton 
at  his  yards,  will  giv6  a  return  sufficiently  large  to  pay  for  using  it  in  a 
ration,  but  we  would  not  recommend  letting  lambs  eat  so  much  of  it 
during  the  finishing  period  that  they  will  not  consume  good  rations  of 
hay  and  grain. 

Sugar  beets  did  not  prove  to  have  a  high  feeding  value  for  lambs. 
It  is  doubtful  if  farmers  can  afford  to  feed  beets  to  lambs  if  they  can 
sell  them  to  a  factory  at  $4.50  per  ton,  and  the  conditions  must  be  favor¬ 
able  to  make  beets  give  a  return  sufficiently  large  to  pay  for  raising 
them.  Two  pounds  of  sugar  beets  were  equal  to  about  one  pound  of 
pulp. 

Sugar  beets  and  poor  kinds  of  roughage  cannot  be  made  to  take  the 
place  of  alfalfa  hay. 

These  trials  showed  that  at  the  same  price  corn  had  a  feeding 
value  greater  than  a  mixture  of  wheat,  barley  and  oats,  or  wheat  and 
barley,  or  barley  alone. 

Our  single  trial  with  Russian  spelt  showed  it  to  have  a  feeding 
value  at  least  equal  to  corn,  and  greater  than  wheat  and  barley. 

Shropshire  grade  lambs  made  much  better  gains  than  common 
western  lambs  when  fed  the  same  ration.  Nine  Shropshire  grades  made 
average  gains  of  43.6  pounds,  and  seven  native  western  lambs  made  an 
average  of  31  pounds. 

Our  trials  with  warm  and  cold  water  given  to  fattening  lambs  did 
not  show  any  advantage  of  one  over  the  other. 


Bulletin  76. 


September,  1902. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


Feeding  Beet  Pulp  to 


— BY— 


H.  H.  GRIFFIN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1902. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW, 
Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

IIon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Hon.  W.  R.  THOMAS,  - 
Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 


Hon.  B.  U.  DYE,  ..... 

Governor  JAMES  B.  ORMAN, 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


& 


Canon  City,  - 

Term 

Expires 

-  1903 

Denver, 

1903 

Denver, 

-  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

1905 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Denver, 

1907 

Gypsum, 

1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

ex-officio . 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 


P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW. 


JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 


L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director , 
C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 
*B.  C.  BUFFUM,  M.  S., 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S., 

E.  D.  BALL,M.  S., 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  - 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S., 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S., 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S., 


Irrigation  Engineer 

. Entomologist 

. Chemist 

. Agriculturist 

. Horticulturist 

-  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 
Assistant  Entomologist 
Assistant  Agriculturist  and  Photographer 
-  Assistant  Horticulturist 
-  Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 
Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  ...  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY,  -  . . .  Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN,  Stenographer  and  Clerk 

*  Resigned  September  1  to  become  Director  Wyo.  Agr.  Expt.  Station. 


Feeding  Beet  Pulp  to  Lambs. 

By  H.  H.  Griffin. 


The  establishment  of  beet  sugar  factories  in  Colorado  placed 
the  pulp  at  the  command  of  the  farmer  for  use  as  stock  food  after 
the  extraction  of  sugar.  The  writer  realized  that  there  would  be 
much  demand  on  the  part  of  feeders  for  reliable  information  in 
regard  to  the  value  of  this  product  for  sheep  feeding,  as  the  feeding 
was  done  principally  for  this  purpose  and  probably  would  be  for 
years  to  come.  The  writer  further  realized  that  this  demand 
would  be  emphasized  in  times  of  short  corn  crops  in  the  east  and 
consequent  high-priced  corn  in  the  Arkansas  valley. 

It  was  the  wish  of  the  writer  to  do  some  experimental  feeding 
with  this  product  in  the  way  of  comparing  it  with  corn  for  fattening 
sheep.  By  the  kindness  of  Mr.  F.  M.  Harsin,  of  Rocky  ford,  250 
head  of  lambs  were  placed  at  our  disposal  to  make  a  test. 

The  experiment  was  planned  as  follows :  One  car  load  of  lambs 
was  to  be  divided  into  two  lots.  Each  lot  was  to  receive  the  same 
amount  of  alfalfa  hay  daily.  One  lot  was  to  be  fed  corn  as  it  is 
customary  to  feed  corn  in  this  country.  The  other  lot  was  to  receive 
pulp  in  lieu  of  corn  in  such  amount  as  would  be  deemed  best  for 
the  purpose  of  making  the  comparison. 

Further,  it  was  intended  to  incidentally  note  the  effect  of  the 
pulp  upon  the  health  of  the  sheep,  on  the  amount  of  water  drank, 
upon  the  quality  of  the  meat,  and  to  note  how  pulp-fed  lambs  would 
ship  to  market  as  compared  to  corn-fed  lambs.  The  writer  realized 
that  in  the  latter  proposition  was,  to  a  great  extent,  the  crucial  test 
of  its  value. 

These  lambs  were  a  grade  lot  from  the  San  Luis  valley.  Mr. 
Harsin  had  put  them  on  hay  and  corn  the  first  week  in  November. 
At  the  time  the  Station  received  them,  in  December,  they  were  get¬ 
ting  7  oz.  of  corn  per  head  per  day.  They  were  weighed  into  the 
Station’s  pens  on  the  24th  day  of  December,  1900,  125  in  each  pen. 
The  weight  of  pen  I  was  7,032  pounds  or  an  average  of  61  pounds 
per  head;  of  pen  II,  7,772  pounds  or  an  average  of  62  pounds  per 
head.  Each  lot  was  given  the  same  amount  of  hay  daily.  But  few 
of  the  lambs  took  to  pulp  readily.  It  was  ten  days  before  all  the 
lambs  in  pen  II  were  eating  pulp.  Pen  I  was  continued  on  7  oz. 
of  corn  per  head  daily. 

February  21st  a  stampede  of  the  sheep  occurred  by  which  a 


4 


Bulletin  76. 


few  of  the  corn-fed  lambs  became  mixed  with  those  fed  on  pulp. 
They  had  not  been  marked,  but  as  those  not  used  to  pulp  refused  to 
eat  it,  the  separation  was  easily  made. 

Both  lots  were  weighed  January  3d,  and  thereafter  as  often  as 
fortnightly.  Pen  I  weighed  7,710  pounds  and  pen  II  7,744  pounds, 
so  that  by  the  time  pen  II  was  eating  pulp  both  lots  weighed  prac¬ 
tically  the  same. 

Pen  I  was  now  increased  to  9  oz.  of  corn  per  head  per  day. 
Pen  II  was  consuming  500  pounds  of  pulp  daily,  four  pounds  per 
head  daily,  equivalent  to  6.4  oz.  of  dry  matter.  They  were  wasting 
some  of  this  amount  of  pulp.  Both  lots  were  taking  practically  the 
same  amount  of  hay,  two  pounds  per  head  daily.  Pen  II  was  held 
to  about  500  pounds  of  pulp  daily  until  February  2d.  At  this  time 
the  pulp  was  increased  to  750  pounds  daily  for  three  days,  after 
which  it  was  increased  to  1,000  pounds  daily. 

It  was  found  that  the  lambs  would  not  consume  this  amount 
of  pulp,  and  that  there  was  also  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of  hay 
eaten.  Consequently,  in  three  days  the  pulp  was  reduced  to  about 
800  pounds  daily,  an  average  of  about  6J  pounds  per  head.  The 
amount  fluctuated  some  because  of  the  waste  which  occurred.  Lot 
II  was  continued  on  this  amount  of  pulp  until  March  4th. 

The  corn-fed  sheep — pen  I — were  fed  in  the  same  way,  gradu¬ 
ally  increasing  the  corn,  as  is  the  general  practice  in  this  section. 
January  14th  they  were  increased  to  11  oz.,  on  February  2d  to  13 
oz.,  on  March  5th  to  16  oz.  per  head  per  day.  One  pound  daily  per 
head  was  the  greatest  amount  because  it  was  difficult  to  secure  corn, 
and  further  because  the  dry  matter  being  fed  the  pulp  lot  did  not 
equal  in  amount  that  fed  the  corn  lot. 

It  was  apparent  that  the  supply  of  pulp  would  be  exhausted 
before  the  lambs  would  be  in  proper  condition  for  market.  For  this 
reason  it  was  planned  to  add  corn  to  the  pulp  ration  and  as  soon  as 
possible  get  the  corn  up  to  such  an  amount  as  the  dry  matter  in  the 
pulp  and  corn  would  equal  that  in  the  corn  lot.  Accordingly,  on 
March  5th,  the  pulp  was  reduced  to  400  pounds  daily  and  6  oz.  of 
corn  added  per  head  daily.  The  corn  lot — pen  I — was  getting  one 
pound  of  corn  per  head  daily. 

March  27th  the  corn  in  the  pulp  lot — pen  II — was  increased  to 
10  oz.  of  corn  daily ;  the  pulp  and  corn  were  estimated  to  contain 
the  same  amount  of  dry  matter  as  the  one  pound  of  corn  pen  I  was 
receiving.  Both  lots  were  continued  on  this  ration  until  the  lambs 
were  shipped,  on  April  16th. 

Both  lots  were  weighed  at  the  Station  on  April  13th.  Pen  I, 
which  was  now  reduced  to  122  sheep,  weighed  10,532  pounds,  an 
average  of  86.3  pounds.  Pen  II  (123  sheep)  weighed  10,340  pounds, 
an  average  of  84  pounds  per  head. 

April  16th  the  lambs  were  put  on  the  cars  for  shipment  to 


Feeding  Beet  Pulp  to  Lambs. 


5 


Kansas  City.  Pen  I  (121  sheep)  then  weighed  10,490  pounds,  an 
average  of  86.7  pounds  per  head.  Pen  II  (P22  sheep)  weighed  10,- 
373  pounds,  an  average  of  85  pounds  per  head.  One  sheep  from 
pen  II,  while  being  driven  to  the  cars,  broke  its  leg  and  was  not 
shipped.  Four  sheep  were  killed  in  pen  I,  two  of  which  were  butch¬ 
ered.  Pen  I  thus  gained  1.7  pounds  per  head  more  than  pen  II, 
comparing  the  weights  from  January  3d  to  the  close  of  the  feeding. 

The  weather  of  December  30th  to  January  1st  was  severe, 
averaging  -6°  on  the  31st,  but  the  gain  made  by  the  lambs  was  fairly 
good. 

TABLE  I. 


Period. 

No.  Days. 

Hay. 

Lbs. 

Refuse. 

Lbs. 

Corn . 
Lbs. 

Water. 

Lbs. 

Gain . 
Lbs. 

December  24-30 . 

7 

1,494 

52 

351 

1,783 

December  31 — J  anuary  4 . . 

5 

1,134 

86 

291 

1,575 

78 

January  5-14 . 

10 

2,504 

355 

708 

4,050 

279 

January  15-24 . 

10 

2,250 

350 

860 

4,040 

513 

January  25 — February  2.. 

9 

2,125 

516 

781 

3,175 

74 

February  3-13 .  . 

11 

2,250 

325 

1,000 

3,625 

316 

February  14-23  . 

10 

2,500 

270 

1,100 

4.605 

February  24 — March  5 _ 

10 

2,500 

621 

1,012& 

5,360 

818 

Total . 

72 

16,757 

2,575 

6.103K 

29,213 

2,078 

March  6-27 . 

22 

5,588 

730 

2,750 

11,900 

652 

March  28 — April  13 . 

17 

4,178 

533 

2,090 

7,200 

128 

April  14-16 . 

3 

680 

200 

302 

44  + 

Total . 

114 

27,203 

4,038 

ll,245i/2 

48,313 

2,902+ 

TABLE  II. 


Period. 

No. 

Days. 

Hay. 

Refuse 

Pulp. 

Refuse 

Corn. 

Water. 

Gain. 

December  24-30 . 

December  31— January  4.  — 

January  5-14  . 

January  15-24 . 

January  25— February  2 . 

February  3-12 . 

February  13-23 . 

February  24 — March  5 . 

Total . 

7 

5 

10 

10 

9 

10 

11 

10 

1,527 

1,134 

2:504 

2.250 
2,125 

2.250 
2,500 
2,500 

44 

66 

379 

270 

263 

386 

338 

661 

1,780 

2,325 

5,038 

5,020 

4,732 

8,671 

8,969 

7,757 

195 

41 

92 

79 

22 

369 

98 

102 

1,275 

575 

1,300 

1,675 

1,050 

300 

365 

665 

-28 

216 

257 

131 

276 

858 

72 

16,790 

2,412 

44,292 

998 

7.205 

1.710 

March  6-27 . 

22 

5,588 

870 

9,371 

46 

988 

5.075 

March  28- April  16 . 

20 

5,607 

1,073 

6,825 

1,607^ 

3,425 

498 

Totals . 

114 

27,985 

4,355 

60,488 

1,044 

2,595+* 

15.705 

2,678 

TABLE  III. 


Date. 

Pen  I. 

Pen  II. 

No. 

Sheep. 

Gross 

Wt.Lbs 

Gain. 

Lbs. 

Wt.Per 

Head. 

No. 

Sheep. 

Gross  W  t . 
Lbs. 

Gain. 

Lbs. 

Wt  Per 
Head. 

December  24 . 

125 

7.632 

61.0 

125 

7.772 

62.1 

January  3 . 

125 

7,710 

78 

61.6 

125 

7.744 

-28 

61.9 

January  14 . 

125 

7.989 

279 

63  9 

125 

7,960 

216 

63.7 

January  24 . 

125 

8,502 

513 

68  0 

125 

8.217 

257 

65.7 

February  2  . 

125 

8,576 

74 

68.6 

125 

8,348 

131 

66  7 

February  12 . 

125 

8.892 

316 

71.0 

125 

8.624 

276 

69.0 

March  5  . 

125 

9,710 

818 

77  6 

125 

9,482 

858 

75.8 

March  27  . 

124 

10,362 

652 

83  5 

124 

9,952 

470 

80.2 

April  13 . 

122 

10,532 

170 

86.5 

123 

10,340 

388 

84.0 

April  16 . 

121 

10,490 

-42 

86.6 

123-122 

10,450-10,373 

90 

85.0 

April  18  (K.  C  ) . 

120 

9,280 

-1,210 

77  3 

117 

8.880 

-493 

75.9 

6 


Bulletin  76. 


TABLE  IV. 


Date. 

Weather. 

Water  Drank 

Pen  II — Lbs. 

Water  Consumed 

as  Pulp, Pen  II.  lbs 

Total  Water  Con¬ 
sumed,  Pen  II,  lbs 

Water  Drank 
Pen  I— Lbs. 

January  1. .. 

Cold 

100 

390 

490 

300 

January  15. . 

Mild 

115 

441 

556 

315 

February  1 . . 

Cold 

100 

461 

561 

300 

February  8.. 

Cool 

0 

900 

900 

300 

March  1 . 

Very  Warm 

i  .  •• 

100 

750 

850 

575 

March  15 ... . 

325 

375 

700 

675 

April  1 . 

Stormy 

50 

360 

410 

200 

Total . 

790 

3.677 

4,467 

2,665 

Feeding  experiments  nearly  always  show  a  lack  of  uniformity 
in  gains,  though  the  weather  and  kind  and  amount  of  food  may  be 
constant. 

Comparing  the  gain  with  the  amount  of  food  eaten,  the  pulp 
lot  compares  quite  favorably  with  the  corn-fed  lot.  Were  the  test 
to  stop  here,  favorable  claims  could  be  made  for  the  pulp.  The 
crucial  test  came  in  the  shipping.  The  lambs  were  forty  hours  on 
the  way  from  Rockyford  to  Kansas  City  without  feed.  The  ship¬ 
ping  showed  that  the  pulp  lot  were  weak-boned  and  had  but  little 
stamina;  that  the  flesh  was  soft  and  shrank  immensely,  giving  a 
much  worse  appearance  than  the  corn-fed  ones. 

On  the  cars  four  sheep  died  and  one  was  crippled  in  the  pulp- 
fed  lot ;  one  was  crippled  in  the  corn-fed  lot.  The  lambs  sold  for 
$4.80  per  cwt.,the  market  being  from  $4.60  to  $5.00  that  day.  The 
pulp  lot  in  Kansas  City  had  an  average  weight  of  75.8  pounds. 
The  corn  lot  had  an  average  weight  in  Kansas  City  of  77.3  pounds. 
In  shipment  the  corn  lot  lost  9.4  pounds  per  head,  and  the  pulp  lot 
9.2  pounds.  The  amount  each  lot  shrank  is  practically  the  same. 
The  four  dead  sheep  were,  of  course,  a  total  loss,  which  with  three 
crippled  (one  corn-fed)  ones  indicates  the  lack  of  strength  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  other  sheep.  The  attendant  stated  that  the  pulp  lot 
sold  higher  than  they  would  have  had  not  they  been  on  the  market 
in  small  numbers  with  corn-fed  lambs.  Thus  while  the  average 
weights  are  about  the  same,  the  deaths  in  pen  II  and  the  general 
appearance  of  the  lot  plainly  evidenced  that  they  did  not  ship 
nearly  so  well  as  the  corn-fed  lot. 

The  financial  account  based  on  the  Kansas  City  returns  stands 
as  follows : 


117  lambs  (fed  on  pulp),  8,880  lbs.,  at  $4.80 . $426.24.  Per  head,  $3.64 

120  lambs  (fed  on  corn),  9,280  lbs.,  at  4.80 .  445.44.  Per  head,  3.71 

Balance  in  favor  of  the  corn .  19.20.  Per  head,  .07 


If  the  lambs  had  been  fed  pulp  exclusively  until  the  time  of 
shipment,  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  per  cent,  of  loss 
would  have  been  much  greater.  Salt  was  given  both  lots  twice  per 
week,  the  pulp  lot  getting  one-third  more  than  the  others.  Evi¬ 
dently  lambs  fed  on  pulp  should  be  given  plenty  of  salt  because  of 
the  absence  of  bone-forming  material  in  the  food. 

March  20th  one  lamb  from  each  lot  was  sold  to  local  butchers 


Feeding  Beet  Pulp  to  Lambs. 


7 


to  test  the  quality  and  appearance  of  the  meat.  March  28th  two 
more  lambs,  one  from  each  pen,  were  sold  for  the  same  purpose. 
Both  lots  dressed  well  and  the  proportion  of  dressed  meat  was  about 
the  same.  The  corn-fed  flesh  was  considered  some  best  in  color 
and  the  carcass  showed  a  good  proportion  of  fat  on  the  outside. 
The  carcass  of  the  pulp-fed  lamb  showed  the  most  fat  on  the  inside. 

The  meat  from  each  lot  was  of  good  quality  and  but  little,  if 
any,  difference  could  be  noted.  At  the  time  of  loading  on  the  cars 
one  of  the  pulp  lot  broke  a  leg.  The  lamb  was  killed  and  dressed, 
but  it  dressed  out  very  poorly.  There  was  but  little  fat  and  the 
meat  was  of  poor  quality.  This  was  a  typical  Navajo  sheep,  which 
may  account  for  the  failure  to  put  on  fat. 

As  pen  II  did  not  become  accustomed  to  pulp  until  January  3d, 
the  only  safe  comparison  of  gains  that  can  be  made  is  for  a  feeding 
period  of  60  days  between  January  3d  and  March  5th. 

Referring  to  table  I,  we  find  that  for  this  period  pen  I  ate  5,590 
pounds  of  corn  and  gained  2,000  pounds.  Pen  Hate  41,117  pounds 
of  pulp  and  gained  1,728  pounds.  Both  lots  had  eaten  practically 
the  same  amount  of  hay.  It  required  2.79  pounds  of  corn,  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  hay,  to  make  one  pound  of  gain.  It  required  23.78  pounds 
of  pulp,  in  addition  to  the  hay,  to  make  one  pound  of  gain.  These 
figures,  reduced  to  their  equivalents  in  dry  matter,  make  2.37  pounds 
and  2.34  pounds,  respectively.  The  amount  of  gain  corresponds  very 
closely  to  the  amount  of  dry  matter  in  the  food.  Were  the  pulp  so 
condensed  that  the  same  amount  of  food  material  could  be  consumed 
as  of  corn,  it  can  fairly  be  said  the  results  would  be  equal.  These 
results  are  based  upon  the  weights  at  the  shipping  yards  and  not  at 
the  point  to  which  the  lambs  were  shipped. 

Pulp  is  not  a  condensed  food  and  the  capacity  of  the  animal 
to  take  it  is  limited.  The  results  from  the  pulp  may  be  partially 
due  to  the  cooling  and  regulating  effect  it  may  have  upon  the  sys¬ 
tem.  The  office  of  the  pulp  would  seem  to  be  as  follows : 

On  account  of  its  cooling  and  regulating  effect  on  the  system, 
and  bulky,  succulent  nature,  it  would  be  a  good  thing  to  feed  for 
some  time  after  taking  lambs  from  the  range  and  putting  them  on 
dry  hay.  For  the  first  two  months  of  feeding  the  feeder  does  not 
care  so  much  for  the  fat  put  on  the  animal  as  he  does  for  the  growth 
and  for  the  enlargement  of  the  animal’s  digestive  capacity.  The 
alfalfa  produces  the  growth  and  enough  pulp  can  be  consumed  to 
fatten  as  fast  as  is  desired  in  the  early  stages  of  the  feeding. 

After  the  first  two  months  of  feeding  I  believe  the  lambs  should 
be  gradually  accustomed  to  corn,  and  for  the  last  six  weeks  of  the 
feeding  the  pulp  should  be  kept  from  them  entirely. 

What,  then,  is  the  value  of  a  ton  of  pulp  for  feeding  to  lambs 
as  compared  with  corn,  based  upon  the  results  obtained  in |this  feed¬ 
ing  trial  ?  The  computations  so  far  in  this  bulletin  have  been  made 


8 


Bulletin  76. 


upon  the  supposition  that  pulp  contains  90  per  cent,  water,  which  is 
about  right  for  the  pulp  we  fed.  One  ton  of  pulp,  therefore,  con¬ 
tains  200  pounds  of  feeding  material.  For  comparison  we  will  con¬ 
sider  corn  worth,  at  the  cars,  75  cents  per  cwt.  A  ton  of  pulp  may 
be  said  to  be  worth  $1.50,  could  it  be  fed  without  any  outlay  for 
transportation. 

The  great  consideration  in  estimating  the  value  of  the  pulp  is 
the  matter  of  transnortation.  For  convenience  we  will  estimate  the 

L 

feeder  is  such  a  distance  from  a  factory  that  it  costs  him  $1.00  per 
ton  to  deliver  corn  to  his  vards.  The  corn  at  above  rates  costs  him, 
then,  80  cents  gross  per  cwt.  It  will  take  practically  the  same  time 
to  deliver  a  ton  of  pulp  as  it  does  a  ton  of  com.  It  has  cost,  then,  to 
get  the  pulp  $1.00  per  ton.  This  would  leave  50  cents  for  the  value 
of  a  ton  at  the  factory.  If  the  pulp  is  shipped  then  the  freight 
charges  must  also  be  deducted  to  obtain  the  price  which  the  feeder 
so  situated  may  afford  to  pay  for  the  pulp  at  the  factory. 

Let  us  inquire  for  a  moment  as  to  the  amount  of  labor  required 
to  transport  the  same  amount  of  feeding  material  in  pulp  as  there 
is  contained  in  ten  tons  of  corn.  We  will  suppose  that  the  feeder 
is  such  a  distance  from  the  station  that  he  can  haul  the  above 
amount  of  corn  in  15  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  ton  in  one  and 
one-half  hours.  The  trip  can  be  made  with  pulp  in  about  the  same 
time,  but  two  and  one-half  tons  of  pulp  can  be  hauled  at  each  load 
because  it  is  of  the  same  bulk  as  two  tons  of  com.  To  haul  a  ton, 
which  contains  200  pounds  of  feeding  material,  the  cost  then  is 
$1.50.  To  get  a  ton  of  feeding  material  in  the  pulp  it  will  take  12 
hours;  to  get  the  ten  tons  of  feeding  matter  it  will  require  120 
hours.  The  cost  at  30  cents  per  hour  for  man  and  team  will  be 
$4.50  for  the  delivery  of  the  corn,  and  $36.00  for  the  delivery  of 
the  pulp. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  farmer  has  the  pulp  as  a  by-product  of 
the  beet  business,  and  that  it  will  be  a  waste  unless  he  utilizes  it  for 
feed. 

Under  similar  conditions  for  which  the  above  estimate  is  made, 
let  us  see  what  it  may  be  considered  worth  to  such  a  farmer  for  lamb 
feeding.  The  com  will  cost  him  77  cents  per  hundred  weight  (ap¬ 
proximately)  at  the  feeding  yards.  The  pulp  has  cost  him  only 
the  delivery,  or  $36.00,  which  equals  36  cents  per  ton,  or  18  cents 
per  hundred  weight  dry  matter;  77  cents  minus  18  cents  equals 
59  cents,  the  value  per  hundred  weight  of  the  dry  pulp.  As  there 
are  200  pounds  in  each  ton,  then  59  cents  X  2  cents,  or  $1.18. 
From  this  must  be  deducted  the  expense  of  delivering  the  pulp 
(labor  of  handling),  together  with  the  labor  necessary  to  get  the 
pulp  from  the  silo  to  the  sheep  -  a  total  of  not  less  than  20  cents 
per  ton.  Deduct  this  from  the  $1.18  will  leave  98  cents  per  ton  as 
the  value  that  may  be  attached  to  it  by  a  farmer  so  situated. 


Feeding  Beet  Pulp  to  Lambs. 


;  9 

Mr.  Rhodes,  of  Las  Animas,  has  feeding  yards  about  one  mile 
from  the  depot.  He  delivered  a  considerable  amount  of  pulp  to  his 
yards  in  the  fall  of  1901.  The  pulp  cost  him  at  the  factory  25  cents 
per  ton  and  the  freight  was  30  cents  per  ton,  making  it  cost  55  cents 
at  the  railway  station.  He  used  a  four-horse  team  and  one  man  to 
deliver  the  pulp.  He  estimates  that  the  total  cost  delivered  at  the 
pen  was  75  cents  per  ton,  and  when  fed  from  the  silo  the  total  cost 
was  85  cents  per  ton. 

The  Station  received  from  the  factory  86,410  pounds  of  pulp, 
of  which  59,576  pounds  were  eaten  by  the  lambs,  leaving  26,834 
pounds,  or  32  per  cent.,  as  the  amount  of  waste  or  loss.  This  may 
be  considered  as  a  maximum  waste,  as  we  had  no  silo  in  which  to 
store  the  pulp. 

Some  trouble  was  experienced  in  feeding  the  pulp  in  very  cold 
weather  on  account  of  freezing.  At  such  times  it  was  found  neces¬ 
sary  to  wait  until  about  9  o’clock  in  the  morning  before  feeding. 
Again  in  the  afternoon  it  was  necessary  to  feed  at  3  or  4 
o’clock  so  that  the  pulp  could  be  eaten  without  freezing.  With  large 
lots  of  sheep  this  would  be  a  matter  of  much  consideration. 

A  record  was  kept  of  the  amount  of  water  drank  by  each  pen, 
and  is  given  in  table  II.  The  result  is  interesting,  as  the  question 
is  often  asked  :  “  How  is  it  that  the  animals  can  consume  so  much 
watery  material  in  addition  to  other  food  ?  ” 

The  table  shows  that,  including  the  water  in  the  pulp,  the 
total  amount  of  water  consumed  by  pen  II  was  greater  than  that 
received  by  pen  I.  The  feeding  of  pulp  is  simply  one  way  of  fur¬ 
nishing  the  water  supply. 

The  experience  in  feeding  pulp  by  different  people,  1901,  shows 
that  where  the  animals  are  confined  in  pens  that  the  yards  become 
extremely  wet.  Such  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  the  growth 
of  the  animal  and  reduce  the  benefits  derived  from  the  food. 


SUMMARY. 


Sugar  beet  pulp  contains  about  90  per  cent,  of  water,  hence 
there  is  but  200  pounds  of  feeding  material  in  a  ton. 

From  weighings  made  on  the  sub-station  farm  the  results  show 
about  equal  gains  in  weight  for  the  dry  matter  in  the  corn  and  in 


10 


Bulletin  76. 


the  pulp  when  each  are  combined  with  alfalfa. 

Hence  one  ton  of  pulp  is  equal  to  200  pounds  of  corn. 

Owing  to  the  bulky  nature  of  the  pulp  not  enough  of  it  can  be 
consumed  by  lambs  to  produce  sufficient  fat  to  finish  them;  hence 
it  should  be  fed  to  the  greatest  extent  at  the  commencement  of 
feeding. 

What  is  fed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  feeding  period  should  be 
used  as  an  appetizer  and  a  regulator  of  the  bowels  rather  than  for 
the  fat  it  produces. 

Pulp  fed  in  large  quantities  produces  a  soft  flesh. 

The  matter  of  transportation  is  a  very  essential  one  for  the 
farmer  to  consider  in  the  utilization  of  pulp.  For  the  profitable  use 
the  yards  must  be  near  the  factory  or  to  railway  facilities. 

When  large  quantities  of  pulp  are  fed  to  animals  confined  in 
small  lots  the  lots  become  very  foul,  much  to  the  discomfort  of  the 
animals  and  loss  to  the  feeder. 


Bulletin  77. 


February,  1903. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


Investigation  of  the  Great  Plains. 

Unirrigated  Lands  of  Eastern  Colorado. 

Seven  Years’  Study. 


— BY— 


J.  E.  PAYNE. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1903. 


Twelve-foot  binder  at  work  near  Wray,  Colo.  A  part  of  the  orchard,  and  residence  at  the  Plains  Substation. 


Unirrigated  Lands  of  Eastern  Colorado. 


Based  on  a  Study  and  Residence 
of  Seven  Years. 


By  J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S. 


After  spending  seven  years  on  tire  Plains,  three  of  which 
were  devoted  to  traveling  and  making  a  special  study  of  the  conn- 
try,  and  collecting  information  concerning  the  results  obtained  by 
settlers,  we  give  the  statements  contained  on  the  following  pages 
to  the  public. 

We  are  often  asked,  “Can  a  man  make  a  living  on  the 
Plains?”  The  only  answer  which  can  be  safely  returned  is,  “It 
depends  upon  the  man.” 

Soil.  The  soil  of  the  country  is  quite  fertile,  as  a  rule,  and 
whenever  it  is  watered  sufficiently  at  the  proper  time — either  by 
rainfall  or  irrigation — abundant  harvests  are  reaped.  The  most  of 
the  soil  of  the  region  would  be  classed  as  sandy  loam.  But  there 
are  large  areas  of  heavy  clay  soil,  and  some  which  is  called 
“adobe.”  With  some  exceptions,  the  more  clay  there  is  in  the 
soil,  the  more  water  is  needed  to  raise  a  crop  upon  it.  Good  crops 
have  been  raised  on  some  dark  sandy  soils  with  very  little  rain¬ 
fall.  On  the  “adobe”  soil  “dry  farming”  is  a  failure. 

Rainfall.  The  average  rainfall  of  the  country  is  between 
fifteen  and  twenty  inches.  Records  kept  for  a  few  years  indicate 
that  it  is  not  far  from  seventeen  inches,  but  they  have  not  been 
kept  long  enough  to  be  considered  reliable. 

Wind.  During  only  a  few  days  in  any  year  is  there  a  dead 
calm.  There  is  nearly  always  a  breeze,  varying  in  velocity  from 
four  to  forty  miles  per  hour.  At  first,  this  seems  hard;  but  when 
we  consider  that  nine-tenths  of  the  stock  must  depend  upon  water 
pumped  from  deep  wells,  we  realize  that  the  wind  is  an  extremely 
valuable  free  power,  and  decide  to  put  strings  on  our  hats  and  not 
complain. 

Sunshine.  Eastern  Colorado  is  eminently  a  land  of  sunshine. 
Very  few  cloudy  days  occur.  Probably,  300  days  in  the  year  are 


6 


Bulletin  77. 


clear  days.  If  the  sun-motor  is  ever  perfected,  it  will  be  a  great 
help  to  this  region,  for  on  days  when  the  wind  does  not  blow  the 
sun  shines,  and  the  sun-motor  would  do  the  work  now  done  by 
horse-powers  and  gasoline  engines. 

Hail.  During  the  eight  years  we  have  been  at  work  at  Chey¬ 
enne  Wells,  several  hailstorms  have  struck  the  place.  However, 
no  hail  sufficiently  severe  to  kill  the  trees  has  yet  struck  there. 
We  doubt  that  fruit  trees  and  crops  generally  are  destroyed  by 
hail  any  more  frequently  there  than  in  irrigated  regions  of  Colo¬ 
rado. 


Natural  Vegetation.  Vegetation  grows  according  to  the 
water  supply.  Most  of  the  country  is  covered  by  short  grass.  In 
some  places,  not  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  ground  is  covered, 
while  in  other  places  where  extra  water  runs  on  from  surrounding 
land,  the  grass  makes  a  complete  mat,  covering  the  whole  surface. 
The  sand  hills  and  the  black  sandy  land  support  a  variety  of  tall- 
growing  grasses,  which  usually  grow  in  bunches,  but  often  grow 
two  to  three  feet  high.  The  low  places  often  support  different 
species  of  Agropyron,  or  Colorado  Bluestem  —  which  starts 
early  in  the  season  and  matures  early  in  July — mak¬ 
ing  its  growth  during  the  season  of  maximum  rainfall.  This 
grass  is  called  “wheat  grass”  by  many,  and  its  habits  may  be  a 
hint  for  those  who  wish  to  depend  upon  wheat  raising  in  the 
plains  region.  Some  do  think  that  if  they  could  get  a  variety  of 
wheat  which  would  mature  by  July  4th,  it  would  be  practically 
sure  to  produce  a  crop  every  year.  The  region  between  the  Arick- 
aree  and  the  North  Fork  of  the  Republican  River,  lying  east  of 
the  sand  hills,  appears  like  a  piece  of  country  taken  from  two 
hundred  miles  east  of  its  present  location  and  set  down  in  Eastern 
Colorado.  Along  the  Black  Wolf  and  Dry  Willow  are  fringes  of 
trees  and  plum  thickets,  and  wild  grapes  are  quite  common  there. 
The  rainfall  is  about  the  same  as  in  other  parts  of  the  Plains. 

Water.  The  water  courses  of  the  Plains  are  mostly  sinuous 
lines  of  sand  of  width  rudely  proportionate  to  the  areas  drained. 
They  may  carry  no  water  for  one  or  two  vears,  and  then  a  heavy 
rain  may  come  which  changes  them  to  raging  torrents.  The 

J  o  o 

water  does  not  run  down  their  courses;  it  just  tumbles,  scooping 
out  great  holes  here  and  making  immense  sand  dykes  there.  If 
there  is  enough  water,  some  of  it  joins  some  running  stream,  but 
as  frequently,  it  tumbles  along  over  the  sandy  bed  until  all  is  used 
in  saturating  the  upper  layers  of  sand.  The  surplus  caught  in  the 
water  holes  goes  into  that  indefinite,  much-dreamed-of  body  of 
water  called  the  underflow.  Sometimes  this  underflow  of  the 
plains  streams  follows  the  course  of  the  present  sand-bed,  and 
sometimes  it  does  not.  The  Plains  seem  to  have  an  infinite  num- 


Unirrigated  Uands  of  Eastern  Coeorado. 


7 


ber  of  underground  streams  of  varying  width.  Some  are  very  nar¬ 
row,  and  some  are  so  wide  that  there  are  regions  which  are  said 
to  be  underlaid  by  “sheet- water.”  This  suggests  the  possibility 
of  the  existence  of  an  underground  water  system  consisting  of 
rills,  creeks,  rivers  and  lakes  on  the  Plains.  Also,  in  the  same 
connection,  it  must  be  admitted  that  hills  and  mountains  exist 
there.  If  we  could  strip  the  country  of  the  soil  so  as  to  uncover 
the  shale  beds  and  water  bearing  sands,  it  is  likely  that  we  would 
discover  a  country  not  so  level  as  now  exists  there,  but  with  many 
hills  which  are  now  under  hollows,  and  many  streams  of  various 
sizes  trickling  through  beds  of  sand  much  the  same  as  the  waters 
of  the  Big  Sandy  pass  through  its  vast  sand  bed.  There  are  now 
quite  a  number  of  streams  in  Arapahoe,  Washington  and  Yuma 
counties  whose  outlets  are  covered  by  sandhills.  One  of  these  in 
Washington  county  is  over  two  hundred  feet  wide  where  the 
B.  &  M.  railroad  crosses  it,  but  it  ends  on  the  west  side  of  a  big 
sandhill.  The  visible  streams  of  water  are  few.  The  Big  Sandy 
shows  open  water  at  intervals  along  its  course.  This  stream  seems 
to  have  an  underflow  which  follows  the  course  of  its  sand-bed, 
although  it  seems  to  be  much  wider  in  places.  The  Smoky  Hill 
River  in  Colorado  is  crossed  at  intervals  by  an  underground 
stream  which  does  not  follow  the  course  of  the  present  sand-bed 
any  great  distance  at  any  place.  The  South  Fork  of  the  Republi¬ 
can  is  a  visible  stream  for  a  few  miles  just  east  of  Flagler,  where 
it  runs  over  a  bed  of  shale.  It  then  goes  under  the  sand,  and  does 
not  again  appear  until  near  Tuttle.  From  Tuttle  to  Benkelman, 
Nebraska,  where  it  joins  the  North  Fork  of  the  Republican,  it  is 
a  visible  stream.  The  Arickaree  River  rises  near  River  Bend.  It  has 
no  known  underflow  corresponding  to  its  sand-bed  until  within  a 
few  miles  of  Cope,  at  the  townsite  of  Arickaree  City.  Open  water 
appears  several  miles  below  Cope,  and  a  small  stream  is  constant 
in  flow  between  that  point  and  Haigler,  Nebraska,  where  it  unites 
with  the  North  Fork  of  the  Republican.  The  North  Fork  of  the 
Republican  is  a  good  stream  from  its  source.  It  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  several  spring  streams  in  the  sand-hills  west  of  Wray. 

When  the  country  was  occupied  by  the  stockmen,  they  took 
possession  of  the  open  water,  using  the  range  as  far  out  on  the 
flats  as  their  stock  could  graze  from  water.  They  sometimes 
pushed  their  cattle  out  onto  the  flats  when  the  lagoons  were  full 
of  water  from  rains,  but  as  a  rule  the  flats  were  not  used  very  far 
from  the  streams.  Those  men  seem  to  have  seldom  thought  of 
pumping  water  from  deep  wells  for  their  stock.  But,  when  the 
country  was  settled  by  farmers,  they  began  to  dig  deep  wells. 
Their  necessities  caused  the  introduction  of  well-augers  and  well- 
drills  and  powerful  force-pumps.  Windmills  were  also  improved 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  times.  Soon  wells  were  found  in  large 


8 


Bulletin  77. 


numbers  on  “the  flats,”  which  before  could  be  occupied  a  short 
time  only  each  year  by  cattle  on  account  of  scarcity  of  water. 
Now  almost  every  settler  has  his  own  well  and  windmill,  and  the 
grape  vines  and  cherry  trees  are  increasing. 

Settlement.  The  tide  of  settlers  which  filled  Western  Kansas 
in  1883  to  1885  overflowed  into  Eastern  Colorado  in  1886  and 
1887.  Kiowa  and  Cheyenne  counties  were  settled  thinly;  Kit 
Carson  county  was  nearly  all  filed  upon — especially  the  eastern 
half  of  it;  the  Idalia  and  the  Vernon  divides  were  settled  thickly — 
all  land  on  the  Vernon  divide  being  filed  upon,  and  all  as  far  west 
as  Kirk  postoffice  on  the  Idalia  divide  being  occupied.  Then,  on 
the  west  of  the  sandhills,  the  country  near  Thurman,  Eindon  and 
Harrisburg  was  all  taken  up.  All  land  near  lines  of  railroad — 
either  real  or  projected — was  taken  also.  Washington  county 
was  thicklv  settled  along  the  B.  &  M.  railroad. 

Successes  and  Failures.  The  years  1888  and  1889  were  quite 
good  years  for  crops,  1890  was  not  so  good,  but  1891  was 
better,  and  in  1892  such  an  immense  crop  was  raised  that  the  set¬ 
tlers  called  the  land  “God’s  country”  and  wondered  why  people 
remained  on  rented  farms  in  the  East  when  so  much  free  land  lay 
out  in  this  region  “only  waiting  to  be  tickled  by  the  skill  of  the 
husbandman  to  yield  bountiful  harvests.”  Then,  people  planned 
large  things  and  went  in  debt  accordingly.  Then  came  the  par¬ 
tial  failure  of  1893,  and  following  this  the  complete  failure  of 
1894.  The  year  1895  was  much  like  1893.  In  1893,  many  left 
the  country.  More  left  in  1894,  and  in  1895  nearly  all  who  could 
get  away,  went.  Those  who  stayed  received  some  help  from 
friends,  and  worked  together  to  help  themselves,  and  in  this  way 
lived  through.  Each  year  since  1895,  they  have  raised  fair  crops. 
But  recognizing  the  fact  that  the  cows  and  the  hens  had  saved 
the  country  from  returning  to  its  old  time  use  as  a  cattle  pastiire, 
the  settlers  have  taken  to  stock  raising,  and  now  the  country  is 
upon  its  proper  feet.  When  the  settlers  first  came  in,  they 
attempted  to  live  by  grain  farming  alone.  They  were  taught  that 
grain  growing  is  not  the  proper  basis  of  successful  agriculture  on 
the  Plains.  They  have  learned  that  farming  without  stock  soon 
impoverishes  the  man  in  this  country.  The  country  is  now  rest¬ 
ing  upon  the  three  legs  which  are  strong  enough  to  sustain  it,  if 
used  intelligently,  through  all  generations.  These  are  stock,  win¬ 
ter  forage  and  summer  pasture.  It  is  possible  that  they  may  use 
some  cows  for  dairying  when  beef  cattle  prices  again  go  as  low  as 
they  were  in  1889-’94.  But  the  cows  are  in  the  country,  and  they 
are  well  distributed  now  so  that  no  one  need  leave  because  he  has 
no  cow  to  tie  to. 


Unirrigated  Lands  of  Eastern  Coeorado. 


9 


•  CROPS  GROWN. 

Sorghum.  Sorghum,  including  the  sweet  and  non-saccharine 
varieties,  is  successfully  grown  without  irrigation  everywhere  in 
the  region  except  on  adobe  soil.  The  average  yield  per  acre  is 
about  one  ton,  taking  a  series  of  years  for  a  test.  Only  the  earli¬ 
est  varieties  produce  seed.  Brown  durra,  Jerusalem  corn,  Yellow 
Milo  Maize  and  some  strains  of  Early  Amber  cane  produce  seed; 
bnt  Red  and  White  Kafir,  Early  Orange,  Colman,  Collier  and  all 
later  varieties  of  cane  and  Kafir  corn  produce  very  little  seed;  bnt 
these  all  give  good  yields  of  fodder.  We  find  more  cane  being 
planted  each  year  we  travel.  The  acreage  of  sorghum  in  a  neigh¬ 
borhood  where  crop  raising  is  attempted  at  all,  is  a  fair  index  to 
the  status  of  the  cattle  raising  industry  there.  In  1900,  very  little 
sorghum  was  planted  on  the  Vernon  divide,  but  in  1902  I  saw 
quite  large  fields  of  it. 

Millet.  This  crop  is  widely  grown,  and  in  some  neighbor¬ 
hoods  is  more  popular  than  sorghum.  It  is  not  nearly  so  sure  a 
crop  as  sorghum,  and  therefore  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  give 
a  crop  every  year  in  all  localities.  It  may  be  just  as  sure  as  sown 
sorghum,  but  is  not  nearly  so  certain  to  produce  a  crop  as  culti¬ 
vated  sorghum.  The  average  yield  of  millet  will  not  exceed  one- 
half  a  ton,  and  it  may  not  be  more  than  one-fourth  of  a  ton  per 
acre,  taking  a  term  of  years  all  over  the  plains  upon  which  to 
base  an  estimate. 

Corn.  Corn  is  grown  as  widely  as  sorghum,  although  it  is 
somewhat  unpopular  in  some  localities.  Over  most  of  the- terri¬ 
tory  a  variety  is  in  use  which  has  been  developed  by  the  condi¬ 
tions  peculiar  to  the  region.  It  is  a  low-growing  Flint  corn.  The 
ears  often  set  on  the  stalks  barely  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  corn  suckers  bountifully,  so  that  if  the  season  is  a  wet  one 
there  will  be  quite  a  bunch  of  stalks  from  the  two  or  three  grains 
planted  in  one  hill.  The  ears  are  long,  and  the  cobs  large.  The 
grains  are  so  hard  that  the  corn  should  be  either  ground  or  soaked 
before  being  fed  to  horses  or  cattle.  Hogs  seem  to  enjoy  grinding 
the  grains,  and  do  well  on  it,  as  it  seems  to  be  especially  rich  in 
protein.  This  variety,  called  Mexican  corn,  is  generally  grown  in 
the  region,  except  on  the  Vernon  and  Idalia  divides,  where  they 
usually  get  better  results  by  growing  Dent  varieties.  Outside  of 
the  Vernon  and  Idalia  divides,  and  the  black  sandy  land,  the  yield 
of  corn  is  hardly  worth  mentioning,  although  some  years  forty 
bushels  per  acre  are  produced.  But  the  price  of  grain  is  usually 
so  high  that  a  very  small  yield  will  pay  for  the  work  of  raising  it, 
and  they  count  upon  getting  fodder  anyway.  The  average  yield 
of  corn  on  the  Vernon  divide  is  probably  twenty  bushels  per  acre. 
On  the  Idalia  divide  it  will  probably  average  fifteen  bushels  in  a 


nm 


Grout  house  of  J.  Schaal,  near  Yale,  Colorado 
Corrals  of  J.  Schaal,  near  Yale,  Colorado. 


Unirrigated  Uands  of  Eastern  Coeorado. 


11 


series  of  years.  Some  years  yields  .are  much  higher  than  these 
figures,  and  some  men  may  have  attained  yields  averaging  much 
above  this  for  a  long  term  of  years,  but  for  the  whole  district 
these  figures  are  not  far  from  correct.  Some  men,  single-handed, 
are  cultivating  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  corn  by  the  use  of 
improved  machinery  and  a  good  supply  of  horses. 

Wheat.  Wheat  growing  as  a  specialty  is  almost  a  thing  of 
the  past  in  Eastern  Colorado.  Men  have  learned  that  planting 
wheat  after  wheat  continuously  does  not  pay.  This  year  we  found 
that  wheat  following  corn  yielded  about  double  what  wheat  follow¬ 
ing  wheat  was  yielding.  This  has  made  corn  growing  more  popu¬ 
lar,  reduced  the  acreage  of  wheat,  and  has  forced  people  to  diversify 
their  crops  and  engage  more  and  more  in  general  farming,  with 
stock  raising  as  a  basis.  The  yield  of  wheat  on  the  Vernon  divide 
averages  about  ten  bushels  per  acre.  On  the  Idalia  divide  the 
average  is  about  eight  bushels.  In  the  remainder  of  the  territory 
wheat  is  so  seldom  threshed  that  it  would  be  unfair  to  publish  any 
estimate,  as  as  high  as  forty  bushels  per  acre  have  been  harvested, 
and  many  years  the  wheat  has  been  cut  for  hay  when  very  fair 
yields  might  have  been  obtained.  In  fact,  during  the  past  five 
years,  wheat  has  been  sown  more  for  hay  in  Kit  Carson  county 
than  for  grain. 

Oats.  Oats  are  sown  for  hay  in  eastern  Kit  Carson  county, 
and  more  or  less  in  all  other  neighborhoods,  except  the  Vernon 
and  Idalia  divides.  On  the  Vernon  divide  oats  average  about 
twenty-five  bushels  per  acre,  and  on  the  Idalia  divide  about  twenty 
bushels. 

Barley.  This  crop  is  not  sown  much  anywhere  in  the  region 
studied.  The  variety  raised  is  one  used  for  feed.  Very  little  is 
sown  outside  the  Vernon  and  Idalia  divides.  There,  the  yield  is 
usually  a  little  better  than  the  yield  of  oats. 

Rye.  Some  early  varieties  of  spring  rye  seem  to  be  gaining 
favor  as  a  hay  crop.  There  was  more  rye  grown  in  1902  than  in 
any  other  year  we  have  traveled  on  the  plains. 

Spelt.  This  grain  is  gaining  favor  also.  In  July,  1902,  I 
saw  a  field  of  fifteen  acres  of  spelt  near  Vernon. 

Trees.  Honey  locust,  black  locust  and  ash  are  the  trees 
which  do  the  best  on  the  Plains,  although  elms  seem  to  do  quite 
well  if  planted  among  other  trees.  The  hackberrv  is  a  native  on 
the  Plains,  but  I  have  never  seen  any  growing  except  near  streams, 
or  where  water  was  close  to  the  surface.  Nearly  all  the  timber 
claims  planted  in  the  early  settlement  of  the  country  have  been 
abandoned.  Just  enough  trees  are  alive  to  show  what  trees  can  be 


12 


Bulletin  77. 


depended  upon  if  given  extra  care.  Upon  this  subject  very  little 
can  be  added  to  what  was  said  in  Bulletin  59. 

Fruit.  Of  the  thousands  of  orchards  planted,  only  a  few  trees 
are  alive  to  show  what  kind  of  fruit  can  be  raised  in  the  country. 
Continued  observation  has  merely  confirmed  the  statements  made 
in  Bulletin  59.  Gooseberries,  native  currants,  plums  and  cherries 
are  reasonably  sure  to  produce  crops  if  given  especial  care.  Apples 
will  give  crops  periodically  if  not  irrigated,  and  if  irrigated  are  as 
sure  as  in  other  localities.  Fruit  gardens  with  facilities  for  irri¬ 
gating  from  wells  are  growing  in  numbers  year  by  year. 

Irrigation  from  Wells.  As  wells  are  from  80  to  260 
feet  deep,  only  very  small  areas  can  be  profitably  irri¬ 
gated  from  them.  Bnt  nearly  every  settler  now  tries  to  have 
a  few  square  rods  of  irrigated  garden  near  the  well.  Some  were 
extremely  successful  and  some  were  failures;  but  each  succeeding 
year  shows  an  increase  in  the  number  of  successful  ones.  If  the 
sun-motor  which  is  now  being  worked  upon  is  ever  perfected,  it 
may  revolutionize  the  problem  of  irrigation  from  deep  wells.  The 
main  problem  will  then  be  to  find  enough  water  underground  to 
supply  the  pumps. 

Irrigation  from  Streams.  A  few  hundred  acres  are  irrigated 
from  each  of  the  main  streams.  Engineers  who  have  made  sur¬ 
veys  claim  that  the  flow  of  the  streams  is  not  sufficient  to  pay  for 
taking  the  water  out  onto  the  flats,  and  the  regular  flow  is  already 
appropriated  for  land  in  the  valleys  anyway.  The  fall  of  the 
country  is  so  great  that  ditches  two  to  five  miles  long  would  carry 
the  water  out  onto  the  flats  most  anywhere  in  their  courses.  If 
irrigation  is  ever  developed  in  this  region,  it  must  be  by  catching 
and  holding  storm  water  for  use.  If  a  system  of  low  dams  for 
turning  the  flood  water  of  these  streams  into  reservoirs  could  be 
built,  beginning  at  the  sources,  5  to  10  per  cent,  might  be  irri¬ 
gated.  But  this  would  involve  a  large  outlay  of  money  and  labor, 
and  it  is  to  be  thought  of  as  a  long  way  in  the  future.  The  coun¬ 
try  is  developing  along  lines  of  least  resistance  now,  and  it  is 
likely  to  continue  in  the  same  way. 

Neighborhoods.  Kiowa,  Cheyenne  and  Kit  Carson  comity, 
south  of  the  Rock  Island  railroad,  are  quite  thinly  settled,  and 
stock  raising  with  very  little  winter  feeding  is  the  rule.  Only  a 
small  quantity  of  this  land  has  been  homesteaded.  Settlers  live 
from  two  to  ten  miles  apart.  When  claims  join,  they  try  to  divide 
the  range.  Along  visible  streams  and  known  underground  water¬ 
courses  the  land  is  usually  all  taken  and  the  stock  range  over  the 
unoccupied  land  on  each  side  of  the  settlement. 


Unirrigated  Uands  of  Eastern  Colorado. 


13 


Kit  Carson  county,  north  of  the  Rock  Island  railroad,  was 
quite  thickly  settled  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  county.  The  settlers 
who  still  live  there  are  from  one  to  five  miles  apart.  At  Yale  post- 
office  there  is  a  small  district  which  is  settled  solidly.  Crop  fail¬ 
ures  in  1893  and  1894  thinned  the  settlement.  In  some  neighbor¬ 
hoods,  the  depopulation  was  made  permanent  by  uncertain  water 
supply.  The  settlers  now  in  Kit  Carson  county  have  settled  down  to 
stock  raising  with  farming  as  a  side  issue.  There  are  still  a  few 
men  who  say  that  they  cannot  afford  to  raise  feed  for  their  cattle 
any  more  than  enough  to  carry  them  through  the  storms. 

Arapahoe  county  on  the  Idalia  divide  as  far  west  as  Kirk 
postoffice  was  all  filed  upon.  Settlement  thinned  in  1893-95  on 
account  of  crop  failures,  but  people  are  still  too  close  together  to 
keep  their  cattle  at  home  during  the  summer.  It  is  the  custom 
to  send  the  cattle  to  the  thinly  settled  districts  for  pasture.  On 
this  divide  wells  are  plentiful,  but  they  are  from  100  to  260  feet 
deep. 

The  Vernon  divide  lost  much  of  its  population  in  1894  and 
1895,  but  has  regained  it  since.  Practically  all  of  the  land  on  this 
divide  is  in  private  hands,  and  unimproved  land  is  selling  at 
$1,000  per  quarter  section.  Except  upon  a  small  area  of  about 
twelve  square  miles  south  and  southeast  of  Vernon,  wells  are  sure 
on  this  divide.  Water  is  found  at  from  90  to  100  feet. 

Eindon  and  Harrisburg  lost  all  population  except  a  few  fam¬ 
ilies.  Within  the  last  two  years  some  good  wells  have  been 
found  in  the  neighborhood,  and  a  few  ranchmen  have  quite  a  num¬ 
ber  of  cattle  in  the  neighborhood  now. 

Near  Akron  and  Yuma,  and  along  the  B.  &  M.  railroad, 
where  nearly  all  the  land  was  once  filed  upon,  settlers  are  from 
two  to  eight  miles  apart  now.  But  there  is  a  tendency  for  new 
settlers  to  crowd  in  there  again. 

THE  LIVE  STOCK  INDUSTRY. 

From  the  nature  of  the  conditions  the  live  stock  industry 
must  always  be  the  main  business  on  the  plains.  The  problem 
before  those  who  would  use  the  country  is:  How  much  stock  can 
be  kept  on  a  specified  area? 

The  methods  of  handling  stock  are  changing  gradually  from 
the  range  system  with  no  feed,  to  feeding  with  winter  shelter.  As 
the  ranges  become  more  crowded,  more  feed  is  used  during  winter. 
Evidence  now  seems  to  show  that  much  of  the  country  will  at 
some  time  be  used  as  a  summer  range  only,  and  the  cattle  will  be 
fed  during  the  winter  in  adjoining  districts  where  crops  of  forage 
are  raised. 

There  is  a  growing  feeling  among  the  wealthier  cattlemen 
that  it  pays  best  to  use  their  ranges  for  the  summer  only,  and  bu 


14 


Bulletin  77. 


young  stock  in  the  spring  to  be  sold  in  the  fall.  Others  are  tak¬ 
ing  up  the  idea  of  producing  forage  on  a  large  scale  so  that  they 
can  feed  all  stock  whenever  it  is  necessary.  Still  others  count 
upon  moving  all  cattle  to  where  there  is  plenty  of  feed  and  hiring 
them  wintered.  It  is  noted  that  farmers  on  the  Vernon  divide 
now  often  take  cattle  to  winter.  But  the  greatest  number  of  cat¬ 
tle  will  undoubtedly  be  raised  by  men  who  own  bunches  of  from 
twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  care  for  them  by  the  work  of  them¬ 
selves  and  their  families.  These  people  can  make  a  living  by 
milking  a  few  cows  when  cattle  are  low  in  price,  and  then  they 
can  turn  the  milk  more  towards  beef  making  when  cattle  are  high. 

My  travels  on  “the  divide”  south  of  Denver  gave  me  some 
idea  of  the  possibilities  of  the  dairy  business  on  the  plains.  Some 
of  the  settlers  on  the  plains  are  now  using  hand  separators  and 
shipping  their  cream.  This  simplifies  dairying  and  leaves  the 
skim  milk  at  home  for  the  calves,  and  at  the  same  time  it  mater¬ 
ially  lessens  the  labor  connected  with  dairying. 

Poultry.  Some  people  have  made  quite  a  success  in  raising 
poultry.  The  sunshine  of  the  plains,  when  combined  with  proper 
feed  and  care,  makes  the  laying  hen  extremely  popular.  The  pro¬ 
duction  of  winter  eggs,  combined  with  winter  dairying,  has  proved 
extremely  profitable  on  a  small  scale  in  a  great  many  cases.  One 
woman  who  kept  accounts  showed  me  a  record  of  100  hens  for  a 
year.  The  eggs  had  given  a  profit  of  one  dollar  per  hen  for  the 
year,  and  she  had  raised  190  chicks  besides.  Another  woman 
raises  several  hundred  chicks  every  year,  using  incubators  and 
brooders.  She  buys  the  eggs  for  hatching  from  her  neighbors  as 
she  keeps  no  roosters.  All  young  roosters  are  sold  when  they 
reach  broiler  size.  The  pullets  are  kept  for  the  production  of 
winter  eggs.  She  raises  mostly  Leghorns.  Of  course,  there  have 
been  many  failures  in  the  poultry  business  on  the  plains  also — 
failures  too  numerous  to  record.  Those  who  succeeded  in  the 
poultry  were  very  careful  hands,  and  they  have  made  a  thorough 
study  of  the  business  from  the  beginning. 

J  O  <75 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

Since  beginning  the  investigations,  the  country  has  been  con¬ 
stantly  improving.  The  houses  built  of  sod  from  sandy  loam  soil 
do  not  usually  stand  much  more  than  fifteen  years,  while  those 
made  of  adobe  soil  last  indefinitely.  However,  the  sod  roofs  soon 
become  leaky  and  need  frequent  replacing.  We  find  many  sod 
roofs  replaced  by  shingle  roofs,  and  it  is  rare  that  the  old  sod  house 
is  replaced  by  a  new  sod  house  nowadays.  In  nearly  all  cases 
wooden  houses  have  taken  the  place  of  the  “soddies”  when  they  be¬ 
came  uninhabitable.  When  first  traveling  over  the  country  in 
1900,  we  found  very  few  who  were  intending  to  stay  in  the  conn- 


Unirrigated  Uands  of  Eastern  Colorado. 


15 


try.  Each  year  we  have  traveled,  we  have  found  more  people  who 
were  improving  their  places  and  deciding  to  stay  and  make  real 
homes  for  themselves.  The  result  is  that  permanent  improve¬ 
ments  are  taking  the  places  of  temporary  makeshifts  which  were 
put  up  to  last  until  the  owners  could  get  away.  And  now,  not  so 
many  places  have  the  “I  want  to  sell  out”  appearance  once  so 
characteristic  of  nearly  all. 

Near  Vernon  and  Wray,  the  farmers  are  becoming  comfort¬ 
ably  fixed.  Many  of  them  are  connected  with  each  other  by  tele¬ 
phones.  Once  last  summer  while  staying  over  night  at  one  of  the 
farms  an  orchestra  was  called  up  and  all  on  the  line  enjoyed  a  very 
entertaining  concert.  This  may  surprise  some  who  think  of  the 
whole  country  as  but  little  better  than  a  desert. 

CULTURE. 

The  practice  of  the  most  successful  farmers  is  to  plant  all 
crops  which  are  cultivated  during  growth  with  a  lister.  The 
harrow  is  often  used  in  cultivating  until  the  plants  are  so  large 
that  it  would  break  them  if  used.  Gang  weed  cutters  are  used 
by  many  for  cultivating  listed  corn  after  it  is  too  large  to  be  culti¬ 
vated  with  a  harrow.  The  ordinary  shovel  cultivator  is  used  for 
the  last  cultivation.  Some  are  listing  their  ground  east  and  west 
in  the  fall  and  listing  again  in  the  spring.  The  fall  listing 
is  done  in  order  to  catch  the  winter  moisture.  The  method 
of  culture  which  is  most  successful  is  the  one  by  which  a  soil 
mulch  is  maintained  throughout  the  growing  season  so  as  to 
prevents  excessive  evaporation.  Very  few  men  prepare  ground  for 
wheat  with  turning  plows.  The  cultivators  and  disk  harrows 
have  been  found  more  satisfactory  in  preparing  ground  for  wheat. 
One  man  claims  good  gains  in  yield  by  listing  his  ground  east  and 
west  in  the  fall  and  discing  in  the  spring.  Sorghum  is  sometimes 
sown,  but  is  much  surer  to  produce  a  crop  if  it  is  planted  with  a 
lister  and  cultivated.  It  has  been  found  that  much  of  the  winter 
moisture  can  be  saved  for  the  crop  by  discing  the  land  in  March. 
Sometimes  this  will  save  a  crop.  Wheat  following  corn  is  now 
giving  the  best  returns  in  wheat  seed.  Wheat  sown  between 
March  1st  and  March  15th  seems  to  give  the  better  average  yields 
than  later  or  earlier  sowing-. 

o 


CONCLUSIONS. 


1.  The  country  is  improving  rapidly. 

2.  The  sod  house  is  disappearing.  In  a  few  years  “soddies” 
are  likely  to  be  rare/except  on  newly  settled  places. 

3.  When  prices  of  cattle  are  low,  the  “dual-purpose”  cow  is 
likely  to  become  prominent,  and  creameries  and  cheese  factories 
will  receive  support  from  the  owners  of  small  herds. 

4.  The  production  of  winter  eggs  should  be  a  good  business 
on  the  plains. 

5.  If  the  country  continues  to  settle  up,  in  a  short  time 
all  stock  must  be  fed  and  sheltered  during  winter. 

6.  The  stock  industry  is  in  a  transition  stage.  Unless 
methods  change,  a  herd  of  more  than  300  cattle  owned  by  one 
person  will  soon  be  rare. 

7.  Sorghum  is  rapidly  gaining  ground  as  a  forage  crop, 
because  it  is  one  of  the  surest  crops  known  where  droughts  are 
common. 

8.  The  number  of  acres  it  takes  to  sustain  a  cow  is  estimated 
at  from  ten  to  thirty.  With  a  large  area  of  carefully  selected  land 
in  drought  resistant  forage  crops  the  number  of  animals  which 
could  be  kept  in  the  country  could  be  increased  considerably. 

9.  The  Vernon  and  Idalia  divides,  especially  the  Vernon 
divide,  must  be  considered  as  farming  districts.  These  communi¬ 
ties  raise  grain  for  sale  practically  every  year,  and  they  can  be 
depended  upon  for  supplies  of  winter  feed  for  cattle  which  graze 
in  the  thinly  settled  neighborhoods  in  the  summer.  Many  farmers 
near  Vernon  now  take  cattle  to  winter,  and  the  evidence  indicates 
an  increase  in  this  business  in  the  future. 

10.  In  all  districts  except  the  Vernon  divide  and  some  parts 
of  the  Idalia  divide,  it  will  probably  pay  best  to  confine  the  farm¬ 
ing  to  raising  rough  feed  for  wintering  stock. 

11.  Stock  raising  must  be  the  basis  of  all  successful  agricul¬ 
tural  efforts  in  this  region,  and  crop  raising  should  be  generally 
attempted  as  an  aid  to  stock  raising. 

12.  Bach  home  can  have  a  few  trees,  which  can  be  kept  in 
good  condition  by  using  the  waste  water. 

13.  Some  men  will  fail  on  the  Plains;  but  we  must  consider 
that  success  or  failure  everywhere  depends  upon  the  man  behind 
the  business. 


Bulletin  78. 


February,  1903. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE 
ARKANSAS  VALLEY. 


BY - 


H.  H.  GRIFFIN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1903. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HAREAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  ROUTT,  -  -  - 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 
Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB, 

Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


Denver, 

TERM 

EXPIRES 

-  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

-  1905 

Denver,  - 

-  1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum,  - 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

Canon  City, 

1911 

Carbondale, 

-  1911 

|  ex-officio . 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


Station  staff. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . Chemist 

"W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S., . Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Horticulturist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON, . Assistant  Entomologist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

1L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN., .  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  ARKANSAS 

VALLEY, 


BY  H.  H.  GRIFFIN. 


There  are  five  factories  in  the  valley  devoted  almost 
exclusively  to  canning  the  tomato.  A  successful  pack  for 
them  means  a  considerable  revenue  to  the  farmers.  The 
production  of  this  crop  has  not  been  attended  with  uni¬ 
form  success.  To  get  the  best  results  has  been  a  perplex¬ 
ing  question,  both  to  the  farmers  and  to  the  factory  opera¬ 
tors.  Poor  success  with  this  crop  cannot  be  ascribed  to 
diseases  or  insect  pests,  for  neither  caused  any  serious 
loss. 

One  complaint  has  been  that  the  vines  would  grow 
large  but  fail  to  set  fruit  in  sufficient  quantity.  Another, 
and  more  prevalent  one,  was  that  the  vines  would  be 
well  filled  with  fruit  but  too  late  to  mature  before 
injurious  frosts.  Most  of  the  time  the  result  has  been 
that  the  major  portion  of  the  growers  were  disappointed 
in  the  returns  from  the  crop,  and  the  factories  have  been 
without  a  sufficient  supply  to  operate  profitably. 

The  writer  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  troubles  of  the 
tomato  growers  were  not  entirely  due  to  difficulties  of 
soil  or  climate,  but  rather  to  the  lack  of  a  well  de¬ 
fined  system  of  propagation  and  cultivation. 

To  throw  some  light  on  this  subject  a  systematic 
study  of  this  crop  was  begun  and  the  results  of  three 
years  work  are  embodied  in  this  bulletin. 

The  tomato  is  a  native  of  tropical  America  where  it 
was  cultivated  by  the  natives  before  the  continent  was 
discovered.  For  many  years  it  was  cultivated  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe  as  an  ornamental  plant.  It  was 
considered  poisonous,  and  went  by  the  name  of  “Love 
Apple.”  It  began  to  be  used  for  food  in  some  places 
about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  but  as  late  as 
1832  it  was  considered  a  curiosity  in  New  England.  The 
value  of  the  crop  in  the  United  States  is  now  several  mil¬ 
lions  of  dollars  annually.  Tomatoes  are  now  put  on  the 


4 


BULLETIN  78. 

market  in  many  forms  and  are  considered  an  indispensi- 
ble  article  of  diet.  About  300,000  acres  are  devoted  to 
the  growth  of  this  crop  in  the  United  States,  and  the  pack 
averages  about  5,500,000  cases. 

Productiveness  of  the  tomato  in  the  northern  states, 
is  largely  a  question  of  early  bearing; — this  is  especially 
true  at  our  altitude,  where  the  season  is  comparatively 
short.  The  plant  will  outlive  the  seasons  of  the  north, 
hence  its  life  is  determined  by  the  contingencies  of  frost 
rather  than  by  any  inherent  limit  of  duration.  It  does 
not  mature  at  our  altitude  and  it  would  probably  continue 
to  bear  for  some  months  if  not  frosted.  It  is  apparent 
that  all  advantage  possible  must  be  taken  of  that  portion 
of  the  season  most  favorable  for  its  fruiting.  That  the 
lack  of  success  in  the  Arkansas  valley  is  not  altogether  a 
matter  of  seasonal  difficulties  is  evident  when  we  com* 
pare  results  with  those  in  northern  Colorado,  one  thous¬ 
and  feet  higher,  where  the  canneries  are  uniformly  success¬ 
ful.  In  some  parts  of  this  district  the  yield  averaged 
fourteen  tons  per  acre  in  1901.  The  product  was  so  large 
that  the  canneries  were  unable  to  handle  the  acreage 
contracted. 

I  have  ample  reason  to  believe  that  aridity  is  an  im¬ 
portant  factor  in  determining  the  yield  of  this  crop.  And 
another  factor,  no  doubt,  is  the  prevalence  of  strong 
winds  or  dashing  rains  at  the  period  when  the  plant  is 
blooming  profusely. 

Dropping  of  the  bloom  is  quite  a  familiar  occurrence. 
Often  whole  clusters  drop,  leaving  not  a  single 
flower  to  produce  fruit.  As  the  tomato  is  a  native  of  a 
warm,  moist  climate,  it  is  apparent  that  dry,  windy  condi¬ 
tions,  followed  by  cold  nights,  are  not  favorable  to  the 
pollenization  of  the  flower  and  the  setting  of  the  fruit. 
For  this  reason  every  possible  advantage  must  be  taken 
of  the  growing  season,  so  that  if  the  bloom  fails  to  set  at 
one  period  there  will  be  ample  time  to  secure  good  results 
later.  This  principle  is  often  well  illustrated  with  the 
cantaloupe;  a  crop  which  there  can  be  no  doubt  is  adapt¬ 
ed  to  this  section.  Cold,  windy  conditions  may  prevent 
the  pollenization  of  the  flowers  for  a  short  period  and  the 
result  is  that  the  fruit  fails  to  set.  This  will  be  notice¬ 
able  during  the  growing  period.  The  yield  is  lessened 
thereby,  and  is  especially  noticeable  if  the  plants  are 
rather  late  ones  so  that  the  shortage  may  not  be  made 
up  by  later  favorable  conditions.  It  is  reasonable  to  as¬ 
sume  that  the  same  condition  holds  true  with  the  tomato. 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  5 

It  is  common  practice  to  plant  the  tomato  on  im¬ 
poverished  land  or  on  land  quite  sandy,  where  it  would 
not  be  expected  to  get  good  returns  from  most  other 
crops.  The  opinion  seems  to  be  wide  spread  that  a  well 
enriched  soil  is  positively  detrimental  to  the  tomato. 

Tomatoes  yielding  six  tons  per  acre  will  take  from 
the  soil  25  lbs.  of  potash,  18  lbs.  of  nitrogen  and  8  lbs.  of 
phosphoric  acid.  The  vines  will  require  34  lbs.,  28  lbs. 
and  4  lbs.  respectively.  A  crop  of  tomatoes  removes 
twice  as  much  potash  and  over  fifty  per  cent,  more  nitro¬ 
gen  than  either  a  crop  of  Irish  or  sweet  potatoes.  Thus 
we  see  that  the  tomato,  contrary  to  opinion,  is  a  gross 
feeder.  It  may  appear  as  composed  mostly  of  water  but 
there  is  an  immense  seed  production  that  demands  con 
siderable  fertility. 

Prof.  Bailey,  of  New  York,  after  experimenting  with 
fertilizers  for  this  crop  a  number  of  years  has  the  follow¬ 
ing  to  say: 

“It  is  a  common  belief  that  the  tomato,  unlike  most  plants,  is 
not  benefitted  by  rich  soil  or  heavy  manuring.  Our  tests  give  uni¬ 
formly  heavier  yields  in  heavily  fertilized  land.  There  is  some  rea¬ 
son  for  the  widespread  belief  to  the  contrary.  Much  may  depend  up¬ 
on  the  soil  and  still  more  upon  the  character  of  the  fertilizer.  It 
should  be  one  quickly  available  to  the  plant.  Fertilizers  that  give  up 
their  substance  late  in  the  season  give  poor  results  because  they  de¬ 
lay  fruitfulness. 

Prof.  Earle,  of  Alabama,  says  there  are  but  few  soils  in 
that  state  rich  enough  to  grow  satisfactory  crops  of  toma¬ 
toes  without  fertilization.  The  following  conclusions  are 
drawn  from  careful  experiments  in  New  Jersey. 

“That  nitrogen  is  an  important  element  in  growing  tomatoes. 
With  sand,  the  increase  in  the  use  of  nitrate  is  nearly  five  times  that 
with  minerals  only.  That  a  full  supply  of  nitrogen  is  more  effective 
on  a  sandy  than  on  a  clay  soil.” 

Growers  of  tomatoes  in  Mississippi  use  on  fairly  good 
land,  400  lbs.  of  cotton  seed  meal,  400  lbs.  of  acid  phos¬ 
phate  and  100  lbs.  of  Kainit  per  acre. 

All  of  the  above  places  have  conditions  naturally 
more  congenial  to  the  tomato  than  are  our  conditions. 
The  season  is  much  longer,  the  nights  warmer  and  yet  we 
see  how  essential  they  consider  it  to  push  the  plant  for¬ 
ward. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  IQOO. 

The  Perfection  and  the  Stone  were  the  varieties  used 
in  the  trials.  The  seed  was  put  in  the  hot-beds 
about  the  first  of  April,  intending  to  have  the  plants 
ready  to  set  in  the  open  field  about  the  10th  of  May.  It 
was  not  the  intention  to  do  any  transplanting.  The  soil 


6 


BULLETIN  78. 

was  as  nearly  uniform  in  quality  as  possible  to  get.  For 
two  years  the  greater  portion  of  it  had  been  fallow,  the 
remainder  in  bluegrass.  No  fertilizer  was  used. 

May  8th,  two  rows,  (one  of  each  variety,)  140  feet 
long  were  planted  to  the  seed  in  open  field.  May  9th  and 
10th  ten  rows,  (five  of  each  variety)  were  set  with  plants 
from  the  hotbed.  They  were  to  receive  treatment  as  fol¬ 
lows:  One  row  to  be  pruned  while  the  plants  were  small; 
one  after  the  plants  were  well  advanced.  The  plants  in 
another  row  were  to  be  transplanted  after  growing  some¬ 
time  in  the  field.  Two  rows  were  to  be  grown  according 
to  usual  practice  as  a  check  upon  the  results.  The  plants 
used  in  this  work  were  of  medium  size,  taken  from  the 
original  bed;  the  kind  of  plants  that  are  commonly  set  in 
this  valley.  May  28th,  one  row  of  each  variety,  was  set 
with  the  same  class  of  plants  for  a  comparison  of  late 
planting. 

We  thus  had  the  following  questions  under  considera¬ 
tion: 

1.  Plants  started  in  the  open  field,  compared  with  plants  set 
from  the  hotbed. 

2.  The  effect  of  early  trimming. 

3.  The  effect  of  late  trimming. 

4.  The  effect  of  transplanting  after  growing  for  a  time  in  the 
field— whether  or  not  it  would  retard  growth  and  hasten  ripening. 

5.  Plants  set  late  in  May  compared  with  those  set  early  in  the 
month. 

The  early  pruning  was  done  June  19th,  28th  and  July 
9th.  The  late  pruning  was  done  August  9th  and  consist¬ 
ed  of  a  shortening  in  of  the  side  shoots  and  tops  of  the 
vines. 

The  Perfection  gave  the  first  ripe  fruit  Augusc  9th, 
from  one  of  the  check  rows.  The  first  ripe  fruit  was  taken 
from  the  Stone  and  from  the  check  row  August  24th. 

The  plants  of  the  Perfection,  set  in  field  May  28th, 
did  not  ripen  fruit  until  September  3rd.  The  other  plant¬ 
ings,  except  seed  in  the  field,  were  yielding  considerable 
fruit  by  the  first  of  September. 

The  following  table  gives  the  yield  per  hill  of  each 

row: 

Perfection.  Stone. 

Lbs.  per  hill.  'Lbs.  per  hill. 

Seed  in  field .  2.6  1.5 

Early  pruning .  3.9  3.1 

Late  pruning .  4.4  3.3 

Field  transplanting .  4.7  3.2 

Late  setting .  3.0  1.4 

Check  row .  4.2  2.7 

A  yield  of  six  tons  per  acre  is  represented  by  about  4.5 
lbs. per  hill. 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  7 

The  Stone  did  not  bear  much  until  the  first  week  in 
September.  All  of  the  plantings  were  then  yielding  ripe 
fruit  except  that  made  May  28th,  which  did  not  bear  un¬ 
til  September  18th. 

It  should  be  noticed  how  uniform  was  the  yield  from 
all  the  plantings  made  early  in  May.  The  plants  set  late 
in  May  yielded  about  the  same  and  commenced  to  bear 
about  the  same  time  as  the  plants  grown  from  seed. 

I  had  under  observation  one  field  in  which  consider¬ 
able  pruning  had  been  done,  but  there  was  no  benefit 
derived. 

The  work  of  the  season  was  intended  to  be  largely  of 
a  preliminary  nature,  the  press  of  other  work  not  enab¬ 
ling  us  to  take  up  the  question  extensively.  It  should  be 
noticed  that  the  work  was  to  test  whether  those  ideas 
popularly  held  were  true,  i.  e. — that  the  plants  grew  too 
much  to  vine  at  the  expense  of  fruit. 

From  the  results  of  the  year  it  was  quite  evident  to 
me  that  a  lessening  of  the  vine  was  of  no  benefit.  It  was 
also  evident  that  late  set  plants  were  of  but  little  value. 

season  of  1 901 . 

The  work  of  this  year  was  along  different  lines  from 
those  of  the  preceding  year. 

It  embraced  two  distinct  lines.  1.  Experimenting 
along  certain  lines  at  the  station.  2.  Observations, 
among  the  growers,  of  the  methods  employed  and  the 
success  obtained. 

The  work  of  the  station  was  planned  as  follows:  (a) 
A  comparison  of  different  classes  of  plants,  also  a  com¬ 
parison  of  the  time  of  setting  in  open  field  as  affecting 
maturity  and  production.  This  included  the  use  of  trans¬ 
planted  plants  (very  stocky,)  set  early  in  open  field. 
Also  plants,  not  transplanted,  set  in  open  field  early  and 
late,  and  plants  produced  from  seed  sown  in  open  field. 
(b)  The  yield  and  maturity  of  plants  compared  when 
grown  on  land  heavily  manured,  (barnyard  manure  well 
rotted,)  with  land  having  no  fertilizer  (c)  Variety  tests. 
The  work  was  badly  handicapped  by  a  hail  storm  on  the 
24th  dav  of  July.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  though  the  re¬ 
sults  for  the  season  would  be  destroyed.  Owing  to  the 
effects  of  the  storm,  only  general  results  can  be  given, 
but  the  facts  are  sufficiently  clear  to  warrant  the  conclu¬ 
sions,  verified  as  they  are  by  the  results  of  others. 

The  seed  of  a  Beauty  tomato  was  sown  in  hotbed 
March  2nd,  and  plants  from  this  sowing  transplanted  to 


8 


BULLETIN  78. 

another  bed  April  13th.  Seed  was  again  put  in  hotbed 
the  last  of  March  to  get  plants  for  later  setting. 

April  19th,  a  planting  of  seed  was  made  in  open  field. 
Irrigation  was  at  once  employed  to  germinate  the  seed 
and  the  plants  were  showing  by  the  30th  of  the  month. 
It  is  not  often  safe  to  have  plants  in  open  field  as  early  as 
this.  This  planting  was  made  on  land  well  enriched  with 
barnyard  manure. 

April  24th,  twenty  very  early  plants  were  set  in  open 
field  on  the  same  land  as  above.  They  were  large, 
lengthy  plants,  what  might  be  called  ‘'leggy.”  May  7th 
and  8th  a  considerable  planting  was  made  of  plants 
from  the  hotbed.  It  consisted  of  transplanted  plants 
(strong  and  stocky,)  set  on  heavily  manured  land.  The 
same  kind  of  plants  were  also  set  on  land  having  no 
fertilizer.  Untransplanted  plants  were  also  set  on  both 
the  fertilized  and  unfertilized  land.  Thus  on  the  ma¬ 
nured  land  were  four  classes  of  plants.  May  3rd,  a  plant¬ 
ing  of  seed  was  made  on  unfertilized  land. 

May  8th,  on  unfertilized  land,  some  very  small  plants 
(smaller  than  those  above  mentioned)  were  set,  and  on 
the  16th  of  May,  still  another  planting  was  made.  About 
one  acre  of  land  was  used  in  these  trials. 

By  June  15th  the  bloom  was  plentiful  and  small  toma¬ 
toes  had  formed  on  the  transplanted  plants  growing  on 
the  manured  land.  By  the  middle  of  June  all  of  the 
plants  on  the  manured  land  were  blooming  well,  but  those 
on  unfertilized  land  contained  but  few  blossoms.  The 
first  fruit  was  picked  July  16th  from  the  transplanted 
plants  growing  on  the  manured  land. 

At  the  time  of  the  hail,  July  24th,  all  of  the  plants, 
except  those  set  May  1 6th,  and  those  grown  from  seed 
planted  May  3rd,  had  set  some  fruit.  Much  the  best  set 
being  on  the  transplanted  vines  on  manured  land. 

The  first  ripe  fruit  from  the  plants  grown  from  seed 
on  manured  land  was  picked  July  29th.  This  was  about 
two  weeks  later  than  from  transplanted  plants.  It  was 
August  23rd  before  any  ripe  fruit  was  taken  from  the 
plants  set  the  1 6th  of  May,  more  than  a  month  later  than 
the  first  ripening.  The  last  of  August  the  plants  on  the 
manured  land  were  yielding  fully  twice  as  much  fruit  as 
those  on  unfertilized  land.  The  early  plants  were  yield¬ 
ing  much  better  than  the  late  ones. 

It  was  the  middle  of  September  before  fruit  in  any 
quantity  was  taken  from  the  plants  grown  from  seed 
planted  May  3rd,  or  from  the  planting  of  May  16th.  Just 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  9 

what  effect  the  hail  may  have  had  upon  the  various  dates 
of  ripening  cannot  be  told.  The  total  yield  of  perfect 
fruit  was  light.  It  was  the  intention  to  have  a  record  of 
each  planting,  but  it  was  found  it  would  reveal  nothing 
owing  to  the  injury  of  so  much  fruit  by  hail. 

Close  observation  was  kept  of  some  tomato  fields, 
especially  of  such  as  were  apt  to  give  some  data  along 
the  lines  we  were  studying. 

March  3rd,  Mr.  J.  H.  Crowley  put  tomato  seed  in 
hotbed  and  transplanted  to  boxes  in  another  bed  April 
2nd.  These  boxes  were  made  of  building  paper  by  cut¬ 
ting  the  desired  size,  folding  and  tying  with  a  string. 
The  boxes  were  left  on  the  plants  when  they  were  put  in 
the  field.  The  plants  were  set  in  open  field  May  14th,  at 
which  time  they  were  more  than  a  foot  in  height  and 
blooming  some.  Part  of  them  were  put  on  land  that  had 
been  fertilized  with  nine  loads  of  sheep  manure  per  acre. 
The  other  portion  was  put  on  the  same  kind  of  soil  but 
having  no  fertilizer.  The  first  ripe  fruit  was  taken  from 
the  vines  on  manured  land  July  4th,  about  three  weeks 
earlier  than  the  others.  Mr.  Crowley  estimates  the  yield 
from  the  manured  land  as  being  about  60  per  cent,  the 
greater.  Wherever  the  manure  was  applied  there  was  an 
immense  benefit,  apparent  in  the  size  of  the  vine  and  the 
amount  of  fruit. 

Messrs.  Fullmer  and  Sanders  had  about  four  acres 
of  tomatoes  on  alfalfa  sod.  They  made  their  first  plant¬ 
ing  in  open  field  about  May  10th.  Some  of  the  plants 
were  potted  but  the  greater  portion  were  from  the  origin¬ 
al  bed.  The  first  ripe  fruit  was  taken  July  8th,  from  the 
potted  plants. 

The  last  week  in  May  another  portion  of  the  field 
was  set  with  plants  from  the  original  bed.  From  this 
planting  the  first  ripe  fruit  was  picked  the  first  week  in 
September.  There  was  a  difference  of  only  three  weeks 
in  the  time  of  putting  the  plants  in  the  field,  yet  there 
was  seven  weeks  difference  in  the  period  of  ripening. 
The  early  planting  yielded  heavily  and  by  the  first  of 
October  was  still  yielding  as  well  as  the  later  planting. 
Thus  we  see  the  tomato  will  bear  a  long  time  if  the  ertil- 
ity  is  present  to  support  the  plant. 

From  the  field  about  40  tons  of  fruit  was  sold,  34  tons 
going  to  the  cannery.  It  was  estimated  that  the  yield 
from  the  first  setting  was  12  tons  per  acre,  and  from  the 
late  setting  8  tons  per  acre. 

The  last  picking  was  made  October  20th,  at  which 


IO  BULLETIN  78. 

time  there  were  immense  quantities  of  green  fruit  on  the 
plants  set  late  in  May.  If  frost  had  come  as  early  as 
usual  these  plants  would  not  have  made  the  returns  they 
did.  This  is  quite  a  striking  example  of  the  benefit  to  be 
derived  from  the  use  of  strong,  early  plants.  This  was 
the  finest  field  of  tomatoes  I  had  yet  seen  in  the  valley. 
If  it  were  true  that  a  heavy  nitrogenous  fertilizing  would 
produce  vine  at  the  expense  of  fruit,  we  would  expect  to 
see  such  results  in  this  instance.  On  the  contrary,  we 
find  this  field  yielding  double,  and  often  treble,  what 
many  other  fields  did  in  the  vicinity. 

Another  striking  example  of  the  benefit  derived  from 
the  use  of  manure  was  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Foster,  Man- 
zanola.  His  land  is  quite  sandy,  consequently  it  gets 
very  hot  during  the  summer.  Part  of  his  tomato  land 
had  been  manured  quite  heavily.  The  same  class  of 
plants  were  used  throughout  and  the  planting  was  done 
at  the  same  time.  The  plants  on  the  manured  land  grew 
large  and  thrifty  and  made  a  good  yield.  Those  on  un¬ 
fertilized  land  were  small,  unthrifty  and  many  blighted. 
The  yield  was  not  sufficient  to  warrant  the  labor  expended. 

season  of  1902. 

This  was  largely  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  1901. 
However,  more  time  was  given  to  observing  the  work  of 
different  growers,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Manzanola. 
Mr.  Barton,  of  the  Manzanola  Canning  Co.,  was  much 
interested  in  the  effort  to  improve  the  industry  and  ex¬ 
tended  many  courtesies. 

The  work  on  the  station  land  comprised  the  following: 

1.  Comparison  of  plants  grown  m  the  field  with  those  from  the 
hotbed. 

2.  Comparing  transplanted  plants  with  those  not  transplanted. 

3.  Comparison  of  land  well  fertilized  with  land  not  fertilized. 

4.  Comparison  of  early  and  late  plants. 

April  26th,  seed  was  sown  in  open  field  on  land  heav¬ 
ily  manured  with  rotted  barnyard  manure.  Speedy  ger¬ 
mination  was  secured.  Adjoining  these  were  set,  on  May 
7th,  thirty-five  long  spindling  plants  taken  from  the  origi¬ 
nal  bed.  They  were  from  a  bed  made  early  in  March. 
Adjoining  these  were  set,  on  the  same  date,  seventy 
plants  taken  from  the  same  bed  but  which  had  been  trans¬ 
planted  a  short  time.  There  was  but  little  difference  in 
the  appearance  of  the  plants  from  the  two  sources.  The 
plants  were  purchased  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
comparison.  Next  to  the  above  were  set  transplanted 
plants  that  were  of  nice  size,  strong  and  stocky.  They 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  I  I 

were  from  a  bed  made  early  in  March  and  transplanted 
to  another  bed  about  the  middle  of  April.  Some  plants 
of  medium  size,  considered  of  medium  quality,  were  taken 
from  the  original  bed  and  set  at  the  same  time  (on  ma¬ 
nured  land)  as  those  above  mentioned.  The  latter  class 
of  plants  were  also  put  on  adjoining  land  that  had  not 
been  fertilized.  The  plantings  to  this  time  comprised 
27,160  square  feet  of  land. 

May  14th,  we  set  in  open  field  some  small  transplant¬ 
ed  plants  together  with  some  from  the  original  bed. 
These  were  small  plants  but  as  good  as  many  that  are 
used  every  year  by  those  growing  for  canneries.  May 
26th,  another  planting  was  made  with  plants  from  the 
original  bed.  These  plantings  were  made  on  land  that 
had  received  no  fertilizer  for  years  and  comprised  six- 
tenths  of  an  acre. 

After  the  setting  of  the  plants,  irrigation  was  given 
two  or  three  times  until  the  plants  were  well  established, 
after  which  they  were  thoroughly  cultivated  and  hoed. 
The  next  irrigation  was  June  1 8th .  It  was  again  irrigated 
commencing  July  15th,  and  the  water  was  last  applied 
the  20th  of  August. 

The  first  ripe  fruit  was  taken  July  25th  from  the 
stocky  transplanted  vines  set  on  the  7th  of  May.  In  a 
few  days  the  purchased  plants  and  the  larger  ones  from 
the  original  bed  were  also  ripening  fruit. 

August  10th,  13  lbs.  of  ripe  fruit  were  picked  from  the 
former  vines,  on  the  20th,  54  lbs.  were  picked  and  on  the 
22nd,  137  lbs.  From  this  time  this  class  of  plants  were 
yielding  in  such  quantity  as  to  warrant  picking  and  de¬ 
livering  to  a  canning  factory.  The  plants  put  in  the  field 
May  14th  were  not  setting  fruit  until  the  last  week  of  July, 
at  about  the  same  time  the  transplanted  plants  on  ma¬ 
nured  land  were  ripening  fruit. 

The  first  to  ripen  of  the  May  14th  planting  was  the 
transplanted  vines,  August  25th.  The  plants  put  out  May 
26th  did  not  ripen  fruit  until  the  first  week  of  September. 

August  25th  a  few  ripe  tomatoes  were  taken  from  the 
plants  grown  from  seed  (planting  of  April  26th.)  As  in 
1901,  plants  grown  in  this  way  ripened  their  fruit  about  the 
same  time  and  yielded  about  the  same  as  late  plants  from 
the  hotbed.  If  the  season  is  favorable  and  the  conditions 
are  such  as  to  push  the  plant,  ripe  fruit  can  be  secured  in 
time  to  get  fair  returns.  The  fruit  picked  from  the  vines 
set  on  May  7th  amounted  to  7,487  lbs.  or,  at  the  rate  of 
about  six  tons  per  acre.  The  greater  portion  was  picked 


12 


BULLETIN  78. 

before  frost  became  severe  enough  to  seriously  injure  the 
fruit.  The  yield  would  have  been  larger  had  the  seed 
been  true  to  name.  It  was  purchased  for  the  Beauty  but 
the  product  resembled  the  Acme  more. 

The  equal  area  set  May  14th,  yielded  only  2,550  lbs., 
or,  at  the  rate  of  4,250  lbs.  per  acre.  The  difference  in  the 
yield  of  the  two  plats  can  be  attributed  to  the  difference  in 
fertility,  the  class  of  plants  used  and  the  time  at  which  they 
were  set.  It  can  be  attributed  mostly  to  the  first  two 
causes,  as  there  was  a  difference  of  only  one  week  in  the 
planting,  but  nearly  a  month  in  the  time  of  ripening. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  yield  was  secured  after  severe 
frost  and  the  fruit  was  more  or  less  injured.  The  results 
are  in  harmony  with  those  secured  by  other  growers. 

A  factory  with  a  considerable  acreage,  similar  to  the 
early  ones,  could  begin  to  pack  by  the  20th  of  Aug¬ 
ust.  September  would  be  well  advanced  before  packing 
could  commence  if  the  acreage  corresponded  to  the  last 
can.  The  tonnage  would  not  be  sufficient  nor  the  quality 
satisfactory.  The  grower  becomes  discouraged  and  is 
slow  to  again  venture  in  the  business,  preferring  to  put 
his  land  to  some  crop  in  which  the  returns  are  greater 
and  surer. 

THE  FIELD  OPERATIONS. 

It  is  difficult  to  draw  conclusions  from  this  work  for 
the  reason  that  in  but  few  cases  can  comparisons  be  drawn. 
The  class  of  plants  used,  the  kind  of  soil,  the  time  of  set¬ 
ting,  attention  given,  and  fertilizer  used,  seldom  enable 
any  comparisons  to  be  drawn.  Hence  it  is  difficult  to  get 
very  much  reliable  information  from  a  vast  amount  of 
this  kind  of  work.  One  little  experiment  where  the  con¬ 
ditions  are  under  control  is  apt  to  be  worth  much  more 
than  the  observation  of  many  conditions  of  which  we 
know  but  little. 

Probably  the  best  crop  of  tomatoes  grown  in  the  val¬ 
ley  this  year  was  that  of  Mr.  H.  W.  Harlow,  near  Man- 
zanola.  From  1%  acres  he  took  18  tons  of  tomatoes. 
The  soil  on  which  the  crop  was  grown  had  supported 
cottonwood  trees  until  two  years  previous.  The  location 
was  in  a  swale,  the  soil  naturally  quite  rich  and  enriched 
by  the  addition  of  much  vegetable  matter  from  the  tree 
leaves,  etc.  The  land  was  fall  plowed  dry,  turning  up  in 
large  prices.  The  planting  was  done  about  the  middle 
of  May  with  plants  from  the  original  bed,  the  plants  were 
of  good  size,  thrifty  and  forced  from  the  start.  Mr.  Har- 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  I  3 

low  states  that  he  replanted  some  missing  hills  in  June 
but  at  picking  time  could  discern  no  difference.  This,  I 
think  can  be  accounted  for  from  the  fact  that  the  vines 
were  extremely  large,  very  closely  planted  together  and 
difficult  to  tell  one  plant  from  another.  The  rows  were 
four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  3%  feet  in  the  row.  One 
plant  occupied  about  14  square  feet  of  land,  hence  an 
acre  contained  about  one-third  more  plants  than  are  or¬ 
dinarily  grown.  The  fruit  was  a  very  fine  specimen  of 
Beauty,  which  augmented  the  yield.  A  portion  of  the 
plants  were  from  seed  saved  by  Mr.  Harlow.  The  vines 
were  so  large  and  so  thickly  covered  the  land  that  the 
first  frosts  did  them  but  little  injury,  in  fact,  rather  aided 
the  ripening.  The  first  delivery  to  the  factory  was  made 
August  27th,  but  the  heaviest  yield  was  from  October 
nth  to  23rd.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  held  was  not  an 
early  one,  which  could  not  be  expected  from  the  class  of 
plants  used.  The  conditions  in  this  held  are  such  that  no 
comparisons  can  be  drawn,  but  it  is  of  interest  by  reason 
of  results  secured. 

The  held  that  gave  the  most  promise  early  in  the 
season  was  one  of  about  14  acres,  most  of  which  was  al¬ 
falfa  sod.  Many  of  the  plants  used  were  grown  as  fol¬ 
lows:  The  seed  was  put  in  hotbed  the  middle  of  Febru¬ 
ary  and  transplanted  to  a  muslin  covered  bed  with  under 
heat  (manure)  in  March.  The  tops  were  clipped  to  make 
the  plants  stocky.  They  were  set  in  open  held  about 
May  10th:  strong  and  stocky  with  a  splendid  root  system. 
Some  of  the  plants  from  the  original  bed  were  also  put 
on  the  alfalfa  sod.  These  were  also  good  plants  with 
good  root  systems.  On  some  cultivated  land  near  by 
some  of  the  late  plants  were  set;  small,  weak  plants  com¬ 
pared  with  the  others.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  water, 
this  held  could  not  get  the  desired  attention.  It  was  in 
an  exposed  location  and  a  severe  wind  about  July  20th, 
did  it  much  damage.  At  this  time  all  of  the  plants  on 
the  alfalfa  sod  were  large  and  thrifty  and  appeared  to  be 
well  set  with  fruit.  The  late  plants  were  small  and  no 
fruit  had  set.  On  August  16th  I  took  particular  note  of 
the  amount  of  fruit  on  the  transplanted  vines  and  those 
not  transplanted,  both  on  alfalfa  sod.  It  was  estimated 
the  former  were  supporting  nearly  twice  as  much  fruit  as 
the  latter.  Ripe  tomatoes  were  picked  from  this  field 
August  1st.  About  the  16th  of  the  month  from  150  to  200 
lbs.  was  being  picked  every  other  day.  Delivery  to  a 
factory  could  have  commenced  by  August  20th.  As  heavy 


14  BULLETIN  78. 

returns  were  being  made  to  the  factory  during  the  last 
week  of  September,  as  at  any  time  during  the  season.  It 
was  one  of  a  few  fields  to  make  its  heaviest  returns  prior 
to  October  1st. 

This  field  suffered  for  water  the  whole  season,  but 
especially  during  the  latter  part  of  July  when  water  was 
demanded  the  most.  It  can  be  truly  said  that  the  scar¬ 
city  of  water  was  responsible  for  the  light  yield  which 
this  field  gave.  The  late  set  plants  gave  no  returns. 
The  comparison  that  could  be  made  here  showed  the 
superiority  of  the  transplanted  plants. 

Another  field,  to  which  particular  attention  was  given, 
was  one  of  about  three  acres  on  very  sandy  land.  About 
two-thirds  of  it  had  been  manured  with  unrotted  sheep 
manure.  The  plants  were  from  the  original  bed  and  of 
fair  size,  set  in  open  field  about  May  20th.  There  was  a 
portion  of  the  field  set  about  two  weeks  later  than  the 
above.  About  July  20th  the  early  plants  on  the  manured 
land  had  considerable  fruit  of  good  size  and  it  was  still 
setting.  The  plants  set  later  were  much  smaller  and  were 
just  commencing  to  form  the  fruit.  By  the  last  week  in 
August  the  vines  on  the  manured  land  were  large  and 
thrifty,  well  set  with  fruit.  They  had  been  yielding  some 
ripe  fruit  for  nearly  a  month.  Delivery  to  the  factory 
was  made  at  the  time  of  opening,  August  25th.  The 
yield  was  30,194  lbs.  besides  much  shipped  to  market. 
The  heaviest  deliveries  were  made  about  September  20th. 
The  vines  on  the  unfertilized  land  gave  much  tne  lighter 
yield  and  were  about  three  weeks  later  ripening.  Water 
was  used  in  abundance  but  this  was  made  necessary  by  so 
much  dry  heating  material  in  the  soil.  As  an  instance  of 
what  early  planting  and  good  plants  will  do,  we  record 
the  following:  The  above  grower  had  a  few  good  plants 
set  in  the  garden  in  April  and  protected  for  a  time  from 
frosts  and  winds.  These  plants  ripened  fruit  July  20th 
and  bore  well  for  the  season. 

Special  mention  might  be  made  of  many  fields  but  it 
will  suffice  to  give  a  general  account  of  results.  In  nearly 
every  instance  when  small  plants  were  set  rather  late  in 
open  field,  and  especially  on  land  given  no  special  prep¬ 
aration,  fruit  formation  did  not  commence  until  about 
July  20th.  From  observation  made  this  season  it  is  found 
that  the  time  required  to  ripen  the  fruit  after  formation 
is  from  forty  to  fifty  days.  This  was  true  of  the  first  fruit 
that  formed.  If  the  forming  of  the  fruit  is  delayed  until 
the  20th  of  July  there  will  be  none  ripe  before  the  first  of 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  TIIE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  I  5 

September  and  the  greater  portion  of  it  will  not  ripen 
until  about  October  ist.  It  can  be  readily  seen  what  an 
advantage  there  is  in  having  the  fruit  ripening  by  the 
last  of  July.  It  means  that  the  heaviest  deliveries  can  be 
made  about  the  middle  of  September,  before  frost  does 
serious  injury  to  the  tomato,  thus  insuring  a  good  uniform 
pack  with  much  less  loss  than  in  the  late  one. 

After  the  middle  of  September,  the  nights  beorin  to 
get  quite  cool  and  usually  the  tomato  ripens  slowly. 

The  results  as  a  whole  indicate  that  soil  conditions 
play  considerable  part  in  tomato  growing.  The  tomato 
seems  to  prefer  a  virgin  soil,  and  a  sandy  soil  is  prefera¬ 
ble  to  a  clay.  Considerable  adobe  is  not  desirable. 

Increase  in  vigor  and  productiveness  evidently  are 
closely  associated  with  careful  handling  and  good  tillage. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  transplanting,  properly 
done  is  invaluable.  Stocky  plants,  vigorous  and  growing 
well  are  better  than  simply  early  plants.  This  was  plainly 
shown  in  our  tests  of  1902.  On  the  other  hand,  trans¬ 
planting  does  not  avail  anything  over  early  plants  well 
grown  unless  the  transplanting  is  done  a  sufficient  time  to 
increase  the  root  system  of  the  plant,  together  with  its 
strength  and  general  vigor. 

Good  healthy  plants  started  medium  early  and  kept 
growing  vigorously  are  preferable  to  early  plants  allowed 
to  get  too  thick  in  the  bed,  which  causes  them  to  become 
spindling  and  stunted  in  their  growth.  They  are  also 
preferable  to  a  transplanted  plant  that  has  been  stunted. 
A  good  tomato  plant,  at  time  of  setting  in  the  field,  is 
one  which  is  stocky  enough  to  hold  the  weight  of  itself, 
together  with  a  considerable  amount  of  dirt,  about  the 
diameter  of  a  lead  pencil  and  6  to  8  inches  in  height.  A 
tall,  weak  plant  is  not  worth  setting.  The  desirable  thing 
to  secure  in  this  country  of  short  seasons  and  cool  nights 
is  a  plant  having  age.  It  stands  to  reason  that  the  older 
the  plant  the  sooner  it  will  commence  to  bear — it  takes 
about  so  long  for  a  plant  to  come  to  the  bearing  age. 
The  most  successful  way  to  accomplish  this  is  by  trans¬ 
planting.  If  this  is  not  done  care  should  be  exercised 
that  the  plants  do  not  become  crowded  and  “leggy”  be¬ 
fore  time  of  setting. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  tomato  will  not  give 
profitable  returns  without  more  care  in  the  selection  of 
seed,  plants  and  soil  than  is  given  most  of  our  staple  crops. 
Special  preparation  must  be  made  for  the  crop.  A  small 
acreage  grown  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  is 


l6  BULLETIN  78. 

worth  more  than  many  times  the  same  amount  put  in  and 
tended  in  a  haphazard  way. 

VARIETIES. 

During  the  season  of  1901  the  writer  had  under  trial 
or  observation  with  different  growers  the  following  varie¬ 
ties:  Magnus,  Success,  Burpee’s  Combination,  Enor¬ 
mous,  New  Large  Early,  Eordhook  First,  Fordhook 
Fancy,  Quarter  Century,  Acme,  Tall  Queen,  Ruby,  Dwarf 
Champion,  Kansas  Standard,  Perfection,  Matchless, 
Truckers’  Favorite  and  Beauty.  Of  this  list  there  are 
but  few  that  seem  to  have  any  merit  for  this  country. 
For  canning  purposes,  where  it  is  necessary  to  combine 
earliness,  appearance,  quality  and  productiveness,  the 
Beauty  easily  takes  the  lead.  The  factories  recommend 
this  variety.  It  is  also  a  splendid  shipper.  The  Acme  is 
a  little  earlier  and  for  early  shipping  to  markets  may  be 
preferred  to  the  Beauty.  The  Fordhook  First  is  also  a 
good  early  shipper.  During  the  past  season  there  was 
much  loss  occasioned  by  the  failure  of  plants  to  bear  fruit 
typical  of  the  Beauty.  It  was  a  great  disappointment  to 
have  the  yield  so  materially  reduced  and  it  was  a  source 
of  loss  both  to  canner  and  grower.  Seed  selection  has 
never  been  given  proper  attention  by  the  growers  and  it 
is  one  reason  why  success  is  not  oftener  obtained.  The 
tomato  is  one  of  the  most  variable  and  inconstant  of  gar¬ 
den  plants.  Authorities  say  that  varieties  of  tomatoes  as 
a  rule  are  short  lived  and  that  ten  years  may  be  consider¬ 
ed  the  profitable  life  of  a  variety.  Many  of  us  are  aware 
that  old  standard  sorts  are  now  extinct. 

To  illustrate  this  I  wish  to  quote  from  Bulletin  32, 
Bailey  &  Lodeman,  (October  1891)  of  the  New  York  Ex¬ 
periment  station,  under  the  heading  of  “Do  varieties  of 
tomatoes  run  out,”  it  has  the  following: 

“For  some  years  it  has  been  apparent  to  the  writer  that  varie¬ 
ties  of  tomatoes  run  out  or  lose  their  distinguishing  characters.  The 
reasons  for  this  loss  of  varietal  character  are  not  necessary  now  to 
discuss.  Crossing,  no  doubt  hastens  it  in  many  cases.  But  it  is 
well  to  state  that  running  out  does  not  mean  deterioration  simply,  but 
disappearance  of  characters  by  whatever  cause.  Studies  of  this 
question  were  made  this  year  by  growing  the  same  variety  from 
many  seedmen.  This  gave  us  an  opportunity  to  determine  if  the 
variety  had  varied  greatly  in  the  course  of  its  history,  or  if  all  seed- 
men  really  sold  the  same  thing  under  a  given  name.  In  order  to  de¬ 
termine  how  long  a  variety  may  persist,  we  selected  Grant  and  Cana¬ 
da  Victor,  which  are  old  varieties;  and  to  find  how  soon  a  variety 
may  depart  from  its  type  we  grew  the  Ignotum.” 

“Grant  was  obtained  from  seven  seedsmen, — all  who  catalogued 
it.  Of  these  seven  samples,  but  two  were  true  Grant  as  the  variety 
was  recognized  years  ago.  The  remaining  five  samples  grew  fruits 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  I  7 

of  various  kinds,  although  somewhat  resembling  the  Grant  type.  It 
may  be  said  that  these  variations  were  due  simply  to  mixing  of  the 
seeds  during  a  number  of  years  by  careless  handling,  but  there  is 
reason  to  suppose  such  is  not  the  case.  The  Grant  has  a  peculiar 
small,  slightly  curled,  light  colored  foliage  and  a  well  marked  up¬ 
ward  habit  of  growth  of  the  young  shoots.  These  characters  appear¬ 
ed  constantly  in  all  the  samples.  The  foliage,  being  less  variable 
than  the  fruit  and  not  an  object  of  selection  by  the  horticulturist,  had 
remained  constant,  while  the  fruit  had  lost  its  character.” 

“Canada  Victor  was  grown  from  ten  seedsmen.  There  were  none 
which  could  be  recognized  as  true  Canada  Victor,  but  they  were  all 
small,  variable,  irregular  and  practically  worthless.  Yet  in  all  the 
samples,  the  peculiar,  slightly  curled  foliage  of  the  Canada  Victor 
was  apparent.” 

“Ignotum  was  obtained  from  fifteen  dealers.  This  variety  was 
first  offered  by  seedsmen  in  1890.  Of  the  fifteen  samples,  eight  gave 
small  and  poor  fruits,  which  were  not  worth  growing  and  could  not 
be  recognized  as  Ignotum  by  any  character.  The  other  samples 
were  fairly  uniform  and  represented  a  medium  type  of  Ignotum. 

“Ignotum  grown  from  one  of  our  own  savings  gave  a  number  of 
plants  which  bore  inferior  fruits,  although  clearly  Ignotum.  It  is 
difficult  to  suppose  that  in  one  season  a  variety  could  so  far  have 
lost  its  characters  that  one-half  the  seedsmen  should  offer  inferior 
stock  of  it.  The  variety  is  well  fixed,  for  in  one  of  our  large  planta¬ 
tions  of  it,  it  was  remarkably  uniform  and  equally  as  good  if  not 
even  better  than  two  years  ago.” 

DISTANCE  TO  PLANT. 

The  vines  should  be  sufficiently  close  to  shade  the 
ground  during  a  portion  of  July  and  August.  The  heat 
and  reflection  of  the  sun  from  our  light  colored  soils  often 
have  an  injurious  effect  upon  the  tomato  plant.  On  well 
fertilized  land  I  would  recommend  that  the  plants  be  set 
about  4  feet  each  way.  That  it  is  none  too  close  we  have 
good  evidence  in  the  field  of  Mr.  Harlow,  previously 
noted.  His  plants  were  even  closer  than  this  and  yet  he 
got  more  fruit  on  one  acre  than  many  secured  on  four 
acres. 

The  sun  and  heat  evidently  cause  physiological  trou¬ 
bles,  which  growers  often  include  under  name  of  blight. 
A  familiar  trouble  of  this  kind  is  a  blackened  condition  of 
the  plant,  or  portion  of  it,  late  in  the  season.  This  is 
quite  prevalent  on  light,  sandy  soils  where  the  plants  are 
small  and  exposed. 

The  trouble  first  manifests  itself  on  the  south-west 
side  of  the  plant.  I  have  never  seen  it  when  the  plants 
were  large  and  covered  the  ground.  The  plants  have 
been  examined  for  fungi  and  bactria  by  competent  per¬ 
sons  but  none  have  been  found  present.  It  seems  to  be 
physiological  trouble  caused  by  excessive  heat.  Blister¬ 
ing  of  the  fruit  is  quite  a  common  occurrence  when  it  is 
exposed  and  is  often  a  source  of  considerable  loss.  It 


l8  BULLETIN  78. 

well  illustrates  what  a  powerful  effect  the  sun  has  upon 
exposed  vegetation. 

Another  disease  is  sometimes  present  which  is  com¬ 
monly  termed  blight.  It  has  been  described  as  caused 
by  bacteria  and  very  much  resembles  the  field  or  south¬ 
ern  tomato  blight.  It  first  manifests  itself  by  the  top 
leaves  folding  together  and  turning  yellow.  It  gradually 
destroys  the  leaves  downward,  the  first  affected  leaves 
dying.  Finally  the  stem  turns  yellow  and  the  plant  slow¬ 
ly  succumbs.  Exposure  to  the  reflection  of  the  sun’s  rays 
from  light  colored  soils  seems  to  favor  its  development. 
Th  is  was  well  illustrated  in  1901,  where  a  grower  had 
trained  about  one  dozen  vines  to  stakes  and  kept  them 
pruned  up  high  according  to  the  practice  in  the  southern 
states.  Every  one  of  these  plants  were  destroyed  by  this 
disease  and  much  of  the  fruit  that  formed  was  blistered. 
By  the  side  of  these  plants  about  one-eighth  of  an  acre 
of  tomatoes  were  set  out  at  the  same  time  but  which  had 
grown  sufficiently  rank  to  cover  the  ground.  There  was 
no  sign  of  the  disease  on  these  plants,  the  fruit  was  not 
injured  and  the  yield  was  good.  This  disease  was  report¬ 
ed  by  the  writer  in  New  Mexico  bulletin  No.  21.  It  was 
found  there  that  the  disease  was  much  worse  on  the  light 
sandy  soils  than  on  the  dark  colored  bottom  lands. 

The  fruit  of  the  tomato  is  occasionly  affected  by  what 
is  commonly  termed  blossom  end  rot.  This  is  a  blacken¬ 
ed  condition  of  the  blossom  end  which  gradually  enlarges 
until  the  tomato  is  destroyed.  There  is  no  efficient  rem¬ 
edy  known.  It  is  possible  that  a  too  free  use  of  irrigation 
water  late  in  the  season  may  increase  it. 

IRRIGATION. 

The  tomato  does  not  require  an  abundance  of  water 
but  it  requires  a  constant  and  uniform  supply.  The  most 
water  should  be  applied  when  the  fruit  is  forming,  when 
the  vines  are  in  bloom  quite  well.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
have  become  established,  only  sufficient  water  should  be 
given  to  keep  them  growing  nicely.  This  is  the  time  the 
cultivator  and  hoe  are  demanded.  The  growth  of  the 
tomato  is  of  a  succulent  nature  and  should  not  be  forced 
too  much  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  in  its  early  stages. 
The  result  of  so  doing  will  be  a  tender  growth  of  a  yellow¬ 
ish  color  instead  of  a  healthy  green,  forming  wood  in¬ 
stead  of  fruit  buds.  If  the  water  is  withheld  until  the 
bloom  is  well  started,  a  plentiful  supply  will  aid  the  set¬ 
ting  and  growth  of  the  fruit.  However,  it  should  not  be 


THE  TOMATO  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  ARKANSAS  VALLEY.  1 9 

applied  too  late,  as  after  the  nights  become  cool  watering 
may  retard  the  ripening. 

In  the  Holbrook  country  this  season  were  some  good 
illustrations  of  the  drouth  resisting  power  of  the  tomato. 
The  last  of  August  I  saw  large  thrifty  vines  that  had  been 
watered  but  twice,  once  at  the  time  of  putting  in  the  field 
and  again  the  first  week  in  August.  Where  the  best  re¬ 
sults  were  secured  the  land  was  very  retentive  of  moisture, 
as  was  also  the  subsoil,  which  furnished  a  small  but  con¬ 
stant  supply.  Some  of  these  fields  gave  promise  of  ripe 
fruit  by  early  September,  yet  tomatoes  were  not  market¬ 
ed  in  quantity  until  about  October  20th. 

INSECTS. 

There  are  two  common  insects  which  trouble  this 
crop  every  year,  viz:  the  tomato  worm,  ( Protoparce  celems ) 
and  /the  corn  or  boll  worm,  ( Heliothis  armigera. )  The 
former  is  very  easily  controlled  by  spraying,  yet  it  is  sur¬ 
prising  how  few  growers  utilize  any  means  of  this  kind, 
but  will  put  in  much  time  destroying  the  worm  by  hand. 
Any  of  the  poisons  as  commonly  used  for  spraying  apple 
trees  will  be  effective  against  this  worm.  The  best  ma¬ 
terial  to  use  is  the  arsenate  of  lead  for  it  will  not  injure 
foliage,  no  matter  in  what  strength  used. 

The  latter  is  the  larva  of  a  night  flying  moth.  There 
is  no  very  successful  way  known  of  controlling  this  insect. 
It  is  sometimes  recommended  to  plant  sweet  corn  near 
the  tomatoes  as  a  trap  crop.  We  tried  this  remedy  this 
year  with  considerable  success.  It  can  be  said  that  those 
growing  near  the  corn  were  nearly  free  from  worms,  while 
those  at  a  distance  were  injured  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Three  successive  plantings  of  corn  should  be  made,  the 
first  at  the  time  the  tomatoes  are  set.  Each  planting 
should  be  disposed  of  before  the  worms  get  large  enough 
to  leave  the  ears.  The  Hazeltine  moth  trap  was  tried 
during  the  season  of  1901  to  note  if  the  extent  of  injury 
could  be  reduced  by  this  means.  The  trap  was  set  two 
or  three  nights  in  a  week  and  the  catch  sent  to  Prof.  Gil¬ 
lette  for  determination.  We  failed  to  catch  a  corn  worm 
moth  during  the  season. 

THE  SAVING  OF  SEED. 

A  few  instances  have  come  under  my  observation 
where  splendid  success  was  obtained  from  the  use  of 
home  grown  seed.  The  fruit  was  large  and  typical  of  the 


20 


BULLETIN  78. 

variety.  A  portion  of  the  crop  grown  by  Mr.  Harlow 
was  from  seed  of  his  own  saving.  Too  often  purchased 
seed  is  not  what  it  is  recommended;  it  may  be  (for  all  the 
purchaser  is  aware)  the  refuse  from  canning  factories. 
It  would  seem  the  wise  thing  for  our  growers  to  save  their 
seed  from  perfect  specimens. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  PLANTS. 

Every  grower  of  tomatoes  should  be  prepared  to 
grow  his  own  plants  and  these  of  the  finest  quality.  By 
so  doing  he  has  the  plants  at  hand  to  put  in  the  field, 
without  any  deterioration  in  quality,  when  the  soil  is 
ready  and  the  water  at  hand.  To  get  the  best  results, 
the  soil  for  the  bed  should  be  prepared  by  composting. 
It  is  not  essential  that  glass  should  be  used,  but  it  is  pref¬ 
erable  for  starting  early  plants.  Canvass  requires  con¬ 
siderable  more  care  and  labor  in  affording  additional  pro¬ 
tection.  Furthermore,  it  requires  considerable  more 
bottom  heat  as  there  is  not  so  much  heat  secured  from 
the  sun.  In  times  of  bad  weather  too  much  shade  may 
be  the  result  with  canvass,  causing  the  plants  to  grow  too 
spindling. 

When  plants  are  started  in  February  or  early  March, 
glass  should  be  used.  Before  they  become  large  enough 
to  crowd  (in  early  April)  they  may  be  shifted  to  a  can¬ 
vass  covered  bed. 


CONCLUSIONS. 

1.  Some  good  crops  have  been  grown  every  year  and  if  proper 
methods  are  employed  good  results  may  be  secured  by  a  large  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  growers  every  year. 

2.  Seed  of  known  quality  must  be  used. 

3.  Proper  selection  of  varieties  is  essential. 

4.  The  plants  must  be  started  early  so  as  to  give  them  age, 
strength  and  a  good  root  system. 

5.  The  plants  should  be  thrifty  and  set  in  open  field  as  early  as 
frost  will  permit. 

6.  Sandy  or  loamy  soil  is  preferable  but  it  should  be  well 
fertilized  with  some  quick  acting  fertilizer;  that  a  virgin  soil  and 
alfalfa  sod  give  good  results. 

7.  A  constant  and  uniform  supply  of  moisture,  but  not  too 
abundant  until  the  blooming  period  is  well  started. 

8.  Close  planting  that  the  ground  may  be  shaded  to  avoid 
injury  to  vine  and  fruit. 

9.  The  tomato  is  a  valuable  crop  with  which  to  subdue  alfalfa 
for  succeeding  crops. 

10.  The  crop  should  be  ready  for  canning  fully  three  weeks 
earlier  than  has  been  the  custom,  thus  insuring  profit  to  the  grower 
and  the  packer. 


Bulletin  79. 


March,  1903. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OK  THK 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


TREATMENT  OF  STINKING  SMUT 

IN  WHEAT. 


JOSEPH  REED. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins.  Colorado. 

1903. 


TREATMENT  OF  STINKING  SMUT  IN  WHEAT. 


BY  JOSEPH  REED.  * 


INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  present  anything 
new  in  the  way  of  preventing  smut  in  wheat.  Many  reme¬ 
dies  have  been  tried,  some  of  them  giving  very  good  results, 
others  giving  poor  results,  and  in  some  cases  the  germinat¬ 
ing  power  of  the  grain  was  destroyed.  While  the  practice 
of  treating  seed  wheat  for  the  prevention  of  stinking  smut 
is  quite  general  in  many  localities,  yet  from  the  many  in¬ 
quiries  that  come  to  the  Experiment  Station  in  regard  to 
smutted  wheat  it  is  evident  that  the  treatment  is  not  under¬ 
stood  by  all.  Some  growers  try  a  good  remedy  but  fail  to 
obtain  good  results  because  they  neglect  an  important  de¬ 
tail.  Others  treat  their  seed  one  year  with  good  results 
while  the  next  year  the  same  treatment  may  prove  a  fail¬ 
ure.  Such  an  experience  is  likely  to  discourage  further 
effort  to  combat  the  disease.  But  it  is  safe  to  say  that  fail¬ 
ure  is  always  due  to  the  remedy  being  improperly  made  or 
applied.  The  evident  good  results  the  first  year  may  have 
been  due  to  a  small  amount  of  diseased  seed  rather  than  to 
the  treatment.  The  second  year  the  disease  was  still  un¬ 
checked  by  the  inefficient  remedy,  and  increased  enough  to 
cause  considerable  loss. 

A  small  amount  of  smut  in  grain  cannot  be  readily  de¬ 
tected.  Many  people  conclude,  therefore,  that  their  seed  is 
free  from  disease  and  so  dispense  with  the  treatment. 
Many  times  a  crop  can  be  grown  without  treatment,  but  on 
the  other  hand  a  better  crop  might  have  been  produced 
from  treated  seed.  At  any  rate  the  farmer  who  treats  his 
seed  is  not  running  any  risk;  he  has  a  cheap  insurance. 

Before  starting  these  experiments  all  available  litera¬ 
ture  on  the  treatment  of  wheat  for  the  prevention  of  smut 

*  A  Senior  Student  in  the  Agricultural  College.  The  experiments 
were  carried  on  with  the  advice  and  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Paddock. 


TREATMENT  OF  STINKING  SMUT  IN  WHEAT. 


'i 


was  consulted.  It  was  found  that  a  great  number  of  reme¬ 
dies  have  been  tried,  but  it  was  hard  to  decide  which  was 
best.  The  object  then  in  view  was  to  obtain  the  best 
remedy  that  was  cheap  and  easy  to  use.  Many  experiments 
have  been  performed  with  the  hot  water  treatment.  This 
is  a  good  remedy  but  it  is  inconvenient  to  use;  the  water 
must  be  at  just  such  a  temperature,  if  below  130  F,  it  will 
not  kill  the  smut,  if  above  140  F,  it  destroys  the  germinat¬ 
ing  power  of  the  gram.  Taking  into  account  the  heating  of 
the  water,  the  cost  of  this  treatment  is  about  as  great  as 
other  remedies  which  give  good  results  and  which  are  much 
easier  to  use. 

Smut  seems  to  be  worse  some  years  than  others.  Some 
experimenters  say  that  this  is  because  of  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  soil,  some  years  being  so  dry  that  all  the 
smut  spores  cannot  germinate.  Varying  amounts  of  moist¬ 
ure  probably  have  an  influence  on  the  disease,  but  since  the 
spores  germinate  with  the  grain  the  smut  will  most  likely 
germinate  if  the  grain  does.  It  is  of  the  authors’  belief  that 
variation  in  the  amount  of  smut  depends  more  upon  the  seed 
that  is  used.  Many  farmers  after  growing  wheat  free  from 
smut  a  few  years  think  it  is  useless  to  treat  and  consequent¬ 
ly  stop,  or  if  they  do  treat,  the  operation  is  carried  out  very 
carelessly;  this  neglect  is  what  gives  the  smut  a  chance,  so 
allowing  the  disease  to  be  more  plentiful  some  years  than 
others. 

Occasional  reports  come  to  the  Department  from  all 
over  Colorado  that  smut  has  destroyed  a  whole  crop  of 
wheat,  and  numerous  cases  where  the  crop  is  badly  affected. 
To  the  unobserving  person  this  gram  looks  as  well  as  any, 
while  it  is  in  the  shock,  but  when  the  threshing  time  comes 
a  large  part  of  the  supposed  grain  is  blown  on  the  straw  pile 
in  the  form  of  smut  spores,  some  of  the  spores  lodge  on  the 
grain,  and  some  pass  out  as  whole  kernels  in  which  the  out¬ 
side  covering  has  not  been  broken  and  is  hauled  off  with 
the  grain. 


STINKING  SMUT  OF  WHEAT. 

( Tilletia  foeteis .) 

Stinking  smut  is  a  fungus  which  destroys  the  kernel  of 
the  wheat.  This  disease  lives  over  winter  in  the  form  of 
spores  which  are  microscopic  in  size,  black  in  color,  and 
globular  in  form.  The  interior  of  the  kernel  is  frequently 
completely  filled  with  a  mass  of  these  spores  and  when  the 
outer  coating  is  broken,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  spores  are 
set  free  and  many  of  them  lodge  on  the  healthy  grains  and 
are  held  by  the  minute  hairs  which  occur  on  .the  kernels  at 
the  end  opposite  the  point  of  attachment. 

The  spores  can  live  through  very  unfavorable  condi¬ 
tions  and  they  germinate  under  the  same  conditions  as  the 
wheat.  The  smut  spores  begin  their  attack  as  soon  as  the 
wheat  grains  have  sprouted.  The  germ  tubes  enter  the 
young  wheat  plant  where  they  appropriate  nourishment  for 
the  development  of  the  smut  plants.  From  this  time  on  the 
two  plants  grow  up  together,  the  smut  growing  in  the  inter¬ 
ior  of  the  wheat  stalk. 

When  the  wheat  stalk  heads  out  and  the  kernels  begin 
to  form,  the  smut  attacks  them  and  absorbs  the  nutritive 
substance  from  the  kernel.  The  smut  then  forms  its  seed¬ 
like  spores  which  live  over  winter,  and  are  produced  only 
in  the  interior  of  the  kernels,  the  glumes  surrounding  the 
kernel  being  unharmed.  This  is  why  smutted  grain  often 
looks  healthy  and  well  developed,  but  sometimes  these 
glumes  surrounding  the  kernel  break  away  at  the  top  and 
spread  out,  thus  giving  the  head  of  wheat  a  ragged  appear¬ 
ance.  It  may  not  be  noticed  that  the  grain  contains  smut 
until  the  shell  of  the  kernel  is  broken  and  the  smut  spores 
are  set  free.  Diseased  kernels  can  usually  be  told,  however, 
in  that  they  are  somewhat  swollen  and  darker  in  color.  It 
is  known  that  one  smutted  kernel  contains  many  thousand 
spores.  When  the  grain  is  threshed  the  spores  are  scat¬ 
tered  all  through  the  grain  and  a  crop  that  has  but  little 
smut  one  year  may  be  nearly  all  smut  the  next  year.  Some 
grain  with  smut  spores  may  fall  on  the  ground  and  come  up 
the  second  year  as  volunteer  grain;  this  is  the  reason  why 
we  have  smut  when  clean  seed  is  planted  if  the  same  ground 
is  seeded  to  wheat. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  smut,  the  Stinking  Smut  and 
Loose  Smut.  "The  Loose  Smut  obtains  its  name  from  the 


TREATMENT  OF  STINKING  SMUT  IN  wltEAT.  5 

loose-like  condition  which  the  smut  is  in  after  the  spores 
are  formed.  In  the  loose  smut  the  whole  head  of  wheat  is 
attacked,  the  glumes  and  all  parts  of  the  head  are  turned 
into  a  mass  of  smut  spores  which  are  often  blown  away  by 
the  wind  before  the  grain  is  cut. 

There  are  two  species  of  Stinking  Smut — Tilletia  joe- 
tens  which  has  the  smooth  spores,  and  Tilletia  tritici  which 
has  spores  with  net-like  ridges  on  the  outer  surface  of  the 
spore  wall.  The  Stinking  Smut  obtains  its  name  from  its 
disagreeable  odor,  a  small  amount  of  it  in  the  grain  spoiling 
the  flour. 

THE  EXTENT  OF  INJURY. 

Stinking  Smut  causes  more  injury  than  is  generally 
supposed.  It  has  been  known  ever  since  the  time  of  the 
early  Greeks,  but  it  has  only  been  within  the  last  ten  years 
that  very  much  work  has  been  done  to  find  a  preventative. 
Investigations  made  at  other  Experiment  Stations  show 
that  the  loss  may  be  from  i  per  cent  to  75  per  cent  of  the 
crop.  This  loss  is  not  altogether  the  loss  of  the  grain,  but 
what  grain  is  saved  can  only  be  ground  up  for  feed,  for  if  it 
contains  15  per  cent  of  smut  it  is  unfit  for  flour.  W.  T. 
Swingle  says:  “There  are  no  accurate  statistics  as  to  the 
amount  of  damage  caused  by  these  smuts.  In  many  locali¬ 
ties  the  loss  is  very  large,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  in 
the  whole  United  States  it  amounts  to  many  million  dollars 
annually.” 

By  treating  the  seed  every  year  this  loss  may  be  pre¬ 
vented.  Smut  will  not  appear  unless  the  spores  are  plant¬ 
ed,  except  what  occurs  on  the  volunteer  grain,  which  is  al¬ 
ready  in  the  field,  caused  by  successive  planting  to  wheat. 

If  a  crop  does  not  contain  smut  one  year  it  is  not  a  sign 
that  the  same  wheat  sown  on  the  same  ground  will  not  be 
diseased  the  next  year,  because  spores  may  be  brought  to 
the  seed  wheat  by  the  threshing  machine,  or  be  carried  by 
the  wind  and  lodged  on  the  grain.  The  only  safe  rule  is  to 
treat  all  seed  every  year.  It  is  possible  to  grow  a  crop  for 
several  years  without  having  smut,  but  in  localities  where  it 
is  common  or  where  it  has  been  and  is  partially  stamped 
out,  the  seed  should  be  treated  every  year. 

METHOD  OF  TREATMENT. 

Two  methods  of  treatment  were  used  in  the  experi¬ 
ment,  soaking  and  sprinkling.  The  grain  that  was  sprinkled 
was  spread  on  a  floor  and  the  solution  sprinkled  on.  The 
grain  was  shoveled  over  and  over  until  all  the  kernels  were 


6  BULLETIN  7Q. 

wet,  care  being  taken  that  no  more  of  the  solution  was  ad¬ 
ded  than  was  required  to  wet  every  kernel.  In  the  soaking 
method  the  grain  was  placed  in  a  tub,  then  the  solution  was 
added  until  the  grain  was  completely  covered.  The  mix¬ 
ture  was  stirred  so  every  kernel  came  in  contact  with  the 
solution  and  all  floating  kernels  were  removed.  The  grain 
was  soaked  different  lengths  of  time,  as  shown  in  the  table 
on  page  5. 

CHARACTER  OF  GRAIN  AND  SOIL. 

In  order  to  give  the  treatment  a  thorough  test  the  worse 
smutted  grain  that  could  be  found  was  used.  It  was  so  bad¬ 
ly  smutted  that  it  had  been  sold  for  hog  feed  and  no  one 
would  think  of  planting  it  to  raise  a  crop  of  wheat.  When 
the  grain  was  placed  in  the  tub  to  be  soaked  the  solution 
was  colored  black  by  the  smut  spores. 

The  soil  upon  which  the  grain  was  planted  raised  a 
crop  of  oats  the  year  before,  and  previous  to  that  time  it 
was  used  for  a  nursery.  The  soil  was  in  very  good  condi¬ 
tion  to  raise  grain,  and  it  certainly  did  not  contain  any  smut 
spores. 

The  ground  was  divided  into  ten  plats  of  equal  size,  the 
first  and  last  plats  were  used  as  checks,  being  planted  with 
untreated  grain.  All  plats  were  seeded  broadcast. 


TREATMENT  OF  GRAIN  AND  RESULTS. 


NO.  OF 
Plats  . 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

v. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 


Treatment. 


Untreated 

Copper  sulphate . Sprinkled. 

Corrosive  sublimate... Soaked . 

Corrosive  sublimate  ..Sprinkled 

Copper  sulphate . Soaked . 

Formalin . Sprinkled 

Potassium  sulphide . Sprinkled 

Copper  sulphate . Soaked . 

Slaked  lime . Mixed . 

Untreated . 


ERCENT  SMUT 
ted  Heads. 

80  i 

4  % 

4  $ 

4  i 
2  i 

1  lb.  to  45  gals . nearly  free 

1  lb.  to  8  gals .  75  % 

.1  lb.  to  24  gals . 12  lirs .  5  $ 

.1.4  lbs.  to  20  lbs .  50  # 

. .  80  $ 


Method.  Strength  of  Time. 
Solution. 


1  lb.  to  4  gals . .• . 

1  lb.  to  50  gals . 10  min 

1  lb.  to  50  gals . 

1  lb.  to  4  gals . 2  min 


DETAILS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  AND  DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 

The  grain  was  treated  March  14,  1902.  When  the 
treatment  was  over,  all  the  grain  excepting  that  treated 
with  slaked  lime,  was  spread  out  on  the  floor  to  dry.  The 
lime  and  the  wheat  were  well  mixed  and  then  placed  in  a 
conical  shaped  pile  until  planted.  Three  persons  carefully 
estimated  the  percent  of  smut  in  the  various  plats. 

Plat  No.  1,  Was  planted  with  untreated  seed.  This 
showed  that  the  seed  was  extremely  smutty  as  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  heads  were  diseased. 


TREATMENT  OF  STINKING  SMUT  IN  WHEAT.  7 

Plat  No.  II,  planted  with  grain  sprinkled  with  copper 
sulphate  in  proportion  of  one  pound  copper  sulphate  to  four 
gallons  of  water;  this  gave  the  solution  a  dark  blue  color. 
One-half  of  one  per  cent,  was  the  result.  This  result  is 
much  better  than  could  be  expected  from  the  seed  used. 

Plat  No.  III.  Planted  with  grain  soaked  ten  minutes 
in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  This  gave  one-half  of  one 
per  cent,  of  the  grain  diseased. 

Plat  No.  IV.  Planted  with  grain  sprinkled  with  corros¬ 
ive  sublimate  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water,  this  gave  the  results  of  one-half  of  one  per  cent, 
of  the  grain  diseased.  These  results  prove  that  sprinkling 
is  as  good  a  method  of  treating  as  soaking. 

Plat  No.  V.  Planted  with  grain  soaked  two  minutes  in 
a  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  in  proportion  of  one  pound 
copper  sulphate  to  four  gallons  of  water,  giving  results  of 
one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  grain  diseased. 

Plat  No.  VI.  Planted  with  grain  sprinkled  with  a  solu¬ 
tion  of  formalin  in  proportion  of  one  pound  formalin  to 
forty-five  gallons  of  water.  Scarcely  a  smutted  head  could 
be  found  in  the  plat.  This  result  not  only  shows  that  for¬ 
malin  is  a  good  remedy,  but  it  also  shows  that  the  sprink¬ 
ling  method  can  be  depended  upon. 

Plat  No.  VII.  Planted  with  grain  sprinkled  with  a 
solution  of  potassium  sulphide  in  proportion  of  one  pound 
to  eight  gallons  of  water.  This  gave  very  poor  results, 
seventy-five  per  cent.  smut.  The  solution  was  probably  a 
little  weak,  but  the  result  obtained  shows  that  it  could  hard¬ 
ly  be  made  strong  enough  to  be  a  complete  prevention. 

Plat  No.  VIII.  Grain  soaked  12  hours  in  a^weak  solu¬ 
tion  of  copper  sulphate,  one  pound  to  twenty-four  gallons 
of  water.  Result  five  per  cent,  of  diseased  wheat. 

Plat  No.  IX.  Planted  with|]grain  mixed  with  slaked 
lime  in  proportion  of  one-fourth  pound  lime  to  twenty 
pounds  of  grain,  this  gave  poor  results,  fifty  per  'cent.  smut. 
With  the  use  of  any  more  lime  the  grain  could  not  be  sown 
evenly. 

Plat  No.  X.  Planted  with  untreated  grain,  the  results 
of  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  grain  diseased. 


8 


BULLETIN  79. 


SUMMARY. 

I.  The  results  obtained  in  these  experiments  are  re¬ 
markable  because  the  seed  used  was  so  badly  diseased.  No 
one  would  think  of  using  such  grain  for  seed.  With  ordi¬ 
nary  seed  the  treatments  that  gave  the  best  results,  would 
insure  a  crop  entirely  free  from  smut. 

II.  The  sprinkling  method  proves  to  be  as  effective  as 
the  soaking  method. 

III.  Copper  sulphate,  corrosive  sublimate  and  forma¬ 
lin  prove  to  be  efficient  remedies. 

IV.  Copper  sulphate  in  a  weak  solution  will  not  do 
good  work  even  when  allowed  to  soak  a  long  time,  twelve 
hours  for  instance. 

V.  Potassium  sulphide  is  a  very  poor  remedy  for  smut 
besides  being  expensive. 

VI.  Sprinkling  with  copper  sulphate  is  recommended  to 
be  the  best  remedy.  Solution,  one  pound  of  copper  sul¬ 
phate  to  four  gallons  of  water.  It  is  the  cheapest,  the 
handiest  to  use  and  gives  as  good  results  as  any  treatment 
tried. 

VII.  The  smut  is  planted  with  the  grain  and  germi¬ 
nates  at  the  same  time.  If  the  seed  is  free  from  smut  then 
the  crop  will  be  unless  volunteer  grain  comes  up  in 
the  field. 

VIII.  To  treat  the  grain  by  the  sprinkling  method, 
place  the  grain  in  a  bin  large  enough  so  the  grain  can  be 
shoveled  from  one  side  to  the  other.  Sprinkle  the  solution 
on  with  a  common  watering  pot  and  at  the  same  time  keep 
shoveling  the  grain  over  and  over.  When  the  kernels  are 
all  wet  the  treatment  is  finished,  but  great  pains  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  work  is  thoroughly  done. 

IX.  Because  the  grain  is  clean  one  year  do  not  run  the 
risk  of  its  being  free  from  smut  the  next,  but  treat  every 
year. 

X.  The  grain  should  not*be  treated  very  long  before 
it  is  planted  because  it  will  start  growing.  After  treatment 
it  should  be  allowed  free  circulation  of  air  so  that  it  will  dry 
quickly. 

XI.  The  sprinkling  method  is  by  far  the  quickest  and 
easiest  method.  If  the  user  does  not  have  a  floor  to  spread 
the  grain  out  while  treating,  a  canvass,  or  any  large  cloth 
can  be  used. 


Bulletin  80. 


March,  1903. 

'  M 

- 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


Laying  Down  of  Peach  Trees. 


—  BY— 


WENDELL  PADDOCK. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1903. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Term 

Expires 

Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President ,  -  Denver,  -  -  1905 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  -----  Fort  Collins,  -  1905 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS,  -  Denver,  -  -  1907 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT,  -----  Denver,  -  -  1907 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  -  Gypsum,  -  -  1909 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE,  -------  Rockyford,  -  1909 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOVV,  -  -  -  Canon  City,  -  -  1911 

Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB,  -  -  -  -  Carbondale,  -  1911 


Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


ex-officio. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  IN  CHARGE. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director ,  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S.,  - . -  Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.M.,  Ph.  D..  -  -----  Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Horticulturist 
EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  .  .  .  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


Officers. 

K 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY.  ----------  Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN, . Stenographer  and 'Clerk 


Laying  Down  of  Peach  Trees. 


By  WENDELL  PADDOCK. 

Peach  growing,  from  a  commercial  standpoint  in  Colorado, 
is  largely  confined  to  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains.  The 
trees  find  a  congenial  home  in  many  localities  in  several  counties, 
consequently  large  areas  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
fruit.  Peaches  have  been  extensively  tested  in  various  fruit  sec¬ 
tions  east  of  the  mountains,  and  in  the  Arkansas  Valley  in  particu¬ 
lar  an  occasional  fine  crop  is  produced.  Indeed  some  of  the  best 
exhibits  at  the  State  Fair  last  fall,  were  grown  in  this  section. 
But  in  four  years  out  of  five,  perhaps,  late  spring  frosts  or  ex¬ 
treme  cold  in  winter  destroy  the  buds.  North  of  the  Valley, 
peaches  are  rarely  produced  unless  the  trees  are  protected  in  some 
manner. 

This  experience,  when  success  was  just  within  reach,  stimu¬ 
lated  the  growers  in  their  efforts  to  overcome  climatic  conditions. 
Various  devices  were  tried  for  protecting  the  trees  during  the 
winter  and  spring.  These  included  wrapping  the  trees  with  cloth 
or  covering  with  corn  stalks,  evergreen  boughs,  boards  and,  in 
fact,  most  anything  that  was  at  hand  that  might  afford  protection, 
but  after  several  years  trial,  these  methods  were  found  to  be  of 
little  use.  In  the  fall  of  1896,  Hon.  W.  B.  Felton,  of  Canon  City, 
began  experimenting  with  laying  trees  down,  using  two  trees  in  this 
first  trial.  Mr.  Felton  was  closely  followed  in  this  work  by  Mr. 
C.  C.  Rickard,  also  of  Canon  City,  and  to  these  two  men  belong 
the  credit  of  working  out  this  system  of  protecting  trees  in  Colo¬ 
rado.  And,  in  fact,  after  a  rather  hasty  consultation  of  horticul¬ 
tural  literature,  I  do  not  find  any  record  of  this  method  of  protect¬ 
ing  trees  having  been  tried  at  an  earlier  date. 

From  this  modest  beginning  an  industry  has  sprung  that  is 
now  assuming  no  mean  proportions  in  that  vicinity.  A  large 
number  of  fruit  growers  have  planted  peach  trees  varying  from  a 
few  to  several  hundred  in  number.  Mr.  Rickard  is,  perhaps,  still 
the  largest  grower,  having  now  1,000  trees  in  bearing. 

The  method  of  planting  an  orchard  with  the  intention  of 
laying  the  trees  down  during  the  winter,  does  not  differ  materially 
from  that  which  is  ordinarily  observed.  Some,  however,  claim 
that  when  the  tree  is  planted  the  roots  should  be  spread  out  on 


Fig.  1.  Tliree-year-old  tree  in  full  bloom. 


Fig.  2.  Mr.  C.  C.  Rickard  in  his  ten-year-old  orchard 


Laying  Down  of  Peach  Trees. 


5 


either  side  of  the  tree  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it 
is  to  be  laid  down.  Mr.  Rickard  pays  no  attention  to  placing  the 
roots,  claiming  that  in  a  few  years  the  roots  spread  so  that  any 
evidence  of  training  is  lost.  Others  make  a  point  of  setting  the 
trees  close  enough  in  the  row  so  that  when  laid  down  the  tops  of 
one  tree  shall  overlap  the  base  of  another.  The  roots  are  thus 
•  afforded  protection  as  well  as  the  tops. 

The  following  data  furnished  by  Mr.  Rickard  is  given  in 
detail  as  it  represents  the  experience,  not  only  of  the  largest 
grower,  but  of  one  who  has  had  the  longest  experience  in  this 
method  of  growing  peaches.  As  is  true  with  many  horticultural 
operations,  there  are  different  ways  of  doing  the  same  thing,  con¬ 
sequently  other  growers  differ  with  these  instructions  in  points  of 
minor  detail,  but  in  general,  the  process  must  be  the  same. 

Yearling  trees  are  set  in  the  spring  and  they  should  be  laid 
down  the  first  winter,  repeating  the  process  each  season  during 
the  life  of  the  tree.  In  this  instance  no  attention  is  given  to 
training  or  placing  the  roots.  As  soon  as  the  trees  have  shed 
their  leaves  and  the  wood  is  well  ripened,  they  are  ready  for  win¬ 
ter  quarters.  This  is  usually  in  the  fore  part  of  November,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Canon  City.  The  first  step  in  the  operation  consists  in 
removing  the  earth  from  a  circle  about  four  feet  in  diameter 
around  the  tree.  When  sufficient  trees  have  been  treated  in  this 
manner  to  make  the  work  progress  advantageously,  water  is 
turned  into  the  hollows.  After  the  ground  has  become  saturated 
the  trees  are  worked  back  and  forth  and  the  water  follows  the 
roots,  loosening  the  soil  around  them  so  that  they  are  pushed  over 
in  the  direction  that  offers  the  least  resistance.  When  treated  in 
this  manner  the  trees  go  over  easily  and  with  comparatively  little 
injury  to  the  root  system.  That  is,  providing  the  trees  have  been 
laid  down  each  year.  It  is  difficult  to  handle  old  trees  in  this 
manner  that  have  never  been  laid  down,  and  usually  it  will  not 
pay  to  try. 

After  the  trees  are  on  the  ground,  further  work  should  be 
delayed  until  the  ground  has  dried  sufficiently  to  admit  of  ease 
in  walking,  and  in  the  handling  of  the  dirt.  The  limbs  may  now 
be  brought  together  with  a  cord,  and  so  lessen  the  work  of 
covering. 

After  experimenting  with  many  kinds  of  coverings,  burlap 
held  in  place  with  earth  has  proved  the  most  satisfactory.  The 
burlap  is  spread  out  over  the  prostrate  tree  top,  as  shown  in  the 
photographs,  taking  special  pains  to  protect  the  blossom  buds 
from  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  earth  covering.  A  light 
layer  of  earth  is  now  thrown  over  the  tree  and  the  protection  is 
complete. 

The  critical  time  in  growing  peaches  by  this  method  is  in  the 
spring  when  growing  weather  begins.  Close  watch  must  be  kept 


Bulletin  80. 


6 

to  see  that  the  blossoms  do  not  open  prematurely,  or  that  the 
branch  buds  are  not  forced  into  tender,  white  growth.  When  the 
blossom  bnds  begin  to  open,  the  covering  should  be  loosened  so  as 
to  admit  light  and  air,  but  it  should  not  all  be  removed.  More  of 
the  covering  should  be  removed  as  the  weather  gets  warmer,  but 
the  blossoms  must  be  exposed  to  the  sun  gradually. 

Air  and  light  are,  of  course,  necessary  for  proper  fertilization 
of  the  flowers,  but  after  this  process  is  complete  and  the  fruit  is 
set,  all  danger  from  the  weather  is  considered  as  being  over.  The 
trees  are  usually  raised  about  the  middle  of  May  at  Canon  City. 

Raising  the  trees  is,  of  course,  a  simple  task.  The  ground  is 
again  watered  and  when  wet  enough  the  trees  are  raised.  To  be 
sure,  trees  that  have  been  treated  in  this  manner  will  not  usually 
stand  upright  unsupported.  Consequently  they  are  propped  up  at 
an  angle,  usually  two  props  being  required  to  keep  the  wind  from 
swaying  them. 

When  this  method  of  growing  peaches  was  first  presented  be¬ 
fore  the  State  Horticultural  Society  by  Senator  Felton,  it  was  re¬ 
ceived  with  not  a  little  sarcasm  by  some  of  the  members,  but  the 
practicability  of  laying  down  trees  is  now  no  longer  questioned. 
The  constantly  increasing  acreage  of  peaches  at  Canon  City  proves 
that  it  pays.  The  actual  expense  is,  of  course,  difficult  to  esti¬ 
mate,  because  of  the  attention  required  in  the  spring.  The  cost  of 
the  fall  work  can  be  estimated,  however,  as  it  has  been  found  that 
two  men  will  lay  down  and  cover  twenty-five  of  the  largest  trees 
in  a  day. 

This  process  seems  to  be  in  no  way  detrimental  to  the  health 
of  the  trees,  since  they  live  as  long  and  bear  as  much  fruit  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  size  of  the  top  as  those  grown  in  peach  sections.  It  is, 
of  course,  necessary  to  cut  out  the  wide  spreading  branches  and 
thus  reduce  the  size  of  the  top  in  order  to  lessen  the  work  of 
covering. 

The  following  is  the  record  of  yields  as  given  by  Mr. Rickard: 
In  1902,  150  ten-year-old  trees  and  350  nine-year-old  trees  pro¬ 
duced  fifteen  tons  of  fruit,  or  at  the  rate  of  60  pounds  per  tree. 
In  1901  the  yield  was  almost  the  same,  but  in  1900,  20  tons,  or  80 
pounds  of  fruit  per  tree  was  secured. 

The  marketing  of  peaches  grown  on  this  farm  has  thus  far 
been  a  simple  matter,  as  most  of  the  fruit  is  sold  at  the  orchard, 
and  at  prices  ranging  from  3  cents  a  pound  for  culls  to  10  cents 
for  fancy  stock,  the  average  price  being  6  cents  a  pound.  So  long 
as  the  fruit  can  be  sold  in  this  way  the  expense  of  packages  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

But  how  about  growing  peaches  in  this  manner  north  of  the 
Arkansas  Valley?  Can  it  be  done?  Most  assuredly  it  can,  and  it 
is  done  every  year,  but  only  in  a  small  way,  and  the  trees  are  so 
few  and  in  such  widely  separated  neighborhoods  that  they  attract 


Appearance  of  same  row  on  April  25  and  on  September  20. 
Orchard  of  J.  J.  Lewis,  Canon  City. 


8 


Bulletin  80. 


little  attention.  The  ’most  successful  attempt  of  which  I  know 
has  been  made  at  Berthoud,  a  town  50  miles  north  of  Denver,  by 
M.  H.  Warfle.  Mr.  Warfle’s  experience  is  summed  np  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  paragraph: 

I  have  thirty  peach  trees.  In  1901,  the  second  year  after  planting,  I  had 
about  twenty -five  boxes  of  fruit.  In  1902,  fifty  boxes,  and  the  outlook  is  good  for 
a  big  crop  this  year.  The  varieties  I  grow  are  Alexander,  Triumph,  Mountain 
Rose,  Bakara  No.  3  and  Elberta.  Any  good  variety  will  do  well  if  they  are  laid 
down. 

These  few  pages  are  written  not  with  the  idea  of  presenting 
anything  new,  but  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  peaches  can 
be  grown  with  a  certain  amount  of  profit  in  most  of  our  fruit 
growing  regions.  But  the  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  a  home 
supply  of  this  luscious  fruit  should  not  be  underestimated.  The 
peaches  grown  at  Canon  City  always  command  a  higher  price  on 
the  home  market  because  they  are  of  better  quality  when  allowed 
to  ripen  on  the  tree.  Those  that  are  shipped  in  must  be  picked 
before  fully  ripe  in  order  to  stand  transportation. 

In  many  parts  of  the  state  the  price  of  peaches  is  so  great 
that  many  families  are  compelled  to  do  without.  But  by  using 
this  method  of  laying  down  the  trees,  as  worked  out  by  the  pio¬ 
neer  truit  growers  of  Canon  City,  the  small  land  holder  can  pro¬ 
vide  his  family  with  peaches  of  much  better  quality  than  can  be 
bought  on  the  market,  and  with  little  expense. 


LIBRARY 

t(a,  OF  THE 

UMVERSITy  efJLUKGIS 


Bulletin  81.  March,  1903. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


Onion  Growing 


In  the  Cache  a  la  Poudre  Valley. 


— BY— 


WENDELL  PADDOCK. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1903. 


Plate  I.  Three  hundred  and  twenty  sacks  per  acre. 


Onion  Growing  in  the  Cache  a  la 

Poudre  Valley. 


By  WENDELL  PADDOCK. 

Colorado  is  remarkable  for  its  special  crops  which  have  been 
developed  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  certain  localities. 
And  of  these,  few  have  attracted  more  attention  than  onion  grow¬ 
ing  in  the  Cache  a  la  Pondre  valley.  As  early  as  1880  a  few 
gardeners  in  the  vicinity  of  Baporte,  began  to  grow  more  onions 
than  were  required  to  meet  the  local  demand.  Much  of  the  sur¬ 
plus  was  hauled  by  wagon  to  Cheyenne,  Wyoming,  or  it  was  dis¬ 
posed  of  to  ranchmen,  and  in  small  towns  where  there  was  no 
local  supply.  At  this  time  onions  brought  from  $1.75  to  $1.90 
per  hundred  pounds.  Commission  men  from  Greeley  were  not 
slow  to  recognize  in  this  crop  a  valuable  means  of  supplementing 
the  sale  of  potatoes.  These  men  soon  became  the  principal 
buyers.  With  the  advent  of  the  commission  men,  the  acreage 
devoted  to  this  crop  increased  rapidly,  until  now  onions  are  grown 
in  varying  amounts  on  the  bottom  lands  adjacent  to  the  river 
from  the  foot  hills  to  its  junction  with  the  Platte  at  Greeley,  a 
distance  of  forty  miles;  the  territory  adjacent  to  Fort  Collins 
still  continuing  to  grow  the  largest  acreage. 

While  the  price  of  onions  has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
()5c  to  75c  per  hundred  pounds  being  the  average  price  in  the  fall, 
yet  the  crop  is  usually  a  paying  one.  Owners  of  small  tracts  of 
land  find  it  profitable  to  put  in  small  patches  of  the  best  soil,  and 
perhaps  the  larger  part  of  the  onions  is  grown  in  this  way.  But 
occasionally  a  twenty-five-acre  field  is  seen,  and  ten-acre  fields  of 
onions  are  not  at  all  uncommon. 

Soils.  The  onion  thrives  best  in  a  cool,  moist  soil,  the  sur¬ 
face  of  which  is  easily  kept  in  a  mellow  condition.  Such  soils 
are  mostly  confined  to  river  bottoms,  and  they  contain  more  vege¬ 
table  matter  and  more  sand  than  is  commonly  found  in  Colorado 
soils.  Barge  amounts  of  decayed  vegetable  matter  seem  to  be 
essential  to  the  best  development  of  this  crop.  Many  of  the  best 
onion  districts  in  the  Hast,  as  well  as  in  California,  are  located  on 
reclaimed  swamp  land.  One  very  important  effect  of  the  vege¬ 
table  matter  is  that  it  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil, 


4 


Bulletin  81. 


and  if  this  is  combined  with  a  certain  amount  of  sand  a  loam  is 
formed  that  is  easily  made  into  the  proverbial  onion  bed. 

Heavier  soils  are  not  suitable  for  onion  growing,  for  the 
following  reasons:  It  is  difficult  to  make  a  good  seed  bed,  free 
from  lumps.  The  seeds  do  not  germinate  quickly  and  the  young 
plants  are  fragile,  consequently  much  damage  is  done  if  the  ground 
bakes  or  cracks,  as  it  is  liable  to  .do,  before  the  plants  come  up. 
Germination  may  be  seriously  interfered  with,  or  the  young  plants 
killed  or  injured  so  that  their  development  is  checked.  Such  soils 
are  difficult  to  cultivate,  especially  when  the  plants  are  small,  and 
after  irrigation  is  begun  the  tendency  to  bake  is  greatly  augmented. 
The  percentage  of  scallions,  or  thick-necked  onions,  is  much 
greater  on  such  soils. 

The  onion  plant  is  a  surface  feeder,  consequently  it  must 
have  an  abundant  supply  of  readily  available  plant  food  in  the 
surface  soil.  If  the  ground  is  compact  the  roots  cannot  nourish 
the  plant  properly,  even  though  plant  food  is  abundant.  Then, 
too,  the  bulb  must  be  free  to  expand  naturally  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  which  it  can  only  do  when  the  soil  is  loose.  If  the 
soil  is  compact,  development  is  arrested  and  the  onions  are  small 
and  many  scallions  are  formed.  Many  onions  are  grown  on  soils 
that  are  heavier  than  is  desirable,  but  special  care  is  taken  in  irri¬ 
gation  and  cultivation. 

Preparation  of  Land.  In  preparing  land  for  onion  growing, 
the  growers  are  divided  in  their  opinions  and  practice  in  regard  to 
spring  and  fall  plowing.  Perhaps  the  majority  plow  in  the  spring 
or  late  winter.  Fall  plowing  has  advantages  for  certain  soils,  as 
it  tends  to  kill  out  weeds,  such  as  wild  oats,  and  if  the  ground  is 
inclined  to  be  lumpy  the  action  of  frost  tends  to  reduce  the  lumps 
and  thus  much  time  and  labor  is  saved. 

After  the  ground  is  plowed  it  must  be  harrowed  and  "gone 
over  with  a  clod  crusher  until  it  is  in  a  fine  state  of  tilth.  Ground 
as  ordinarily  prepared  for  wheat  will  not  do  for  onions.  After  the 
soil  has  been  thoroughly  prepared  the  surface  must  be  leveled  so 
that  there  will  be  no  possibility  of  water  standing  on  any  portion 
of  the  field. 

Fertilizing.  Rotation  is  not  usually  practiced,  the  same  land 
being  planted  to  onions  for  several  years  in  succession.  Com¬ 
paratively  large  amounts  of  manure  are  required  to  keep  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  under  these  conditions.  The  practice  of  some 
growers  is  to  apply  from  30  to  40  tons  of  sheep  or  horse  manure 
per  acre  once  in  two  years,  while  others  make  a  similar  appli¬ 
cation  every  three  years.  Of  the  two  kinds,  sheep  manure  is  pre¬ 
ferred.  Commercial  fertilizers  have  probably  not  been  tried  in 
this  valley. 


Plate  II.  Single  row  system  of  planting. 


Bulletin  81. 


6 


Seeding.  Seeding  is  begun  as  early  as  March  15,  and  is  con¬ 
tinued  as  late  as  April  20,  though  it  is  desirable  that  all  seed  be 
in  the  ground  by  the  10th  of  April.  The  importance  of  early 
seeding  should  be  emphasized,  as  it  is  essential  that  the  bulbs 
make  as  much  growth  as  possible  before  the  hot  weather  of  mid¬ 
summer  comes  on.  The  seed  is  sown  about  one  inch  deep,  with 
hand  seed  drills,  using  from  three  and  one  half  to  four  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre.  The  distance  between  the  rows  depends  on  the 
system  of  irrigation  to  be  followed.  If  the  field  is  to  be  flooded 
the  rows  are  usually  made  12  or  14  inches  apart  (Plate  II).  But 
if  the  furrow  system  of  irrigation  is  adopted,  the  ground  is  plowed 
out  in  ridges  after  it  has  been  thoroughly  prepared.  The  ridges 
are  made  30  inches  apart  and  then  flattened  to  about  nine  inches 
on  top.  Two  rows,  three  inches  apart,  are  planted  on  each  ridge; 
the  furrows  between  the  double  rows  being  used  for  irrigation  and 
for  cultivation  (Plate  III).  Most  growers  try  to  plant  the  seed  so 
that  the  plants  will  be  one  and  one  half  inches  apart  in  the  row, 
so  as  to  avoid  thinning.  In  fact,  but  little  thinning  is  done  in 
this  vicinity. 

Cultivation.  Cultivation  and  weeding  is  begun  by  hand  as 
soon  as  the  plants  appear  above  ground.  Cultivation  is  given 
with  a  hand  wheel  hoe,  while  weeding  and  thinning,  if  thinning 
is  necessary,  must  be  done  by  hand.  The  number  of  hand  weed- 
ings  that  are  necessary  will  depend  on  the  season,  but  usually 
three  are  sufficient.  The  ground  should  be  cultivated  after  each 
weeding,  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  season  indicates.  Four  or 
five  cultivations  are  required  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins. 

It  is  important  that  weeding  be  attended  to  promptly,  lest  the 
plants  become  weak  and  spindling  from  the  crowding  of  the  weeds. 
Many  plants  may  be  killed  during  the  process  of  weeding,  and 
others  may  soon  dry  out  and  die  as  a  result  of  being  suddenly 
exposed  to  the  sun. 

Irrigation.  Specific  directions  for  irrigating  onion  fields 
cannot  be  given,  since  methods  must  necessarily  differ  in  different 
fields  and  in  different  seasons.  In  the  first  place,  damp,  but  not 
wet  soils,  are  selected,  when  possible.  Such  a  soil  does  not  need 
much  water  in  the  fore  part  of  the  season,  and  when  of  the  proper 
texture  the  fields  may  be  flooded,  when  water  must  be  applied 
without  damaging  the  crop  by  subsequent  baking  of  the  surface. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  irrigation  is  not  begun  before  the 
first  of  July,  and  is  continued  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or  two  weeks, 
according  to  the  conditions  of  the  season.  Further  down  the 
river,  where  heavier  soils  are  used,  the  ground  is  irrigated  by 
running  the  water  in  furrows  between  double  rows,  as  mentioned 
above.  In  this  case  irrigation  is  started  the  same  day  that  the 


Onion  Growing. 


7 


seed  is  planted,  if  the  ground  is  dry,  or  as  soon  after  as  possible. 
Subsequent  irrigation  will  depend  on  weather  conditions,  but  close 
attention  must  be  given  to  see  that  the  ground  is  kept  moist.  On 
the  other  hand,  too  much  water  must  not  be  applied,  as  it  results 
in  the  formation  of  scallions  and  of  spongy  bulbs. 

Harvesting.  Onion  harvest  is  commonly  begun  by  the  15th 
of  September,  and  the  crop  is  usually  out  of  the  field  by  the 
middle  of  October.  Harvesting  should  begin  promptly  when  the 
bulbs  are  mature,  as  is  indicated  by  the  withering  of  the  tops  and 
the  yellowing  of  the  necks. 

The  onions  are  pulled  by  hand  and  thrown  into  windrows, 
where  they  are  allowed  to  remain  for  several  days  to  cure.  After 
the  curing  process  is  complete  the  bulbs  are  topped,  sorted  and 
sacked.  Topping  is  done  by  cutting  off  the  tops  about  half  an 
inch  above  the  bulb,  care  being  taken  to  make  a  smooth,  clean 
cut,  and  not  to  injure  the  outer  coverings.  If  more  top  is  left  on 
it  detracts  from  the  appearance,  and  if  cut  closer  the  bulb  is  liable 
to  be  injured. 

The  onions  are  now  sorted  and  sacked  in  the  field,  making 
but  one  grade.  The  small  and  unmarketable  bulbs,  together  with 
the  scallions,  are  left  on  the  ground.  Gunny  sacks  which  hold 
about  100  pounds  are  the  only  packages  used. 

Ordinarily  damage  by  rain  is  not  feared  after  the  onions  are 
sacked,  but  if  they  do  become  wet  they  should  be  left  in  the  field 
until  dry.  The  sacks  should  be  turned  as  soon  as  the  tops  are 
dry  in  order  that  the  bottom  of  the  sacks  may  have  an  equal 
chance  to  dry  out.  This  is  especially  true  if  the  ground  is  wet. 

The  growers  do  not  usually  attempt  to  hold  their  crop,  but 
haul  it  directly  to  the  car  or  to  the  dealer’s  warehouse.  All 
onions  should  be  out  of  the  field  by  the  first  of  November. 

Markets.  The  principal  market  for  Colorado  onions  is  in 
Texas,  though  some  are  sent  to  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory, 
and  occasionally  they  are  sent  as  far  east  as  Kansas  City  and  St. 
Louis.  A  portion  of  the  crop  is  disposed  of  by  the  dealers  soon 
after  it  is  delivered  by  the  growers,  but  perhaps  two  thirds  of  it 
is  held  until  February.  Onions  that  are  held  any  length  of  time 
in  storage  must  be  resorted  before  they  are  placed  on  the  market. 

Varieties.  A  great  many  varieties  of  onions  have  been  tested 
by  the  growers  in  this  district,  but  none  have  been  found  that 
meets  all  requirements  as  well  as  the  Yellow  Globe  Danvers.  It 
is  practically  the  only  variety  grown.  A  few  Red  Danvers  are 
grown,  but  the  amount  is  scarcely  worthy  of  mention.  The 
Yellow  Globe  seems  to  be  well  adapted  to  our  conditions  of  soil, 
altitude  and  climate;  it  yields  well,  keeps  well,  and  its  size  and 
appearance  meet  the  demands  of  the  market. 


Plate  III.  Double  row  system  of  planting-. 


Onion  Growing.  9 

Several  years  ago  Mr.  A.  T.  Gilkison,  of  Faporte,  experi¬ 
mented  with  transplanting  Prizetaker  onions,  as  is  extensively 
practiced  in  other  states.  The  onions  yielded  well  but  the  bulbs 
did  not  keep  well,  and  were  larger  than  the  market  demands. 
Judging  from  this  experience,  the  so-called  new  onion  culture  is  not 
adapted  to  our  conditions. 

Seed.  Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  procuring 
good  seed.  If  the  seed  is  old,  its  germinating  powers  may  be  lost 
or  impaired,  and  if  close  attention  is  not  given  to  selecting  the 
best  bulbs  for  seed,  the  stock  deteriorates  rapidly.  Poor  seed  may 
be  accountable  for  a  poor  stand,  many  small  and  immature  bulbs, 
or  a  large  per  cent,  of  scallions.  Onions  grown  from  seed  as 
commonly  supplied  from  seedsmen,  are  so  greatly  influenced  by 
our  conditions  of  altitude  and  climate  that  the  growers  soon  began 
to  raise  their  own  seed.  The  larger  part  of  the  seed  now  sown  in 
in  this  valley  is  home  grown. 

Cost  of  Growing.  Onion  growers  differ  in  regard  to  the  cost 
of  producing  this  crop.  Of  seven  growers  consulted,  one  esti¬ 
mated  the  expense  at  $90  an  acre;  another  at  $50.  The  other  five 
gave  figures  varying  between  these  extremes.  It  is  probable  that 
on  an  average  $60  will  cover  all  the  expense,  excepting  the  cost 
of  manuring,  from  plowing  the  land  to  loading  the  onions  on  the 
cars. 


Storing.  It  has  been  found  that  onions  keep  better  in  rooms 
above  ground  than  in  cellars.  Such  rooms  should  be  open  so  as 
to  admit  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  until  there  is  danger  of  freezing. 
When  severe  weather  comes  on  a  stove  should  be  placed  in  the 
room  if  necessary  to  keep  the  bulbs  from  freezing.  There  is  always 
more  or  less  loss  in  storing  onions,  as  many  of  the  bulbs  sprout, 
especially  if  they  were  not  thoroughly  cured;  and  others  will 
decay,  even  though  they  have  been  only  slightly  bruised.  In  any 
case  there  will  be  a  large  shrinkage,  and  if  the  ventilation  and 
temperature  are  not  closely  attended  to,  large  losses  may  result. 

Onions  are  sometimes  kept  by  allowing  them  to  freeze.  If 
they  can  be  kept  frozen  and  allowed  to  thaw  out  gradually  just 
before  marketing,  no  harm  results.  But  successive  freezing  and 
thawing  injures  the  bulbs.  In  general  this  method  of  keeping 
onions  cannot  be  commended. 

Insects  and  Diseases.  Fortunately  but  few  insect  pests  or 
plant  diseases  have  appeared  in  Colorado.  Grasshoppers  occasion¬ 
ally  feed  on  the  tops,  but  they  do  not  often  appear  until  compara¬ 
tively  late  in  the  season,  after  alfalfa  and  similar  crops  have  been 
harvested.  They  may  be  successfully  combated  by  scattering 
poisoned  bran  along  the  sides  of  the  field.  The  mixture  is  made 


10 


Bulletin  81. 


in  the  proportion  of  one  ponncl  of  Paris  green  to  twenty  pounds  of 
bran,  with  enough  water  to  thoroughly  moisten  the  mass. 

A  minute  insect  known  as  thrips  is  present  every  year.  It 
sucks  the  juice  from  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  have  a  sickly, 
blighted  appearance.  These  insects  do  considerable  damage, 
especially  in  hot,  dry  seasons;  but  as  yet  no  method  of  combating 
them  is  in  use. 


/ 


i 


ulletin  82. 


June,  1903. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


Colorado  Irrigation  Waters  and  Their 

Changes. 


WILLIAM  P.  HEADDEN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins.  Colorado. 

1,90a. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  P.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  ROUTT,  .... 
Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATPIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAPELLOW 
Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB, 

Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLES WORTH 


Denver, 

TERM 

EXPIRES 

.  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

-  1905 

Denver,  - 

-  1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum,  - 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

1909 

Canon  City, 

1911 

Carbondale, 

-  1911 

|  ex-officio. 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  P.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 

!L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . -  Chemist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S., . Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S„ . Assistant  Horticulturist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  SM  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON, . Assistant  Entomologist 

H.  H.  GRIFFIN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

SL.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN., .  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


station  Staff 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  Chemist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S.,  -  -  Horticulturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFOHD  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

B.  G.  D.  BISHOPP  ------  Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

P.  K.  BLINN  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 
J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS 
AND  THEIR  CHANGES. 


BY  Wm.  P.  Headden. 


§  i.  The  irrigation  waters  used  in  this  State  are  largely  fur¬ 
nished  by  the  melting  of  the  snows  which  accumulate  in  the  high¬ 
er  portions  of  the  mountains  during  the  latter  part  of  autumn, 
winter,  and  early  spring.  The  springs  feeding  our  streams  are  for 
the  most  part  such  as  owe  their  waters  to  the  same  source,  and  are 
simply  the  reappearance  of  these  waters  retained  by  the  valley  soils, 
which  are  for  the  most  part  shallow  and  store  but  a  small  amount 
of  water,  the  most  of  it  being  free  to  come  down  early  in  the  sea¬ 
son,  before  the  middle  of  July. 

§  2.  Our  rivers  do  not  descend  very  far  into  the  plains  before 
their  waters  are  diverted  from  their  natural  courses,  either  to  be 
stored  or  used  immediately  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  The 
water  supply  is  becoming  a  question  of  such  importance  and  com¬ 
mands  so  high  a  price  that  large  expenditures  are  being  made  to 
prevent  the  storm  and  flood  waters  from  going  to  waste  by  running 
down  to  lower  levels. 

§  3.  The  simple  diversion  of  the  waters  from  their  natural 
courses  does  not  change  their  character  provided  the  character  of 
the  course  is  not  changed.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  These 
waters  flow  but  short  distances  through  mountainous  and  sparsely 
populated  sections  of  country,  where  the  water  entering  them  from 
the  adjacent  country  is  of  the  same  character  as  that  of  the  stream  it¬ 
self.  The  collecting  grounds  are  for  the  most  part  covered  with  a 
thin  granitic  soil  bearing  some  forest  and  other  mountain  vegeta¬ 
tion;  but  a  very  considerable  area  consists  of  naked  schists  and 
granites.  The  lower  portions  of  these  streams  usually  flow  through 
fertile  valleys,  often  under  cultivation.  The  waters  are  sometimes 
diverted  in  the  higher  portions  of  their  courses  and  at  every  point 
below  this  where  their  volume  and  the  contour  of  the  country  will 
permit. 

§  4.  The  Cache  a  la  Poudre  river  flows  for  the  first  fifty  miles 
of  its  course  over  bowlders  of  schist  and  granite,  and  then  over 
gravel  and  sand  of  the  same  character.  The  North  Pork  flows  for 
a  portion  of  its  course  through  jura-triassic  strata,  into  which  it 
has  cut  its  bed  before  emptying  into  the  Poudre.  The  chief  for¬ 
eign  constituents,  that  is  other  than  those  dissolved  out  of  the  rocks 


BULLETIN  82. 


4 

of  its  drainage  area,  contained  in  this  water  are  such  as  are  intro- 

<V*>  ' 

dnced  by  the  people  living  along  its  banks.  The  water  of  the 
Cache  a  la  Poudre  is  an  excellent  water  usually  containing  less 
than  three  grains  of  solids  to  the  imperial  gallon.  The  water  fur¬ 
nished  to  the  inhabitants  of  Fort  Collins  is  taken  from  the  Pondre 
about  six  miles  below  the  point  where  the  North  Fork  joins  the 
Pondre,  and  is  a  mixture  of  Pondre  and  North  Fork  water  plus  a  nota¬ 
ble  quantity  of  seepage.  This  water  varies  in  the  amount  of  total 
solids  contained  from  2.5  grains  per  imperial  gallon  to  13.5  grains, 
which  is  the  maximum  observed.  The  former  sample  was  taken  when 
the  river  was  high  and  the  influence  of  the  North  Fork  and  the 
seepage  water  together  was  not  perceptible.  The  latter  was  taken 
when  the  Pondre  was  low.  Their  influence  is  shown  by  the  nota¬ 
ble  increase  in  the  amount  of  the  total  solids  present. 

§  5.  The  conditions  given  for  the  Pondre  hold  for  all  the 
streams  north  of  the  Arkansas,  and  for  those  of  the  San  Uuis  val¬ 
ley,  so  long  as  they  are  mountain  streams.  When  their  waters 
leave  the  mountains  their  courses  are  over  rocks  of  younger  geolog¬ 
ical  formations,  from  which  they  receive  waters  of  different  quality, 
and  their  character  is  materially  changed. 

§  6.  I  shall  give  analyses  of  waters  from  other  streams,  but 
that  of  the  Poudre  will  be  the  only  one  treated  of  in  detail.  The 
considerations  which  have  led  me  to  confine  myself  to  the  study  of 
the  Poudre  river  water  to  so  great  an  extent  as  I  have  done  are  evi¬ 
dent:  Phrst,  the  water  of  the  Poudre  irrigates  at  the  present  time, 
as  much  if  not  more  land  than  that  of  anv  other  stream  within  the 

mr 

State;  Second,  it  flows  through  our  home  valley,  is  easy  of  access, 
and  we  have  fuller  data  and  more  intimate  knowledge  of  it  than  of 
any  other  stream  in  the  State;  Third,  irrigation  has  been  practiced 
in  this  valley  almost  as  long  if  not  as  long,  as  in  any  other  portion 
of  the  State  (a  few  sections  where  irrigation  was  practiced  by  the 
Mexicans  excepted),  extending  over  a  period  of  forty-three  years; 
Fourth,  the  oldest  and  at  the  same  time  an  extensive  system  of 
reservoirs  whose  beginning  dates  back  to  1875,  ^ias  been  made  to 
supplement  the  summer  flow  of  the  river. 

§  7.  Under  these  conditions  the  flow  of  the  return  waters  has 
already  been  established,  the  first  exaggerated  effects  of  irrigating 
this  land  have  passed  away,  and  the  rate  at  which  the  return 
waters  are  carrying  the  soluble  salts  from  the  soil  has  presumably 
approached,  if  it  has  not  already  reached  the  point,  at  which  it  will 
remain  for  years  to  come.  The  same  may  be  assumed  to  be  true 
in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  salts  taken  into  solution. 

§  8.  In  this  section  the  period  of  drainage  has  begun,  laud 
having  become  valuable  enough  and  water  in  such  demand  that 
drainage  has  already  been  instituted  for  the  double  purpose  of  pre¬ 
serving  the  land  from  being  water-logged  or  seeped,  and  for  render- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  5 

in g  the  water  available  for  irrigating  other  land.  From  this  time 
on  water  will  be  made  to  do  duty  repeatedly  in  the  production  of 
crops,  even  more  so  than  at  present,  especially  if  the  fall  of  the 
river  and  other  conditions  will  permit  it. 

§  9.  For  these  reasons  the  Pondre  presents  the  best  subject, 
and  the  present  is  probably  the  most  opportune  time  that  has  yet 
presented  itself  for  such  a  study.  The  chemical  questions  relative 
to  the  composition  of  the  return  waters  will  become  more  involved 
within  the  next  few  years  than  they  are  now,  because  an  increasing 
percentage  of  such  water  will  have  been  used  repeatedly  before  it 
makes  its  appearance  as  such  in  the  river.  Some  of  it  will  have 
passed  into  storage  reservoirs  and  suffered  whatever  changes  that 
may  take  place  during  the  time  of  storage.  One  of  the  largest  res¬ 
ervoirs  within  this  valley  has  recently  been  completed,  the  purpose 
of  which  is  to  collect  and  render  available  waste  and  seepage  or  re¬ 
turn  water. 

§  ro.  The  course  of  the  river  after  it  issues  from  the  canyon 
is  over  the  jura-triassic  and  cretaceous  formations.  The  character 
of  the  river  bed  has  but  a  slight  influence  upon  the  composition  of 
the  water  compared  with  that  of  the  return  waters,  the  percentage 
of  which  increases  as  one  goes  down  the  stream;  not  simply  because 
there  is  an  increase  in  the  number  or  size  of  the  inflowing  streams 
and  springs,  but  also  because  of  the  amount  of  water  which  has 
been  taken  out  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  river.  There  are  six  larger 
and  several  smaller  ditches  taking  water  from  the  Pondre  between 
the  mouth  of  the  canyon  and  the  town  of  Fort  Collins.  These 
ditches  take  at  least  four-fifths  of  the  water  flowing  in  the  river 
above  the  first  ditch.  The  gagings  show  that  there  is  a  small  loss 
of  water  between  the  gaging  station  in  the  canyon,  and  a  point  be¬ 
low  Bellvue,  the  city  water  works;  but  from  this  point  on  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  there  is  an  irregular  but  increasing  gain.  The 
sewage  from  the  town  of  Fort  Collins,  and  also  that  of  the  College, 
which  is  an  independent  system,  flows  into  the  river  below  the 
town.  The  college  system  also  carries  a  considerable  volume  of 
drainage  water.  The  total  volume  of  water  returned  to  the  river 
in  this  way  is  large,  representing  the  sewage  from  a  population  of 
5,000;  but  the  total  mineral  matter  added  to  the  river  water  by  the 
drainage  is  probably  greater  than  that  contained  in  the  sewage,  and 
this  represents  but  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  mineral  substances 
brought  in  by  the  return  waters. 

§  11.  There  is  much  irrigated  land  in  this  district,  from 
which  the  seepage  and  waste  waters  together  with  waste  from  the 
ditches,  begin  to  return,  as  shown  by  the  measurements  of  the  river 
several  miles  above  Fort  Collins.  There  is  a  gain  beginning  a  lit¬ 
tle  way  below  the  town  of  Bellvue,  which  increases  as  we  go  down 
the  river,  until  at  its  mouth  the  total  increase  reached,  in  1895, 


6 


BULLETIN  82. 


164.4  second  feet;  and  in  1901,  167  second  feet.  This  gain,  or  the 
amount  of  water  returning  to  the  river,  varies  for  different  sections 
of  the  river,  and  also  from  year  to  year.  The  minimum  flow  of  re¬ 
turn  waters  which  I  find  given  was  in  March,  1894,  when  it  amount¬ 
ed  to  82.3  second  feet.  (Bulletin  No.  33  of  this  Station.)  The  per¬ 
centage  of  seepage  water  in  the  river  at  any  given  point  will  evi¬ 
dently  vary  from  time  to  time,  but  taking  the  whole  course  of  the 
Poudre  from  below  Bellvue  down  to  its  mouth  the  amount  varies 
from  a  small  amount  to  100  per  cent.  In  order  to  obtain  river 
water  free  from  seepage,  it  is  necessary  to  take  it  above  the  head- 
gate  of  the  ditch  furthest  up  the  stream;  in  fact  we  found  it  ad¬ 
visable  to  take  it  above  the  mouth  of  the  North  Fork. 

§  12.  The  river  water  as  it  is  delivered  to  the  town  of  Fort 
Collins,  for  domestic  consumption,  is,  from  a  chemical  standpoint, 
a  good  water  for  domestic  purposes ;  but  a  comparison  of  it  with  the 
river  water  taken  further  up  the  stream  shows  that  it  has  already 
suffered  a  considerable  change,  due  to  admixture  of  seepage  which 
has  found  its  way  to  the  river.  The  object  had  in  view  in  taking 
the  samples  of  this  water  was  not  to  examine  it  to  determine  its  fit¬ 
ness  as  a  potable  water,  but  simply  as  a  part  of  the  larger  questions 
relative  to  the  changes  suffered  by  the  water  when  used  for  the 
purposes  of  irrigation. 

THE  CACHE  A  LA  POUDRE  RIVER  WATER. 

§  13.  The  Cache  a  la  Poudre,  very  generally  called  the 
“Poudre,”  and  its  tributaries,  drain  a  mountainous  area  of  about 
1,050  square  miles  before  it  enters  the  plains  section.  These  1,050 
square  miles  of  drainage  area  present  a  varied  surface,  some  of  which 
is  wooded  or  covered  with  other  vegetation,  much  of  it  being  naked 
rocks;  but  whether  covered  with  a  thin  mountain  soil,  a  rich  valley 
soil  or  rotten  rocks,  there  is  everywhere  one  constant  condition. 
The  rocks  are  largely  granite,  and  the  soil,  very  naturally,  is  gran¬ 
itic  too.  The  waters  flow  over  granite  bowlders,  are  retained  in  the 
interstices  of  granitic  sands  or  soils,  and  whatever  mineral  matter 
is  taken  into  solution  by  the  waters  is  derived  from  the  minerals 
making  up  the  granite,  gneiss  or  schist,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
snows  on  the  mountains  by  their  melting  yield  the  water  which 
finds  its  way  to  the  valleys  to  be  later  used  for  immediate  irrigation 
or  stored  for  subsequent  use.  I  shall  endeavor  to  follow  the 
changes  produced  in  the  composition  of  this  water  from  the  time  it 
melts,  when  I  shall  assume  it  to  be  practically  pure  water,  until  it 
leaves  the  Poudre  to  join  the  Platte.  There  are  many  difficulties 
in  this  study,  and  I  shall  be  compelled  to  leave  many  questions 
wholly  unanswered  and  others  with  very  general  answers. 

§  14.  The  most  surprising  change  in  the  series  suffered  by 
this  water  is  perhaps  the  very  first  one,  that  is,  the  change  produc- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  7 

ed  in  the  content  and  composition  of  its  mineral  constituents  while 
it  is  still  within  its  mountain  area  and  before  it  debouches  from  its 
canyon  into  the  plains.  As  snow  we  may  consider  it  free  from  any 
mineral  content,  and  as  river  water  it  is  very  pure,  but  not  free 
from  mineral  matter.  It  has  already  been  at  work  upon  the  rocks. 
It  has  taken  from  the  air  some  carbon  dioxid  and  gotten  a  little 
more  from  the  decaying  organic  matter  with  which  it  has  come  in 
contact,  and  with  this  to  aid  it,  it  has  taken  up  from  2.5  to  four  or 
five  grains  of  mineral  matter  to  each  imperial  gallon  that  flows 
through  its  canyon.  Even  its  flood  waters  find  time  enough  to  dis¬ 
solve  out  of  the  rock  the  smaller  quantity,  i.  e.,  2.5  grains  per  im¬ 
perial  gallon.  It  may  seem  to  some  an  incredible  thing  that  this 
should  be  so,  but  we  can  imitate  it,  and  show  that  in  a  compara¬ 
tively  short  time  pure  water  in  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxid  can 
take  up  upwards  of  4.5  grains  of  mineral  matter  per  gallon  from 
these  very  rocks,  or  rather  from  some  of  their  constituents.  There  is 
no  doubt  about  either  the  fact  or  the  source  from  which  the  mineral 
content  of  the  water  is  derived.  The  amount  dissolved  may  sur¬ 
prise  us,  and  we  may  wonder  why  the  rocks  have  lasted  so  long, 
but  we  all  know  that  the  surface  of  the  rocks  is  worn  and  that 
many  of  them  are  rotten  for  many  feet  below  the  surface,  even 
crumbled  so  that  they  can  be  moved  with  pick  and  shovel.  Some 
of  the  streets  of  the  city  of  Denver  are  covered  with  such  material 
as  are  our  walks  and  drives.  Those  of  us  who  have  traveled  on  al¬ 
most  any  of  our  mountain  railroads  have  seen  cuts  of  five,  ten  or 
more  feet  in  depth  made  through  such  material,  aggregating  many 
miles.  The  geologist  finds  everywhere  the  products  left  by  the 
water;  sometimes  they  are  thick  beds  of  clay,  at  others  simply  rock 
debris.  He  sees  in  the  soil  a  testimony  of  its  persistent  action  whereby 
it  has  loosened  the  bonds  which  bound  the  little  grains  now  constitu¬ 
ting  the  particles  of  soil  to  their  fellows,  dissolving  some,  changing 
others,  and  carrying  still  others  away.  Each  step  that  he  describes* 
is  susceptible  of  observation  or  direct  proof,  however  slowly  they 
may  seem  to  proceed  or  however  great  their  aggregate  results. 

§  15.  The  water  of  the  Poudre,  as  already  stated,  is  derived 
from  the  melting  snows  of  the  Laramie  and  Medicine  Bow  ranges,, 
but  by  the  time  it  has  reached  its  canyon  it  has  taken  up  a  con¬ 
siderable  amount  of  matter  from  the  rocks.  If  we  assume  the  flow 
to  be  300  second-feet  and  the  dissolved  matter  to  be  2.25  grains  per 
imperial  gallon,  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  removed  from  its 
drainage  area  per  day  would  be  close  to  twenty-six  tons,  or  taking 
the  specific  gravity  at  2.6,  almost  320  cubic  feet  of  solid  rock  ma¬ 
terial  every  twenty-four  hours.  Even  these  figures  represent  only 
the  amount  carried  at  this  point  in  the  course  of  the  stream,  and 
not  the  total  chemical  work  done  by \he  water,  for  it  is  very  prob¬ 
able  that  a  series  of  changes  have  taken  place,  beginning  with  the 


BULLETIN  82. 


8 

first  action  of  the  pure  water  upon  the  rock  particles  whereby  a 
part  of  the  substances  originally  dissolved  has  been  removed,  and  it 
is  only  that  portion  which  has  escaped  removal  from  solution  that 
we  find  in  the  water  in  the  lower  mountain  section  of  the  stream. 
In  addition  to  this  the  remaining  rock  has  also  been  altered,  and 
its  new  condition  represents  a  further  fraction  of  the  work  accom¬ 
plished  by  the  water. 

§  16.  This  is,  in  general  terms,  a  statement  of  the  process  by 
which  our  waters  obtain  their  burden,  be  it  great  or  small,  of  min¬ 
eral  matter  in  these  mountainous  sections  where  the  principal  or 
only  source  from  which  they  obtain  it  is  the  constituent  min¬ 
erals  of  the  rock  by  direct  attack  upon  them ;  and  the  products  so 
formed  are  not  modified,  except  by  the  agencies  universally  present, 
as  for  instance,  the  air  or  the  interaction  of  solutions,  differing  only 
slightly  from  one  another.  This  is  wholly  changed,  as  we  shall 
see,  when  we  come  to  such  conditions  as  prevail  in  the  soils.  A 
fuller  consideration  of  the  changes  which  we  are  able  to  trace  will 
I  think  help  us  materially,  both  in  answering  the  questions  arising 
relative  to  the  points  of  attack,  the  course  of  the  changes  taking 
place  in  the  minerals,  and  prepare  the  way  for  a  better  understand¬ 
ing  of  the  manner  of  formation  and  properties  of  the  soil.  The  ob¬ 
ject  of  this  bulletin,  however,  is  to  take  up  the  study  of  the  river 
water  and  the  changes  it  suffers  when  used  for  irrigation,  in  so  far 
as  we  may  be  able  to  unravel  them;  and  if  we  do  not  succeed  in  a 
satisfactory  measure  we  still  hope  that  the  data  accumulated  may 
be  interpreted  by  others  to  the  furtherance  of  the  object  here  at¬ 
tempted. 

§  1 7.  I11  Bulletin  No.  65,  entitled  “A  Soil  Study,  Part  III., 

The  Soil,”  I  stated  that,  in  my  own  view,  the  study  reduced  itself 
to  an  investigation  of  the  various  decomposition  products  of  felspar; 
mot  that  other  minerals  might  not  be  participants  in  these  changes, 
but  simply  as  a  fact  in  this  case,  that  we  had  an  orthoclase  felspar 
to  deal  with  together  with  the  products  of  its  alteration.  What 
these  products  are  will  undoubtedly  vary  under  different  conditions. 
Two  conditions,  however,  obtain  everywhere;  the  presence  of  water 
and  of  carbonic  acid,  and  to  these  we  appeal  as  the  chief  agents  in  the 
changes  whereby,  among  others,  the  food  elements  contained  in  the 
rock  particles  of  the  soil  are  made  available.  It  has  been  custom¬ 
ary  to  consider  certain  mineral  combinations  which  were  supposed 
to  be  formed  by  the  action  of  various  agents  upon  the  rock  particle^ 
within  the  soil  as  intermediate  agents,  serving  the  purpose  of  re¬ 
taining  and  conveniently  giving  up  certain  elements  of  plant  food. 
This  function  has  been  attributed  to  a  group  of  minerals  called 
zeolites,  and  to  express  this  property  of  the  soil  we  find  the  expres¬ 
sion  zeolitic  constituents.  So  far  as  the  study  of  the  action  of 
water  on  felspar  goes,  it  throws  no  light  upon  this  view,  and  we  de- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  9 

tect  nothing  favoring  the  assumption  of  the  formation  of  zeolites  in 
this  manner.  The  general  trend  of  the  evidence  is  that  there  is  a 
greater  similarity' to  the  conditions  existing  in  veins  than  to  those 
conditions  where  zeolites  are  formed.  The  theory  of  the  existence 
of  zeolitic  constituents  within  the  soil  is  convenient  for  many  rea¬ 
sons,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  correct  for  all  soils,  if  it  is  for 
any. 

§  18.  In  Bulletin  No.  65  I  have  shown  to  how  great  an  ex¬ 
tent  onr  soils  are  made  up  of  felspar  particles,  and  have  also  held 
that  they  owe  their  origin  to  the  disintegration  of  the  granites  and 
gneisses  of  the  Front  or  Colorado  range.  It  clearly  follows  that 
the  present  rivers  or  the  streams  which  they  now  represent,  have 
contributed  in  the  past,  as  they  are  now  doing,  to  this  work.  The 
contribution  made  by  the  Poudre  being,  according  to  the  assump¬ 
tion  previously  made,  320  cubic  feet  of  solid  rock  taken  into  solu¬ 
tion  daily  from  the  area  of  1,050  square  miles.  This  result  is  en¬ 
tirely  apart  from  its  mechanical  action  by  which  a  manifold  greater 
mass  is  broken  down  and  moved  from  one  place  to  another.  It 
may  not  be  removed  very  far,  but  it  is  on  its  way  to  a  new  resting 
place. 

§  19.  The  statement  that  the  clear  water  of  the  river  which 
we  are  accustomed  to  think  of  as  pure  snow  water,  is  daily  carrying 
not  less  than  twenty-six  tons  or  320  cubic  feet  of  solid  rock  from 
the  mountains  down  to  the  plains,  is  so  large  that  it  will  undoubt¬ 
edly  strike  the  average  person  as  over-estimated.  But  such  is  not 
the  case,  for  by  direct  experiment  we  have  succeeded  in  bringing 
into  solution  a  little  more  than  twice  the  amount  per  gallon  as¬ 
sumed  to  be  present  in  the  calculation. 

§  20.  Finely  powdered  felspar  was  taken  and  treated  for  four¬ 
teen  and  one-half  days  with  water  and  carbonic  acid,  and  we  found 
that  the  solution  had  dissolved  out  of  the  felspar  constituents  equiv¬ 
alent  to  4.53  plus  grains  per  gallon,  and  this  amount,  4.536  grains, 
would  not  be  considered  a  large  quantity  of  mineral  matter  to  be 
found,  even  in  the  water  of  mountain  streams.  This  would  give 
us  rather  more  than  double  as  much,  or  640  cubic  feet  per  day  in¬ 
stead  of  320,  as  previously  assumed.  The  aggregate  removed, 
whether  it  be  measured  in  tons  or  cubic  feet,  is  a  considerable  quan¬ 
tity.  The  range  of  total  solids  contained  in  the  Poudre  water  is 
from  2.6  grains  to  4.6  grains;  in  other  words,  assuming  a  flow  of 
300  second-feet,  the  amount  actually  removed  daily  lies  between 
320  and  640  cubic  feet  of  rock  material  weighing  about  26  tons  for 
the  lower  figures  or  52  tons  for  the  higher. 

THE  SOURCE  OF  THE  MATERIAL. 

§  21.  I  have  alluded  to  the  felspar  as  the  source  from  which 
the  water  obtained  its  mineral  matter  in  this  case.  It  is  not  in- 


IO 


BULLETIN  82. 


tended  to  assert  that  this  mineral  is  the  only  one  on  which  the 
water,  carbonic  acid,  and  whatever  other  agencies  co-operate  with 
them  act,  bnt  it  is  the  principal  one;  and  this  is  true  to  such  an  ex¬ 
tent  that  we  may  neglect  all  others.  The  prevailing  rock  within 
the  drainage  area  is  either  granite,  gneiss  or  mica  schist.  There 
are  a  few  ernptives  within  this  area,  and  locally  a  little  hornblende- 
schist  occurs;  bnt  these  form  no  large  areas,  so  we  confine  ourselves 
to  the  consideration  of  the  felspar  of  the  granite,  which  is  an 
orthoclase.  This  statement  does  not  exclude  the  occurrence  of 
other  varieties,  bnt  they  are  altogether  subordinate.  The  preced¬ 
ing  facts  constituted  one  reason  why  I  chose  a  typical  orthoclase 
for  experimentation.  A  second  reason  was  the  observation  that  onr 
soil  consists  largely  of  grains  of  this  mineral.  The  results  of  ex¬ 
periments  with  this  mineral  then  give  11s  a  measure  whereby  to 
judge  to  what  extent  the  Pondre  water  obtains  its  mineral  matter 
from  this  source;  and,  secondly,  a  clue  as  to  what  is  going  on  in  the 
soil,  which,  however,  is  only  of  incidental  interest  at  this  time. 

§  22.  A  portion  of  felspar,  orthoclase,  was  ground  very  fine, 
passing  through  a  1  oo-mesh  sieve,  and  treated  for  22  days  with 
water  containing  carbon  dioxid  in  solution.  At  the  expiration  of 
this  time  air  was  caused  to  pass  through  it  whereby  any  ferrous 
salts  would  be  oxidized  and  the  ferric  hydrate  precipitated.  By  do¬ 
ing  this  we  imitate  the  action  which  we  see  taking  place  in  the 
river  waters,  especially  when  derived  from  springs  in  whose  waters 
iron  may  be  held  in  the  form  of  ferrous  salts.  We  found  in  this 
case  that  we  obtained  a  copious  precipitate  of  the  hydrated  ferric 
oxid.  The  filtered  water  was  evaporated  in  platinum  dishes  to 
avoid  obtaining  any  silica  or  potash,  as  might  have  been  the  case 
had  we  used  a  porcelain  or  copper  dish  to  evaporate  in.  The 
amount  of  total  solids  obtained  corresponded  to  1.68  grains  to  the 
imperial  gallon.  I  will  here  observe  that  the  results  of  all  the  ex¬ 
periments  that  I  made  indicate  that  the  amount  dissolved  is  pro¬ 
portional  to  the  time  the  water  is  in  contact  with  the  felspar,  at 
least  for  such  times  as  my  experiments  continued,  other  conditions 
being  the  same.  The  residue  obtained  had  the  following  com¬ 
position: — 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  II 

TABLE  I. — ANALYSIS  OF  PORTION  OF  FELSPAR  DISSOLVED 
BY  WATER  AND  CARBONIC  ACID  IN  TWENTY-TWO  DAYS. 


Analytical 

Per 

Results. 

Cent. 

Silicic  Acid  . . . ... 

14.353 

Sulfuric  Acid _  ... 

9.879 

Carbonic  Acid _  _  . 

19.874 

Phosphoric  acid .  __  .... 

0.381 

Chlorin.  _  _ ... 

3.170 

Aluminic  Oxid  _  ...  . . 

1.119 

Ferric  Oxid  _ _ _ _ _ 

0.136 

Calcic  Oxid  ...  _ _ 

23.412 

Strontic  Oxid.  ...Heavy 

trace. 

Magnesic  Oxid.  .  _  . 

1.919 

Potassic  Oxid  .  . . 

11.279 

Sodic  Oxid .  _  . . 

6.491 

Lithic  Oxid _  ..... 

Trace. 

Ignition 

25.337 

Sum  _ _  _ 

117.370 

Less  carbonic  acid  and  ox- 

ygen  equivalent  to  chlor- 

in  * 

20.588 

Total _ _ 

96.782 

Per 

Combined.  Cent. 

Calcic  Sulfate.  _ _  16.806 

Calcic  Carbonate _  29.432 

Magnesic  Carbonate _  4.013 

Potassic  Chloric! _ _  6.668 

Potassic  Carbonate _  10.367 

Sodic  Carbonate _  3.736 

Sodic  Phosphate _ _  1.257 

Sodic  Silicate _  6.765 

Aluminic  Oxicl _ _  1.119 

Ferric  Oxid _  0.136 

Ignition _  5.464 

Excess  Silicic  Acid _  11.018 


Total _  96.783 


*  Note. — This  residue  was  first  dried  on  a  water  bath  and  afterwards 
in  a  water  oven,  as  I  knew  from  analyses  already  made  that  there  was  in 
all  probability  a  considerable  excess  of  silicic  acid  present  in  a  most  fa¬ 
vorable  form  to  react  with  any  alkaline  carbonates  present,  which  I  wish¬ 
ed  to  avoid.  I  fear  that  a  reaction  between  the  silicic  acid  and  these  car¬ 
bonates  took  place  during  the  long  continued  boiling  and  heating  on  the 
water  bath  necessary  to  evaporate  the  water  to  dryness,  especially  as  the 
quantity  of  water  was  large  (in  this  instance  about  twenty  gallons),  and 
the  vessel  in  which  the  evaporation  was  carried  on  was  small.  It  is 
also  certain  that  on  ignition,  even  at  a  gentle  heat,  the  silicic  acid  reacts 
upon  the  carbonates,  and  perhaps  other  salts  also,  causing  an  excessive 
loss  over  that  of  moisture  and  organic  matter.  The  ignition  in  this  case 
was  made  very  cautiously,  but  there  is  evidently  an  uncertainty  about 
its  correctness.  I  have  repeatedly  observed  that  in  cases  of  ignition  of 
such  residues,  even  when  there  was  not  a  sufficient  excess  of  silicic  acid 
to  account  for  it,  that  the  carbonic  acid  was  completely  expelled  by  a 
very  gentle  ignition.  This  may  have  indicated  that  the  carbonic  acid 
was  in  combination  with  lime  as  calcic  carbonate;  but  the  ignition  was  so 
gentle  that  I  doubt  whether  it  would  have  sufficed  under  ordinary  con¬ 
ditions  to  have  decomposed  a  corresponding  amount  of  calcic  carbonate. 
Other  methods  of  determining  this  loss  might  have  been  adopted,  but  the 
amount  of  material  at  my  disposal  made  ignition  the  most  feasible  one, 
it  being  quite  certain  that  there  was  no  loss  of  bases;  and  as  there  still 
remains  an  excess  of  acid,  the  result  emphasizes  this  fact.  I  do  not 
know  in  this  case  that  the  whole  of  the  COz  was  expelled,  but  I  have  as¬ 
sumed  it  to  have  been,  and  have  accordingly  taken  it  together  with  the 
oxygen  equivalent  to  the  chlorin  found  from  the  sum  of  the  results 
obtained. 

§  23.  The  preceding  experiment  does  not  stand  alone,  and 
was  really  not  our  principal  one  in  this  connection,  but  as  the  state¬ 
ment  of  others  would  add  only  cumulative  evidence  of  the  correct¬ 
ness  of  the  conclusion  that  the  source  of  the  inorganic  matter  con¬ 
tained  in  the  Poudre  water  is  the  felspar  occurring  everywhere 


12 


BULLETIN  82. 


throughout  the  drainage  area,  the  others  will  not  be  given  in  this  place 

§  24.  The  first  two  analyses  of  the  Poudre  water  that  I  shall 
give  ought,  perhaps,  to  be  given  in  the  reverse  order,  but  as  I  in¬ 
tend  to  give  the  rest  of  the  analyses  in  regular  order  as  we  go  down 
the  river,  I  will  not  deviate  from  it  in  the  case  of  these.  The  only 
reason  which  would  justify  me  in  doing  so  would  be  the  fact  that, 
in  the  case  of  the  second  analysis  I  know  that  at  least  one-half  of 
the  water  flowing  in  the  river  at  the  time  the  sample  was  taken, 
came  down  the  North  Fork  as  flood  water,  resulting  from  a  heavy 
rain  which  fell  in  the  mountains  of  the  remoter  portions  of  its 
drainage  area. 

§  25.  For  the  sake  of  completeness  and  for  subsequent  con¬ 
venience  of  reference  I  shall  give  with  each  chemical  analysis  the 
sanitary  analysis  of  the  sample;  but  as  the  latter  is  of  subordinate 
importance  in  our  study,  it  will  follow  the  chemical  analysis.  My 
object  in  this  bulletin  is  not  to  deal  with  the  potability  of  the 
waters  used  for  irrigation,  but  to  learn  as  much  as  possible  about 
the  changes  that  they  suffer  and  how  much  they  add  to  the  fertility 
of  the  laud,  if  any,  by  virtue  of  the  elements  of  plant  food  that 
they  contain  in  solution,  and  incidentally  in  suspension  also.  The 
chemical  analysis  gives  us  the  amount  and  approximately  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  inorganic  salts  held  in  solution,  and  I  have  adopted  the 
ordinary  sanitary  analysis  as  the  means  of  determining  the  various 
forms  in  which  the  nitrogen  occurs,  as  well  as  its  total  quantity. 
In  regard  to  the  chlorin  given  in  the  two  forms  of  analysis,  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  amount  given  by  the  sanitary  analysis  is 
slightly  higher  than  that  given  by  the  chemical  analysis. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  1 3 


TABLE  II.— ANALYSIS  OF  CACHE  A  LA  POUDRE  WATER, 
SAMPLE  TAKEN  ABOVE  THE  NORTH  FORK,  NOV.  3,  1902. 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silcic  Acid _ 

....  20.871 

0.6053 

Sulfuric  Acid  . 

_  6.928 

0.1946 

Carbonic  Acid 

___.  20.790 

0.6029 

Chlorin  .... 

.  .  _  3.575 

0.1037 

Sodic  Oxid  _ _ 

....  12.931 

0.3750 

Potassic  Oxid 

....  2.949 

0.0855 

Calcic  Oxid 

....  18.741 

0.5238 

Strontic  Oxid 

_ Trace 

Trace 

Magnesic  Oxid 

....  4.336 

0.1257 

Ferric  and  Alu.Oxids  0.388 

0.0113 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.063 

0.0018 

Ignition  ... 

....  [9.233] 

0.2678 

Sum . .  .100.805 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 
Chlorin _  .805 


Total _ 100.000  2.8974 

Total  solids,  2.9  grains  per  imperial  gallon 


Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate  _ 

11.782 

0.3417 

Calcic  Carbonate.  __ 

24.781 

0.7186 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

9.063 

0.2628 

Sodic  Chlorid 

5.899 

0.1711 

Potassic  Carbonate 

4.325 

0.1254 

Sodic  Carbonate _ 

9.146 

0.2652 

Sodic  Silicate  . 

8.772 

0.2544 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

;  0.388 

0.0113 

Manganic  Oxids _ 

0.063 

0.0018 

Ignition  .  _  ... 

[9,. 233] 

0.2678 

Sum  .  _ 

83.452 

Excess  Silicic  Acid. 

16.546 

0.4798 

Total  ...  _ 

99.998 

2.8999 

SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _  41.4286 

Chlorin  _  1.9804 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _ Trace. 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  None. 


Parts  Per  Million 


Saline  Ammonia  __ _  0.0350 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia. _  0.0900 
Oxygen  Consumed _  2.5500 


TABLE  III.— ANALYSIS  OF  CACHE  A  LA  POUDRE  WATER, 
SAMPLE  TAKEN  150  FEET  ABOVE  HEADGATE  OF  LARI- 


MER  COUNTY  DITCH,  JULY  30,  1902. 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytic 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  20.542 

0.5341 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

8.420 

0.2189 

Sulfuric  Acid.. 

_  4.951 

0.1287 

Calcic  Carbonate.  __ 

36.431 

0.9471 

Carbonic  Acid. 

_  21.626 

0.5622 

Magnesic  Carbonate  10.758 

0.2797 

Chlorin  _ 

_  7.619 

0.1980 

Sodic  Chlorid  ...  .. 

12.573 

0.3276 

Sodic  Oxid  _ 

_  8.874 

0.2307 

Potassic  Silicate  _ 

5.391 

0.1402 

Potassic  Oxid 

_  3.286 

0.0854 

Sodic  Silicate  ...  _ 

4.342 

0.1129 

Calcic  Oxid 

_  23.884 

0.6209 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.894 

0.0232 

Magnesic  Oxid 

5.147 

0.1338 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.093 

0.0024 

Ferricand  Alu.  Oxids  0.894 

0.0232 

Ignition 

4.802 

0.1248 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.093 

0.0024 

Ignition 

T 4. 8021  0.1248 

Sum  .  __ 

83.704 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

16.296 

0.4237 

Sum _ 

_ 101.718 

2.6443 

Oxygen  Equiv. 

to 

Total _ 

100.000 

2.6005 

Chlorin 

_  1.718 

0.0446 

Total 

.100.000 

2.5997 

Total  solids,  2.6  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY 
Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  solids _  ...  _  37.1400 

Chlorin  ...  ..  .....  2.8300 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates  _  0.1000 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites  _  None 


ANALYSIS. 

Parts  Per  Million. 

Saline  Ammonia _  0.0200 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia...  0.3400 
Oxygen  Consumed _  1.6570 


BULLETIN  82. 


14 

TABLE  IV. -ANALYSIS  OF  CACHE  A  LA  POUDRE  WATER, 
SAMPLE  TAKEN  FROM  FAUCET  IN  CHEMICAL 
LABORATORY,  MAY  23,  1897. 


Grs. 

Analytical  Per  Imp. 

Results.  Cent.  Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _  36.180  1.664 

Sulfuric  Acid _  5.180  0.238 

Carbonic  Acid _  20.860  0.960 

Chlorin _ Trace  Trace 

Sodic  Oxid _  8.000  0.368 

Calcic  Oxid _  15.960  0.734 

Magnesic  Oxid  _  5.060  0.233 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  2.290  0.105 

Manganic  Oxid _ Trace  Trace 

Ignition _ 6.470  0.298 


Sum _ 100.000  4.600 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 
Chlorin _  Trace. 


Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate  _ 

8.800 

0.405 

Calcic  Carbonate.. 

22.000 

1.012 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

10.580 

0.487 

Sodic  Carbonate 

13.680 

0.629 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

2.290 

0.105 

Manganic  Oxid..  _ 

Trace  Trace 

Ignition 

6.470 

0.298 

Silicic  Acid 

36.180 

1.664 

Total  .  _ 

100.000 

4.600 

Total _ 100.000  4.600 

Total  solids,  4.60  grains  per  Imperial  gallon. 
Saline  Ammonia,  0.00740  parts  per  million. 
Albuminoidal  Ammonia,  0.00280  parts  per  million. 


TABLE  V.— SAMPLE  TAKEN  FROM  FAUCET  IN  CHEMICAL 

LABORATORY,  SEPT.  21,  1900. 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

8.050 

0.596 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

15.392 

1.139 

Carbonic  Acid 

22.905 

1.695 

Chlorin  ... _  . 

2.248 

0.166 

Sodic  Oxid  ...  _ 

8.095 

0.599 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

0.886 

0.065 

Calcic  Oxid.  _ 

29.067 

2.151 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

7.750 

0.573 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

;  0.317 

0.023 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

.  0.050 

0.004 

Ignition  ..  ....  . 

5.884 

0.435 

Sum _ _  . 

100.644 

7.446 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin  .  _  __ 

0.506 

0.037 

Total  ... _ 

100.138 

7.409 

Grs. 

Per 

Imp . 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate  __ 

27.174 

1.937 

Calcic  Carbonate.. 

32.631 

2.415 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

16.272 

1.204 

Potassic  Chlorid _ 

1.402 

0.104 

Sodic  Chlorid 

2.611 

0.193 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

0.089 

0.006 

Sodic  Silicate  ...  _ 

13.116 

0.971 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

0.317 

0.023 

Manganic  Oxid.. 

0.050 

0.004 

Ignition 

5.884 

0.435 

Sum 

98.546 

7.292 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

1.591 

0.118 

Total _  _  _ 

100.137 

7.410 

Total  solids,  7.4  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 198.5000 

Chlorin  __  _  5.7100 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.0400 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites  _  0.0010 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  Ammonia _ -  0.0250 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia...  0.0571 
Oxygen  Consumed _  1.5450 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  1 5 


TABLE  VI.— SAMPLE  TAKEN  FROM  FAUCET  IN  CHEMICAL 

LABORATORY,  SEPT.  6,  1902. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

.  6.123- 

0.6245 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

31.179 

3.1802 

Sulfuric  Acid  .  . 

.  18.333 

1.8699 

Calcic  Carbonate,  _, 

30.199 

3.0802 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  23.266 

2.3731 

Magnesic  Carbonate  18.152 

1.8515 

Chlorin _ 

.  1.035 

0.1055 

Strontic  Carbonate, 

0.312 

0.0318 

Sodic  Oxid  ..  _ _ 

_  6.501 

0.6631 

Potassic  Carbonate 

1.338 

0.1364 

Potassic  Oxid  . 

.  1.883 

0.1921 

Sodic  Chlorid  _  . 

1.708 

0.1742 

Calcic  Oxid...  _ 

_  29.769 

3.0364 

Potassic  Silicate, 

1.593 

0.1614 

Strontic  Oxid 

0.219 

0.0223 

Sodic  Silicate  . .  , 

11.035 

1.1255 

Magnesic  Oxid.. 

8.684 

0.8857 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.168 

0.0171 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.168 

0.0171 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.110 

0.0112 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.110 

0.0112 

Ignition _ 

[4.144]  0.4226 

Ignition  . 

[4.144] 

0.4226 

Sum  . 

99.938 

Sum 

100.235 

Total 

99.938  10.1921 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin 

_  0.235 

Total 

.  100.000 

10.2235 

Total  solids.  10.2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  solids  _  145.7143 

Chlorin _  19.8040 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.1000 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _ _  None 


Parts  Per  Million . 


Saline  Ammonia _  0.1200 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia..  0.0500 
Oxygen  required  * * * § _  1.2450 


*  Note.— The  preceding  analyses  are  expressed  in  two  different  units : 

In  per  cent,  and  grains  per  imperial  gallon,  for  ordinary  chemical  analy¬ 
sis,  and  parts  per  million,  for  the  sanitary  analysis.  I  believe  that  there  "is 
no  inconvenience  caused  by  this,  as  the  average  reader  will  think  of 
3.1802  grains  per  gallon  more  readily  than  of  45.4314  parts  per  million. 
The  term  gallon  suggests  a  common  measure,  as  does  also  the  term  grain. 
If  any  one  wishes  to  convert  the  term  grains  per  imperial  gallon  into 
parts  per  million  to  suit  his  convenience  he  has  simply  to  multiply  by  one 

hundred  and  divide  by  seven,  which  is  easily  done. 

§  26.  The  first  three  of  these  analyses  represent  the  water  of 
the  Cache  a  la  Pondre  river  as  it  issues  from  its  mountain  section 
without  being  modified  by  waters  coming  from  the  surface  soil  or 
from  the  strata  of  the  jura-triassic  or  cretaceous  formations.  In 
order  to  make  our  view  more  general,  and  to  save  repetition,  we 
will  here  include  the  waters  of  the  Boulder  and  the  Clear  Creek, 
the  analyses  of  which  will  be  given  later.  The  general  similarity 
of  the  analyses,  especially  of  the  analytical  results,  to  those  obtained 
by  the  analysis  of  the  residue  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
water  with  which  we  had  treated  the  felspar,  leaves  no  doubt  but 
that  the  sources  of  the  different  residues  were  the  same,  and  we  are 
justified  in  considering  the  felspar  which  occurs  abundantly 
throughout  the  drainage  areas  the  source  from  which  the  Pondre, 
the  Boulder,  and  Clear  Creek  obtain  their  mineral  constituents. 


i6 


bulletin  82 


§  27.  This  fact  is  not  surprising  except  when  we  attempt  to 
express  the  amounts  removed  in  figures,  for  everyone  conversant 
with  the  rocks  of  the  country  knows  that  the  predominant  minerals 
are  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica,  of  which  the  quartz  is  the  least  easily 
attacked  by  water.  The  experiment  given  shows  that  it  is  a  fact 
that  this  is  the  source  of  the  silica,  potash,  lime,  etc.,  contained 
in  the  water. 

■§  28.  The  presence  of  sulfuric  acid  and  chlorin  in  these 
waters  was  not  easily  explainable.  In  the  jura-triassic  strata  we 
have  an  abundance  of  gypsum  from  which  calcic  sulphate  might  be 
derived,  and  in  fact  this  was  the  source  from  which  I  considered  much 
of  this  salt  to  have  been  derived;  but  this  could  not  possibly  be  the 
case  where  the  sample  was  taken  before  it  had  come  in  contact 
with  this  formation,  or  could  have  received  water  which  had  done 
so.  The  analysis  of  the  portion  of  felspar  dissolved  by  water  with 
the  aid  of  carbonic  acid  shows  a  surprising  amount  of  each  of  these 
constituents — sulfuric  acid,  over  nine  per  cent.,  and  of  chlorin  more 
than  three  per  cent.  The  carbon  dioxid  and  even  the  air  drawn 
through  the  solution  was  well  washed  to  avoid  the  introduction  of 
extraneous  substances.  The  v/ater  used  was  freshly  distilled,  leav¬ 
ing  no  residue  upon  evaporation,  and  failing  to  show  a  trace  of 
chlorin.  The  felspar  had  been  tested  for  sulfuric  acid,  and  showed 
a  few  hundredths  of  one  per  cent.;  but  it  was  not  tested  directly  for 
chlorin.  The  quantity  found  in  its  aqueous  extract,  however, 
leaves  no  doubt  of  its  presence.  This  mineral,  felspar,  accordingly 
may  furnish  the  sulfuric  acid  and  chlorin  found  in  our  mountain 
waters,  as  well  as  the  total  solids  in  general. 

§  29.  There  is  still  stronger  evidence,  if  there  were  need  of  it, 
and  that  is  the  presence  of  strontia  and  lithia  in  the  water.  In 
Bulletin  No.  35,  in  a  note  upon  the  ash  of  alfalfa,  I  called  attention 
to  the  fact  that  strontia  was  always  present,  but  lithia  was  not  de¬ 
tected  in  any  single  instance.  Again  in  Bulletin  No.  72  I  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  lithia  was  found  to  be  generally  present 
in  the  ground  waters  which  I  had  examined.  I  do  not  think  that 
I  have  tested  a  single  sample  of  ground  water  (and  I  have  tested 
many  within  the  past  five  years),  that  failed  to  show  the  presence 
of  lithia.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Poudre  water.  I  have  also 
found  it  present  in  the  waters  of  the  St.  Yrain,  the  Boulder,  Clear 
Creek,  and  in  the  water  of  the  Running  Lode  mine  taken  at  a  depth 
of  825  feet;  also  in  the  waters  of  the  South  Platte  and  the  Arkan¬ 
sas.  Its  presence  in  the  waters  of  the  South  Platte  is  not  so  signifi¬ 
cant,  for  there  are  several  springs  discharging  into  this  river  which 
I  know  carry  some  lithia,  but  the  relative  volume  of  these  springs 
is  small,  and  I  am  convinced  that  the  lithia  found  indicates  its 
more  general  occurrence  in  the  waters  of  the  Platte,  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  those  of  the  Arkansas,  for  I  doubt  whether  the  small 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  1 7 

quantity  brought  in  by  the  springs  could  be  detected  with  ease  in 
the  quantities  of  water  actually  used.  Again,  the  presence  of 
strontia  is  demonstrable  with  comparative  ease  in  both  the  ground 
waters  and  the  river  waters.  These  facts  were  difficult  to  explain, 
and  puzzled  me  greatly,  leading  me  to  doubt  the  correctness  of  my 
observations  until  frequent  repetitions  established  it  as  a  fact.  The 
presence  of  these  in  the  felspar  and  the  power  of  even  slightly  car¬ 
bonated  water  to  take  them  into  solution  accounts  fully  and  satis¬ 
factorily  for  their  general  presence  in  the  river  and  ground  waters, 
and  enables  11s  to  trace  the  source  from  which  the  water  obtains  its 
original  content  of  mineral  matter.  It  further  makes  it  very  prob¬ 
able  that  all  the  waters  flowing  out  of  the  area  presenting  the  same 
general  conditions,  whether  they  flow  eastward,  as  in  case  of  our 
*  streams,  or  westward,  as  in  the  case  of  the  streams  of  the  western 
slope,  have  the  same  general  properties  until  changed  by  new 
conditions. 

CHANGES  SUFFERED  WHITE  FLOWING  IN  BED  OF  STREAM. 

§  30.  The  analyses  of  the  Poudre  water  already  given  show 
clearly  that  such  changes  take  place  before  the  waters  have  com¬ 
pleted  any  considerable  portion  of  their  course.  The  sample 
taken  above  the  mouth  of  the  North  Fork,  Nov.  3,  1902,  Table  II, 
was  taken  at  a  time  when  there  was  no  flood  water  and  after  a 
period  of  good  weather.  The  snows  of  the  preceding  season  had 
either  disappeared,  or  were  melting  so  slowly  as  to  have  little  or  no 
influence  upon  the  flow,  so  that  the  water  then  flowing  represented 
the  normal  water  of  the  Poudre  as  nearly  as  we  could  obtain  it. 
The  samples  taken  from  a  tap  in  the  Chemical  Laboratory, 
especially  the  samples  represented  by  analyses  five  and  six,  both 
taken  in  the  month  of  September,  one  in  1900,  the  other  in  1902, 
represent  the  same  water  after  it  had  flowed  for  a  distance  of  about 
eight  miles  to  the  water  works,  where  it  passed  into  the  city 
mains. 

§  31.  The  principal  difference  that  we  observe  is  that  the 
amount  of  total  solids  has  increased  from  less  than  three  grains 
(2.9  grains),  to  7.4  grains  in  the  first  instance,  and,  10.2  in  the 
second,  that  is,  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  and  one-third  times 
the  original  amount. 

§  32.  The  water  taken  in  the  first  sample  had  probably 
flowed  sixty  miles  over  the  bed  of  the  stream,  but  it  had  received 
water  of  its  own  kind,  coming,  as  it  had,  through  granitic  sands 
and  rocks.  The  last  two  samples  had  flowed  only  ‘  eight  miles 
further,  and  only  a  portion  of  this  distance  was  over  a  bed  of  a  dif¬ 
ferent  character;  and  yet  in  a  distance  of  less  than1  eight  miles  the 
amount  of  mineral  matter  held  in  solution  has  been  .increased  by 
these  multiples.  The  greatest  changes,  however,  have  liot  been 


i8 


BULLETIN  82. 


in  the  amount,  but  in  the  character  of  the  mineral  matter,  which 
is  perhaps  best  exhibited  by  the  analytical  results,  showing  that 
the  silicic  acid  in  the  solid  residue,  has  been  reduced  in  percent¬ 
age,  but  almost  exactly  proportionally  to  the  increase  in  the 
amount  of  total  solids.  The  sulfuric  acid  has  been  increased 
nearly  three  times  in  percentage,  and  consequently  a  little  less 
than  nine  times  in  absolute  amount.  The  amounts  of  soda  and 
potash  have  been  doubled,  but  their  percentages  reduced,  while 
the  percentages  of  lime  and  magnesia  have  been  greatly  increased, 
and  the  absolute  quantities  are  six  and  eight  times  greater. 

§  33.  The  extent  of  this  change  will  be  more  fully  appre¬ 
ciated  when  we  estimate  the  difference  in  the  total  quantity  of 
solid  matter  carried  by  the  stream  in  twenty-four  hours,  as  we 
have  done  for  the  river  above  the  mouth  of  the  North  Fork.  We 
found  that  the  river  carried  about  twenty-six  tons  of  inorganic 
material,  or,  assuming  a  specific  gravity  of  2.6  for  the  solid  sub¬ 
stances,  about  320  cubic  feet.  Assuming  the  same  data  to  hold 
for  the  river  water  as  it  passes  the  Fort  Collins  water  works  ditch, 
we  obtain  from  65  to  87  tons,  or  from  800  to  1,067  cubic  feet. 
Taking  the  higher  figures,  we  discover  an  increase  of  62  tons,  or 
747  cubic  feet  of  inorganic  matter  carried  in  solution.  These 
figures  represent  the  ratio  of  salts  perfectly,  and  the  actual 
amounts  under  the  assumed  flow,  which,  however,  is  too  high  for 
an  average  year.  But  if  we  take  150  second-feet,  which  is  below 
the  average,  as  the  flow,  it  would  still  represent  an  increase  of  31 
tons  daily,  or  about  373  cubic  feet  of  solid  matter  which  enters 
the  river  in  the  section  represented,  about  eight  miles  long. 

§  34-  It  is  evident  that  if  a  proportionate  change  takes 
place,  as  the  water  proceeds  down  the  river  it  will  soon  be  so 
changed  that  comparisons  cannot  profitably  be  made.  In  the  case 
of  our  streams  this  is  so  greatly  complicated  by  return  waters  en¬ 
tering  the  river  and  by  direct  flows  being  taken  out  for  irrigation 
or  storage  that  no  attempt  will  hereafter  be  made  to  compare  the 
results  except  as  to  some  particular  features. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  STORAGE. 

§  35.  This  problem  is  not  at  all  simple,  for  the  reason  that 
the  water  collected  in  reservoirs  is  not  all  river  water,  and  in  order 
to  present  all  the  conditions  faithfully  a  detailed  study  of  the  sup¬ 
ply  would  be  necessary,  which  is  clearly  out  of  the  question  for 
me  to  make.  I  shall  present  analyses  of  some  of  our  principal 
and  older  reservoirs  which  are,  so  far  as  I  know,  filled  from  the 
Poudre  river  and  receive  but  relatively  little  seepage.  The 
amount  of  seepage  so  far  as  I  am  informed,  has  never  been  de¬ 
termined.  The  amount  of  rain-water  which  they  receive  may  be 
neglected.  The  concentration  due  to  evaporation  is  not  neg- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  1 9 

ligible,  but  the  amount  of  salts  with  which  we  shall  have  to  deal 

is  so  large  that  in  subsequent  statements  we  will  take  no  note  of 
this  factor. 

§  ^  evaPoration  from  an  unprotected  surface  of  water 

u  ^rt  T °  lnS  *s  a^out  f°rty  inches  per  annum,  or,  considering 
the  Poudre  water  to  carry  2.9  grains  per  imperial  gallon,  there 
would  be  added  to  the  remaining  water  400  pounds  of  inorganic 
salts  for  each  acre  of  surface  exposed,  and  if  the  average  depth  of 
the  re^ervoir  were,  as  is  the  case  in  Terry  lake,  about  twenty 
teet,  the  difference  would  be  about  0.5  grain  per  gallon  This  in¬ 
crease  may  be  attributed  to  evaporation,  but  it  is  too  high,  for  the 
water  does  not  remain  in  the  reservoirs  the  whole  year,  as  here 
supposed;  at  least  the  reservoirs  are  not  full,  and  the  actual  in- 
crease  due  to  this  cause  is  less  than  0.5  of  a  grain  per  imperial 
gallon  1  hat  the  aggregate  amount  of  inorganic  or  mineral  mat- 
ter  is  large  is  evident.  There  is,  however,  but  little  profit  in  in¬ 
dulging  in  calculations  of  this  sort,  as  they  are  modifications  of 
the  one  already  made  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  dissolved  matter 
daily  brought  down  from  the  mountains  by  the  Pondre  river. 

§  37*  The  reservoir  known  as  Terry  lake  has,  when  full  a 
surface  area  of  470  acres,  from  which  forty  inches  of  water  evap¬ 
orate  annually,  leaving  nearly  400  pounds  on  each  acre,  or  an  a°*°re- 
gate  of  94  tons  of  mineral  matter  for  the  entire  reservoir,  which  has 
been  dissolved  out  of  the  granite  of  the  mountains  where  the 
snows  have  melted.  But  when  this  quantity  is  compared  with 
the  figures  which  we  shall  have  to  use  to  represent  the  ao-o-regate 
of  salts  carried  by  these  reservoir  waters,  it  will  be  realized  that 
this  increase  in  the  mineral  matter  in  such  waters  due  to  evapor- 
ation  can  be  neglected. 

§  38.  I  shall  give  the  reservoir  waters  in  order,  going  down 
the  valley,  beginning  with  the  Larimer  &  Weld,  or  ‘  Terry  lake. 
This  may  not  be  the  best  order,  or  rather  it  might  be  well  to  omit 
Terry  lake  altogether,  because  it  is  not  typical  of  the  chants 
which  I  most  desire  to  set  forth,  but  presents  them  in  so  extreme 
a  form  as  to  overshadow  the  less  extreme  but  probably  more  rep¬ 
resentative  results  shown  by  the  others.  This  reservoir,  however, 
is  one  of  the  oldest  and  stores  9,000  acre-feet  of  water,  and  al¬ 
though  the  changes  presented  by  the  water  of  this  reservoir  may 
be  greater  than  in  the  other  cases,  it  may  alone  serve  to  o-ive  a 
more  adequate  idea  of  the  real  extent  and  importance  of  the  solv¬ 
ent  action  of  water  upon  the  soils  and  of  the  supply  of  the  soluble 
salts  contained  and  formed  therein  than  the  others. 

LARIMER  &  WELD  RESERVOIR  (TERRY  LAKE). 

§  39. .  This  reservoir  is  situated  about  two  miles  north  of 
Fort  Collins  and  is  filled  principally  by  water  taken  from  the 


20 


BULLETIN  82. 


Poudre  river,  the  other  sources  being  seepage  and  storm  water 
from  Dry  Creek,  and  seepage  and  drainage  from  the  adjacent 
country.  Some  years  these  latter  furnish  a  considerable  part  of 
the  9,000  acre-feet  contained  in  this  reservoir.  While  this  state¬ 
ment  is  true  as  to  the  amount  of  water  furnished,  it  seems  very 
probable  that  these  sources  always  furnish  an  unusually  large 
amount  of  soluble  salts.  The  Little  Cache  la  Poudre  ditch,  which 
carries  water  from  the  Poudre  river  to  the  reservoir,  is  a  compar¬ 
atively  short  ditch  and  can  scarcely  collect  more  than  a  small  part 
of  the  salts  which  we  shall  presently  find  contained  in  the  water 
of  the  reservoir.  The  two  analyses  given  below  are  of  samples 
taken  from  near  the  center  of  the  lake  and  several  feet  below  the 
surface,  just  before  the  water  was  drawn  out,  the  reservoir  being 
full.  The  water  was  slightly  yellow  and  had  a  slight  odor. 


TABLE  VI  I— AN  A  LYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  THE  LARIMER  & 
WELD  RESERVOIR  (TERRY  LAKE).  SAMPLE 

TAKEN  JULY  28,  1900. 


Analytical 

Per 

Grs. 
Imp . 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _ 

_  0.125 

0.168 

Sulfuric  Acid  _ 

_  48.089 

64.680 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  4  727 

6.358 

Chlorin  _ 

_  0.982 

1.321 

Sodic  Oxid 

14.935 

20.087 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.129 

0.174 

Calcic  '  xid _ 

8.117 

10.917 

Magnesic  Oxid 

.  13.244 

17  813 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0  020 

0.027 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.040 

0.054 

Ignition  _ 

9.938 

13.367 

Sum  _  _  . 

.100.346  134.966 

Oxygen  equiv.  to 
Chlorin  _ _ 

0.221 

0.297 

Total _  .  __ 

.100.125 

134.669 

Grs. 

Combined. 

Per 

Imp. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate _  . 

19.704 

26.502 

Magnesic  Sulfate. __ 

39.741 

53.452 

Potassic  Sulfate _ 

0.237 

0.319 

Sodic  Sulfate..  ... 

17.574 

23.637 

Sodic  Chlorid  _ 

1.620 

2.179 

Sodic  Hydric  Car- 

bonate  _ 

0.463 

0.623 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

10.590 

14.243 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.020 

0.027 

Manganic  Oxid  .  ... 

0.040 

0.054 

Ignition _ _  ___ 

9.938 

13.367 

Sum _  ..  _ 

99.927  134.353 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.125 

0.168 

Total...  _ 

100.052  134.521 

Total  solids,  1H4.5  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 1,921.4000 

Chlorin  _  24.3000 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.2000 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  2.4000 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  Ammonia _  0.0944 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia _ 0.6171 

Oxygen  required . .  5.9000 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  21 

TABLE  VIII.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  TAKEN  FROM  THE 
LARIMER  &  WELD  RESERVOIR  (TEhKY  LAKE), 


Grs. 

Combined.  Per  Imp. 

Cent.  Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate _  21.606  37.940 

Strontic  Sulfate _  0.346  0.608 

Magnesic  Sulfate. __  39.136  68.723 
Potassic  Sulfate...  0.663  1.164 

Sodic  Sulfate _  26.224  46.049 

Sodic  Chlorid _  1.439  2.527 

Sodic  Carbonate _  4.667  8.195 

Sodic  Silicate _  0.237  0.416 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.063  0.111 

Manganic  Oxid _  Trace  Trace 

Ignition _  5.441  9.554 


Analytical 

Per 

JULY 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid...  ___ 

...  0.117 

0.205 

Sulfuric  Acid 

...  53.967 

94.766 

Carbonic  Acid 

...  1.936 

3.400 

Chlorin 

...  0.872 

1.530 

Sodic  Oxid 

...  15.071 

26.465 

Potassic  Oxid 

..  0.359 

0.630 

Calcic  Oxid 

. .  8.893 

15.616 

Strontic  Oxid 

..  0.196 

0.344 

Magnesic  Oxid 

..  13.104 

23.011 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.063 

0.111 

Manganic  Oxid. 

Trace 

Trace 

Ignition 

..  5.441 

9.554 

Sum. 

..  99.822  1 

'75  632 

Total. 

...99.822  175.632 

Total  . . ..99.822  175.287 


Total  solids,  I75.fi  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  A  ALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 2,508.570 

Chlorin _  28.290 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates. 0.100 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  0.010 


Parts  Per  Million. 

Saline  Ammonia _  0.100 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia. __  0.600 
Oxygen  required _ _  2.283 


§  40.  Taking  the  average  of  the  total  solids  obtained  for 
these  two  years,  1900  and  1902,  determined  in  each  case  when  the 
lake  was  full,  we  have  155.02  grains  per  gallon.  The  present 
capacity  of  the  lake  being  9,000  acre-feet,  these  figures  give  us 
27,127  tons  as  the  amoumt  of  mineral  matter,  only  507.5  tons  of 
of  which  was  originally  contained  in  the  water,  assuming  it  all  to 
have  been  taken  from  the  river.  This  large  amount  of  salts, 
27,127  tons,  is  annually  distributed  over  the  land  irrigated  by  this 
water,  or  about  three  tons  per  acre-foot.  At  the  present  time  we 
are  less  concerned  with  its  distribution,  which  we  will  discuss 
later,  than  with  the  question  of  its  source.  It  matters  not  whether 
it  is  storm  water  or  river  water;  neither  of  these  contains  the  fiftieth 
part  of  the  salts  here  represented.  If  it  were  all  river  water  con¬ 
taining  2.9  grains  per  gallon,  it  would  account  for  oniy  about  507 
tons,  leaving  26,620  tons  to  be  derived  from  the  seepage  of  a  com¬ 
paratively  small  area  of  country.  If  the  whole  of  the  Dry  creek 
seepage  were  turned  into  the  reservoir,  its  volume  would  not  seem 
to  be  large  enough  to  account  for  this  result.  The  distance  from 
Terry  lake  to  the  North  Poudre  canal  is  less  than  nine  miles,  and 
the  average  width  of  country  which  seeps  or  drains  into  it  is  not 
more  than  three  and  one-half  miles,  at  the  most  thirty-two  square 


22 


BULLETIN  82. 


miles.  The  North  Poudre  canal  was  opened  about  1884,  and  all 
the  seepage  and  waste  water  arising  from  irrigation  in  this  area 
has  been  washing  out  this  tract  for  the  past  eighteen  or  nineteen 
years;  and  as  Terry  lake  is  emptied  annually,  and  the  water  col¬ 
lected  from  the  Dry  creek  will  not  average  more  than  one-third  of 
its  contents  when  full,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  it  can 
furnish  so  very  large  an  amount  of  alkali  salts  at  the  present  time. 
To  present  this  more  clearly,  we  will  give  the  actual  quantities  of 
the  three  salts  constituting  the  principal  part  of  our  alkalies, 
which  are  calcic,  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates.  Terry  lake  con¬ 
tained,  as  the  average  for  the  two  years,  1900  and  1902,  23,589.63 
tons  of  these  salts,  represented  as  follows:  calcic  sulfate,  5,859.43 
tons;  magnesic  sulfate,  10,616.42  tons;  and  sodic  sulfate,  7,113.78 
tons;  all  calculated  as  anhydrous  salts.  The  greatest  amount  that 
a  like  quantity  of  Poudre  river  water  would  have  contained  would 
have  been  59.73  tons  of  calcic  sulfate,  and  no  magnesic  or  sodic 
sulfate;  but  we  have  estimated  that  two-thirds  of  the  water  filling 
the  lake  is  taken  directly  from  the  river,  and  the  amount  of  this 
salt  would  be  39.82  tons,  leaving  5,819.61  tons  to  come  from  the 
Dry  creek  drainage  area,  together  with  all  the  magnesic  and  sodic 
sulfates. 

§  41.  I  have  spoken  of  the  drainage  area  as  though  it  ex¬ 
tended  no  further  northward  than  the  North  Poudre  canal;  this  is 
not  strictly  correct,  but  the  land  under  the  North  Poudre  canal  is 
the  most  northerly  irrigated  land.  I  do  not  know  what  proportion 
of  the  Dry  creek  water  is  originally  Poudre  river  water,  coming 
from  either  the  Poudre  or  the  North  Fork. 

LONG  POND. 

§  42.  Dong  pond  lies  east  of  Terry  lake  and  within  a  mile. 
This  reservoir  is  filled  from  the  Larimer  county  ditch,  and  receives 
much  less  seepage  than  Terry  lake.  It  contains  about  one-half  as 
much  water,  or  about  4,500  acre  feet,  but  presents  a  proportion¬ 
ately  smaller  surface.  The  question,  however,  of  concentration  by 
evaporation,  even  in  Terry  lake,  is  one  of  a  half-grain  or  less  per 
gallon,  and  will  be  neglected.  The  changes  in  the  water  in  this 
lake  are  much  more  nearly  representative  of  those  usually  taking 
place  than  is  the  case  with  Terry  lake. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  23, 


TABLE  IX— ANALYSIS  OF  SAMPLE  OF  WATER  TAKEN  FROM 

LONG  POND  AUGUST  1,  1902. 


Grs. 

Grs.. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

.  1.459 

0.382 

Calcic  Sulfate _ _ 

39.401 

10.323 

Sulfuric  Acid_ _ 

.  44.013 

11.531 

Magnesic  Sulfate.. 

30.177 

7.906 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  6.653 

1.743 

Potassic  Sulfat6_. 

1.476 

0.387 

Chlorin _  .  _ 

.  1.494 

0.391 

Sodic  Sulfate .  . 

0.128 

0.034 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

_  12.816 

3.358 

Sodic  Chlorid  . 

2.465 

0.646 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

.  0.799 

0.209 

Sodic  Carbonate. 

16.042 

4.203 

Calcic  Oxid 

_  16.217 

4.249 

Sodic  Silicate.. 

2.959 

0.775 

Magnesic  Oxid  ... 

.  10.104 

2.647 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.225 

0.059 

Ferric  and  Alu .  Oxid s  0.225 

0.059 

Manganic  Oxid 

Trace 

Trace 

Manganic  Oxid.  . 

Trace 

Trace 

Ignition  .  __  . 

6.934 

1.817 

Ignition _ 

_  6.934 

1.817 

Sum _  . 

99.807 

26.150 

Sum _ _ _ 

.100.714 

26.386 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid. 

0.570 

0.149 

Oxygen  equiv.  to 

Chlorin 

.  0.336 

0.088 

Total 

100.377 

26.299 

Total _ 

.100.378 

26.298 

Total  solids,  26.2  grains  per  Imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY 
Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 374.290 

Chlorin _  7.070 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _ Trace 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _ None 


ANALYSIS. 

Parts  Per  Million . 


Saline  Ammonia _  0.050 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia _ 0.280 

Oxygen  consumed _  3.296 


WARREN’S  LAKE. 

§  43.  Warren’s  lake  lies  six  miles  due  south  of  Long  pond, 
and  is  filled  from  Larimer  County  No.  2  ditch,  receiving  a  small 
amount  of  seepage  and  waste  water.  The  distance  from  the  head- 
gate  of  the  ditch  to  the  reservoir  is  about  eight  miles.  The 
sample  was  taken  near  the  gate.  Depth  of  water,  ten  feet. 


BULLETIN  82. 


24 

TABLE  X. -ANALYSIS  OF  SAMPLE  OF  WATER  TAKEN  FROM 

WARREN’S  LAKE,  AUGUST  4,  1902. 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _  _ 

2.210 

0.407 

Sulfuric  Acid. 

30.826 

5.672 

Carbonic  Acid.. _ 

14.284 

2.628 

Chlorin _ _ _ 

3.323 

0.611 

Sodic  Oxid _ _ 

12.327 

2.268 

Potassic  Oxid  _ 

1.361 

0.250 

Calcic  Oxid.  _ 

19.672 

3.620 

Magnesic  Oxid  .  _  . 

9.800 

1.803 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids 

1  0.400 

0.074 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.092 

0.017 

Ignition  _ 

6.434 

1.184 

Sum  .... 

100.749 

18.534 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin  _ 

0.749 

0.138 

Total  . 

100.000 

18.396 

Grs. 
Per  Imp . 

Combined  Cent.  Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate _  47.796  8.794 

Magnesic  Sulfate _  4.064  0.748 

Magnesic  Carbonate  17.636  3.245 

Potassic  Chlorid  2.040  0.375 

Sodic  Chlorid _  3.883  0.714 

Sodic  Carbonate _  12.264  2.257 

Sodic  Silicate _  4.482  0.825 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.400  0.074 

Manganic  Oxid _  0.092  0.017 

Ignition _  6.434  1.184 


Sum _  99.191  18.233 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid__  .818  0.151 


Total _ 100.009  18.384 


Total  solids,  18.4  grains  per  Imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  solids _ 262.860 

Chlorin. _ _ „ _  9.900 

Nitrogen  as  nitrates _  0.100 

Nitrogen  as  nitrites _  0.001 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  ammonia _  0.180 

Albuminoidal  ammonia _  0.420 

Oxygen  consumed _  4.114 


WINDSOR  RESERVOIR. 

§  44.  The  capacity  of  this  reservoir  is  14,000  acre-feet  and 
it  is  filled  by  the  Larimer  &  Weld  canal  with  water  taken  from 
the  Poudre  below  the  town  of  Laporte.  The  reservoir  lies  twelve 
miles  east  and  five  miles  south  of  the  headgate  of  the  ditch.  The 
actual  length  of  the  ditch  through  which  the  water  flows  is  prob¬ 
ably  not  far  from  13.5  miles.  The  lake  was  full  at  the  time  the 
sample  was  taken.  Its  owners  began  to  draw  out  the  water  while 
the  sample  was  being  taken.  I  do  not  know  how  much  seepage 
and  drainage  water  gathers  in  this  reservoir.  The  higher  amount 
of  total  solids  present  indicates  a  considerable  accession  of  such 
waters.  Terry  lake  discharges  its  water  through  the  same  canal 
that  fills  the  Windsor  reservoir,  but  as  I  understand  the  matter, 
these  two  reservoirs  belong  to  different  companies,  and  as  both 
reservoirs  were  full  at  the  time  the  samples  were  taken,  it  is  not 
probable  that  any  of  the  salts  held  in  the  water  of  Windsor  lake 
came  from  Terry  lake  water,  but  represent  the  influence  of  the 
area  from  which  the  lake  receives  seepage.  This,  of  course,  in¬ 
cludes  the  lake  bed  itself. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  25 


TABLE  XI.— ANALYSIS  OF  SAMPLE  OF  WATER  TAKEN  FROM 
WINDSOR  RESERVOIR,  AUGUST  5,  1902. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid...  _  __ 

.  0.380 

0.264 

Calcic  Sulfate...  _ 

.  32.202 

22.348 

Sulfuric  Acid  ..  _ 

.  50.149 

34.803 

Magnesic  Sulfate  _ 

_  37.258 

25.857 

Carbonic  Acid...  . 

.  3.854 

2.675 

Potassic  Sulfate  _. 

.  1.000 

0.694 

Chlorin  .  .  _ _ 

.  1.890 

1.312 

Sodic  Sulfate _ 

.  10.581 

7.343 

Sodic  Oxid  .  _ 

.  12.109 

8.404 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

_  3.119 

2.165 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.541 

0.375 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

9.294 

6.446 

Calcic  Oxid..  ... 

.  13.254 

9.198 

Sodic  Silicate  _  .  . 

.  0.770 

0.534 

Magnesic  Oxid. 

.  12.475 

8.658 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  ....... 

.  0.289 

0.201 

Oxids  __  ... 

.  0.289 

0.201 

Manganic  Oxid  ... 

.  0.070 

0.049 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.070 

0.049 

Ignition  ... 

_  [5.415] 

3.758 

Ignition _ 

.  [5.415] 

3.758 

— 

— 

Sum 

.100.000 

69.395 

Sum _  _ 

.100.426 

69.697 

Excess . . . 

None 

None 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

— 

Chlorin _ 

_  0.426 

0.296 

Total  .... 

.100.000 

69.395 

Total _ 

.100.000 

69.401 

Total  solids,  69.4  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 991.430 

Chlorin _  27.730 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.100 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  0.001 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  ammonia _  0.040 

Albuminoidal  ammonia _  0.360 

Oxygen  consumed _  3.634 


§  45.  We  have  in  this  case,  as  in  that  of  Terry  lake,  and  in 
the  others  to  a  less  degree,  a  very  noticeable  increase  in  the  amount 
of  total  solids.  Taking  the  capacity  of  this  lake  as  14,000  acre- 
feet  (14,004  is  the  correct  capacity)  we  find  that  there  are 
18,894.15  tons  of  salts  held  in  solution,  while  a  like  quantity  of 
Poudre  water  would  contain  only  789.5  tons,  showing  18,104.6 
tons  collected  by  the  lake  during  the  period  intervening  between 
the  two  drawings-off — a  period  of  approximately  a  year.  The 
capacity  of  Terry  lake  is  9,000,  that  of  Windsor  lake  14,000  acre- 
feet.  Terry  lake  collected  27,127  tons,  and  Windsor  lake  18,894 
tons,  of  mineral  matter  in  a  year.  The  amount  of  these  salts  is 
very  different,  the  smaller  lake  or  reservoir  having  collected  one- 
half  more  than  the  larger  one. 

§  46.  The  relative  quantities  of  the  various  salts  are  also 
quite  different  in  these  cases.  For  instance,  Terry  lake  collected 
5,859.4  tons  of  calcic  sulfate,  anhydrous;  Windsor  lake,  6,083.29 
tons.  Terry  lake  collected  10,616.4  tons  of  magnesic  sulfate; 
Windsor  lake  7,029.58  tons.  Of  sodic  sulfate,  Terry  lake  collect¬ 
ed  7,113.78  tons;  Windsor  lake,  1,999.19  tons.  Of  sodic  carbonate 
Terry  lake  collected,  average  of  two  years,  2,069.25  tons;  Windsor 


26 


BULLETIN  82. 


lake,  1,756.02  tons.  To  the  average  person,  these  figures  convey 
but  an  inadequate  idea  of  the  amount  of  salts  dissolved  by  these 
lake  waters.  If  we  put  it,  as  is  sometimes  done,  in  terms  of  the 
transportation  facilities  which  would  be  necessary  to  move  this 
combined  amount,  it  may  give  a  clearer  notion  of  the  quantity  of 
salts  moved  by  these  two  lakes.  The  amount  of  salts  carried  out  by 
the  annual  emptying  of  these  lakes  is  46,021  tons,  which  would 
require  1,534  cars  each  holding  thirty  tons,  which,  allowing  35 
feet  as  the  length  of  a  car,  would  represent  a  train  ten  miles  long, 
not  including  engines. 

THE  FERTILIZING  VALUE  OF  THESE  SALTS. 

§  47.  As  the  water  whose  composition  we  have  so  far  pre¬ 
sented  is  used  for  irrigating  purposes,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  dis¬ 
cuss  the  fertilizing  value  as  it  is  indicated  by  the  various  analyses. 
The  only  constituent  in  the  ordinary  chemical  analysis  which  is 
of  importance  in  this  respect  is  the  potassic  oxid.  Our  soils  con¬ 
tain  lime  enough  to  meet  the  requirements  of  all  cultivated  crops. 
The  advisability  of  adding  lime  because  of  its  chemical  action  on 
the  soil  is  left  entirely  out  of  the  question,  and  if  it  were  consid¬ 
ered,  the  form  in  which  the  lime  is  present  in  the  waters  would  ren¬ 
der  it  of  little  value,  except  in  a  very  limited  range  of  cases.  We 
will  then  simply  endeavor  to  find  how  much  potash  these  waters 
would  add  to  the  soil  if  the  whole  of  it  were  retained  and  were  avail¬ 
able  to  plants  as  food.  These  assumptions  are  made  for  convenience 
of  presentation  only,  and  for  the  same  reason  we  will  make  no 
distinction  between  the  waters  of  the  different  reservoirs,  but  will 
take  them  in  the  aggregate. 

§  48.  The  capacity  of  the  four  reservoirs  is  27,672  acre-feet. 
Allowing  two  feet  per  acre,  they  would  together  irrigate  13,836 
acres  of  land.  The  aggregate  amount  of  potassic  oxid  found  in 
them  was  188.06  tons,  equivalent  to  347.9  tons  of  sulfate  of  potash, 
which  would  give  almost  exactly  50  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash 
per  acre  irrigated,  equivalent  to  a  dressing  of  200  pounds  of  the 
average  kainit  of  commerce.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the  percent¬ 
age  of  potash  found  in  the  waters  was  not  uniform,  that  from  War¬ 
ren’s  lake  yielding  the  highest.  It  will  also  be  recalled  that  the 
Poudre  water  as  taken  from  the  river  to  fill  these  lakes  furnishes  an 
insignificant  part  of  this  potash;  therefore,  it  is  evident  that  the 
main  supply  must  have  come  from  seepage.  Long  pond  and  War¬ 
ren’s  lake  receive  less  seepage  than  the  other  two,  and  when  we 
calculate  the  amount  of  sulfate  of  potash  which  their  waters  add 
to  the  soil  irrigated  with  it,  as  we  have  for  the  four  taken  to¬ 
gether,  we  find  that  an  acre  receives  the  equivalent  of  only  31 
pounds,  instead  of  50  pounds;  and  if  we  should  use  water  directly 
from  the  river,  as  it  comes  through  the  canyon,  it  would  add  the 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  2J 

equivalent  of  only  12.5  pounds.  This  last  quantity  is  high  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  added,  owing  to  the 
higher  percentage  of  potash  present  in  the  total  solids. 

§  49.  The  sanitary  analyses  show  that  the  changes  suffered 
while  the  water  is  stored  do  not,  in  their  total  results,  materially 
affect  the  quality  of  the  water,  the  albuminoidal  ammonia,  and 
in  one  instance  the  nitrites,  alone  showing  material  changes. 
They  also  show  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  added  in  all  forms  is 
utterly  insignificant — less  than  four  pounds  per  acre  in  the  most 
favorable  instance. 

§  50.  We  see  that  the  amount  of  plant  food  distributed  by 
means  of  the  irrigation  water,  whether  it  be  stored  water  or  such 
as  is  used  directly  from  the  river,  is  not  so  great  as  might  have 
been  expected,  but  its  effect,  if  the  potash  present  is  really  avail¬ 
able  for  the  use  of  plants,  would  undoubtedly  aid  materially  in 
maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  the  case  of  the  stored 
water  the  potash  applied  in  the  course  of  four  years  would  amount 
to  a  dressing  of  800  pounds  of  kainit. 

§  51.  There  is  another  question,  i.  e.,  how  much  do  we  add 
of  other  salts  which  are  useless  and  may  be  deleterious?  To  this 
suggestion  the  answer  is  that,  taking  the  aggregate  results  of  the 
four  reservoirs,  as  we  did  in  the  case  of  the  potash  when  we  found 
that  the  equivalent  of  50  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash  per  acre  was 
added  yearly,  we  find  that  with  this  amount  of  potash  there  is 
added  3.49  tons,  6,980  pounds,  of  other  salts.  This  result  seems 
large,  but  if  we  calculate  the  amount  of  salts  added  per  acre  when 
two  feet  of  Windsor  or  Terry  lake  water  is  applied,  we  shall  find 
still  larger  quantities.  Windsor  lake  is  the  largest  of  the  four  and 
is  intermediate  as  to  the  amount  of  salts  held  in  solution  between 
Terry  lake  and  the  others,  and  we  will  for  this  reason  analyze  the 
results  obtained  from  the  examination  of  its  water.  The  capacity 
of  the  lake  is  14,000  acre-feet,  and  its  water  holds  in  solution 
18,894.15  tons  of  total  solids.  An  application  of  two  feet  of  water 
per  acre  will  distribute  this  over  7,000  acres,  or  2.7  tons  or  5,400 
pounds  per  acre.  The  potash  contained  in  this  is  equivalent  to 
53.6  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash  per  acre.  The  calcic  sulfate 
amounts  to  1,738  pounds;  inagnesic  sulfate,  2,000  pounds;  sodic 
sulfate,  542  pounds;  sodic  carbonate,  250  pounds;  sodic  chlorid, 
salt,  174  pounds;  other  substances,  330  pounds. 

§  52.  A  like  application  of  Terry  lake  water  would  add  to 
each  acre:  potash  equivalent  to  54.5  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash; 
2,604  pounds  calcic  sulfate;  4,718  pounds  of  magnesic  sulfate; 
3,162  pounds  of  sodic  sulphate  and  919  pounds  of  sodic  carbonate. 

§  53.  The  above  figures  are  for  anhydrous  salts,  but  they  are 
doubtlessly  present  in  the  hydrated  condition,  and  if  calculated  as 
such  would  be  represented  bv  large  numbers. 


28  BULLETIN  82. 

THE  CHANGES  EFFECTED  IN  THE  WATER  USED  IN  IRRIGATION. 

§  54.  It  seems  proper  to  take  up  this  subject  before  we  pre¬ 
sent  that  of  the  return  waters.  The  changes  produced  will  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  soil  irrigated  and  will  probably  differ  in 
the  case  of  sod-covered  land  and  in  that  of  land  under  cultivation. 

§  55.  The  facts  recorded  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  relative 
to  the  changes,  which  took  place  during  storage  for  the  compar¬ 
atively  short  period  of  one  season,  clearly  indicate  that  the  only 
proper  basis  from  which  to  start  would  be  Poudre  water  taken  for 
direct  irrigation  and  a  perfectly  typical  soil.  These  conditions 
might  have  been  met  but  it  would  have  been  with  difficulty. 

§  56.  The  first  series  of  samples  taken  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  changes  in  the  composition  of  the  water  used  in  irri¬ 
gation  was  taken  in  1898,  the  second  in  1899,  and  the  third  in 
1900,  when  I  availed  myself  of  the  opportunity  offered  by  an  ex¬ 
ceptionally  heavy  and  protracted  rainfall  whereby  the  water  plane, 
as  indicated  by  the  hight  of  the  water  in  the  wells  dug  in  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  the  plot,  was  raised  to  within  from  1.0  foot  to  0.3  of  a 
foot  of  the  surface.  The  water  in  this  case  being  rain  water,  or 
water  produced  by  snow  melting  on  the  ground,  eliminated  the 
question  of  its  composition. 

§  57.  The  water  which  I  used  in  the  following  experiments 
in  1899  was  Poudre  water  mixed  with  some  seepage,  but  the  plot 
of  ground  was  not  typically  good  soil  but  rather  an  alkali  soil. 
Originally  this  soil  was  in  a  bad  condition,  but  it  had  been  im¬ 
proved  by  cultivation  at  the  time  this  experiment  was  made  and  a 
part  of  it  was  then  in  excellent  condition.  The  results  therefore 
may  represent  those  of  actual  practice  more  nearly  than  if  the 
whole  plot  had  been  in  the  very  best  condition,  but  it  clearly  in¬ 
volves  the  question  of  alkali.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  find  any 
land  where  the  drainage  is  not  perfect  which  is  entirely  free  from 
this  question,  especially  when  considered  from  a  chemical  stand¬ 
point.  The  instances  of  Terry  and  Windsor  lakes  accumulating 
in  a  single  season  27,127  and  18,894  tons  of  salts  respectively,  after 
having  been  in  use  as  storage  reservoirs  for  at  least  12  years,  is 
suggestive  of  a  goodly  supply,  particularly  when  we  consider  the 
comparatively  small  area  from  which  these  quantities  of  salts  were 
collected. 

§  58.  In  1898  the  only  water  at  my  disposal  was  seepage 
water  and  the  supply  of  this  was  limited.  The  water  plane  was 
moderately  low  and  was  raised  from  one  to  two  feet  in  different 
parts  of  the  plot.  The  water  in  the  wells  obtained  its  maximum 
hight  in  from  one  to  five  days  and  then  fell,  at  first  rapidly,  after¬ 
wards  gradually,  until  it  reached  the  lowest  point  for  the  season — 
the  maximum  fall  being  4.3  feet.  The  changes  in  the  water  will 
be  evident  from  the  following  analyses: 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  29 

TABLE  XII— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  AS  IT  FLOWED  ONTO 

PLOT  JULY  8  AND  9,  1898. 


Analytical 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  1.885 

0.942 

Sulfuric  Acid  _  __ 

_  40.389 

20.195 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  9.245 

4.622 

Chlorin _  ___ 

_  3.479 

1.740 

Sodic  Oxid.  _ 

.  13.149 

6.575 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

.  0.859 

0.429 

Calcic  Oxid.. _ 

.  21.160 

10.580 

Magnesic  Oxid 

6.900 

3.450 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.077 

0.039 

Manganic  Oxid  .. 

0.058 

0.029 

Ignition  .  _  _ 

3.256 

1.628 

Sum.. 

.100.462 

50.229 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 
Chlorin  _ _ 

1.784 

0.392 

Total  .  _ 

_  99.678 

49.837 

Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulphate _ 

51.366 

25.683 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

15.272 

7.636 

Magnesic  Chlorid  __ 

4.296 

2.148 

Potassic  Chlorid  ... 

0.567 

0.284 

Potassic  Carbonate 

0.735 

0.367 

Sodic  Carbonate  __ 

21.728 

10.864 

Sodic  Silicate _ 

0.851 

0.426 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  __  .  _ _ 

0.077 

0.039 

Manganic  Oxid...  . 

0.058 

0.029 

Ignition _  _ 

3.261 

1.631 

Sum  .  _ 

98.211 

49.107 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

1.466 

0.733 

Total  _ _ 

99.677 

49.840 

Total  solids  50.0  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


TABLE  XIII.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  AS  IT  FLOWED  OFF  AT 
MIDDLE  OF  NORTH  SIDE  OF  THE  PLOT  JULY  14,  1898.* 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  1.079 

0.791 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

29.729 

21.791 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

46.877 

34.361 

Magnesic  Sulfate 

22.064 

16.173 

Carbonic  Acid. 

.  2.895 

2.122 

Potassic  Sulfate  ___ 

2.534 

1.857 

Chlorin _ 

4.288 

3.143 

Sodic  Sulfate.  _ 

24.018 

17.605 

Sodic  Oxid, _ _ _ 

19.419 

14.234 

Sodic  Chlorid  _ 

7.076 

5.187 

Potassic  Oxid  . 

.  1.376 

1.009 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

6.981 

5.117 

Calcic  Oxid _ 

12.247 

8.977 

Sodic  Silicate 

2.138 

1.567 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

.  7.353 

5.390 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  ...  ...  _ 

0.047 

0.034 

Oxids  _ _ _ 

0.047 

0.034 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.107 

0.078 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.107 

0.078 

Ignition  _ _ 

5.135 

3.764 

Ignition  _ 

.  5.135 

3.764 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Sum  .. 

99.829 

73.173 

Sum.. _ 

100.823 

73.903 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.026 

0.019 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin  ...  .  _  . 

.  0.966 

0.708 

Total  __ 

99.855 

73.192 

Total _ 

99.857 

73.195 

Total  solids  73.3  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


*  It  was  an  accident  that  enabled  us  to  obtain  this  sample  of  run¬ 
off  water.  The  water  at  our  disposal  for  irrigating  was  not  sufficient  to 
produce  any  off-flow,  but  we,  by  an  oversight,  left  our  dam  in  the  ditch 
and  our  distributing  gates  open.  On  the  night  of  the  13th  there  was  a 
heavy  shower  in  the  foot  hills  and  others  also  having  left  their  ditches 
open  we  obtained  water  enough  to  produce  a  slight  off-flow.  It  is  plain 
that  the  water  which  came  down  thus  unexpectedly  was  storm  water 
and  was  mixed  with  the  water  which  we  had  previously  been  using  for 
irrigation.  The  actual  result  was  larger  than  is  presented  by  the  an¬ 
alysis.  The  volume  of  this  off-flow  was  small  and  continued  for  a  short 
time  only. 


30  bulletin  82. 


TABLE  XIV.- 

-ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  OF  WELL 

C,  JUNE  27, 

.  ■ 

1898.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  0.764 

0.993 

Calcic  Sulfate  ._  . 

.  30.309 

39.401 

Sulfuric  Acid, 

_  44.501 

57.851 

Magnesic  Sulfate  . 

20.048 

26.062 

Carbonic  Acid 

_  3.815 

4.960 

Potassic  Sulfate  . 

0.246 

0.320 

Chlorin 

5.521 

7.177 

Sodic  Sulfate 

.  23.439 

30.471 

Sodic  Oxid 

.  21.681 

28.186 

Sodic  Chlorid 

.  9.108 

11.840 

Potassic  Oxid  _ 

0.133 

0.173 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

9.191 

11.949 

Calcic  Oxid  ___ 

12.489 

16.236 

Sodic  Silicate 

.  1.553 

2.019 

Magnesic  Oxid 

...  6.677 

8.680 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids 

0.050 

0.065 

Oxid _ 

0.050 

0.065 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.031 

0.040 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.031 

0.040 

Ignition 

5.531 

7.190 

Ignition  .  _ 

....  5.531 

7.190 

— 

— 

— 

Sum 

.  99.506  129.357 

Sum 

...101.193  131.551 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid  0.440 

0.572 

Oxygen  Equiv. 

to 

Chlorin  _ 

1.244 

1.618 

Total  ..  .  ... 

99.946  129.929 

Total 

...  99.947  129.933 

Total  solids  130.0  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*  Before  irrigation. 


TABLE  XV.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  OF  WELL  C,  JULY  11, 

1898.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  0.398 

1.620 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

29.233 

118.918 

Sulfuric  Acid,  _ 

_  48.138 

195.823 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

27.894 

113.473 

Carbonic  Acid .  __ 

_  1.500 

6.102 

Potassic  Sulfate  _ 

0.233 

0.938 

Chlorin _ _ 

_  5.504 

22.391 

Sodic  Sulfate..  ___ 

21.738 

88.430 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

_  17.201 

69.975 

Sodic  Chlorid  . 

9  080 

36.938 

Potassic  Oxid 

.  0.126 

0.513 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

3.613 

14.699 

Calcic  Oxid 

12.046 

49.002 

Sodic  Silicate 

0.809 

3.290 

Magnesic  Oxid 

_  9.290 

37.793 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids _ _  _  _ 

0.276 

1.122 

Oxids  _  .  . . 

,  0.276 

1.122 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.070 

0.285 

Manganic  Oxid  ... 

0.070 

0.285 

Ignition 

6.529 

26.561 

Ignition  _____ 

_  6.529 

26.561 

Sum  ___  _ 

99.475 

404.654 

Sum 

101.078 

411.187 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid 

0.359 

1.460 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin 

1.241 

5.046 

Total _  _ 

99.834 

406.114 

Total 

_  99.837 

400  141 

Total  solids  400.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*  After  irrigation. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  3 1 


TABLE  XVI.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  OF  WELL  G,  JUNE  27, 

1898.  * 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

.  0.498 

1.175 

Sulfuric  Acid... 

.  44.062 

103.986 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  3.521 

8.309 

Chlorin  ...  _ 

.  7.535 

17.783 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

.  15.055 

35.530 

Potassic  Oxid  ...  . 

_  0.418 

0.986 

Calcic  Oxid _  . 

.  16.601 

39.178 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

_  8.015 

18.915 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids _ _ 

0.040 

0/94 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.060 

0.141 

Ignition  _ _ 

_  5.940 

14.018 

Sum  .  _ 

.101.745 

240.115 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin _  . 

..  1.698 

4.007 

Total _ 

100.047 

236.108 

Total  solids  236.0  grains  per 


Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate  _ 

40.299 

95.106 

Magnesic  Sulfate 

24.050 

56.758 

Potassic  Sulfate  ... 

0.770 

1.817 

Sodic  Sulfate _ 

7.062 

16.666 

Sodic  Chlorid 

12.434 

29.343 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

8.490 

20.036 

Sodic  Silicate _ 

0.790 

1.864 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids...  ._  _ 

0.040 

0.094 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.060 

0.141 

Ignition 

9.540 

14.018 

Sum 

99.935 

235.843 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.109 

0.257 

Total _ 

100.044 

236.100 

gallon. 


*  Before  irrigation. 


TABLE  XVII.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  OF  WELL  G.  JULY  11, 

1898.  * 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid . . 

.  0.337 

1.149 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

32.866  112.073 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

_  46.106 

157.221 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

27.162 

92.622 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  3.456 

11.785 

Potassic  Sulfate  _ 

1.845 

6  283 

Chlorin  _ _ 

_  6.317 

21.541 

Sodic  Sulfate _ 

13.897 

47.389 

Sodic  Oxid  _ 

17.165 

58.533 

Sodic  Chlorid 

10.424 

35.546 

Potassic  Oxid 

1.002 

3.417 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

8  333 

28.416 

Calcic  Oxid _ _ 

13.539 

46.  68 

Sodic  Silicate 

0.684 

2.332 

Magnesic  Oxid 

9.052 

30.867 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  _  _ 

0.070 

0.239 

Oxids 

0.070 

0.239 

Manganic  Oxid. 

0.060 

0.205 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.060 

0.2' !5 

Ignition 

4.352 

14.840 

Ignition 

.  4.352 

14.840 

— 

— 

Sum 

99.693  339.945 

Sum _ 

101.456 

345.965 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid 

0.337 

1.149 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

— 

Chlorin 

1.423 

4.852 

Total 

100.030  341.094 

Total  ...  _ 

100.033  34E113 

Total  solids  341.0  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*  After  irrigation. 


BULLETIN  82. 


32 


TABLE  XVIII. -ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  OF  WELL  B,  JUNE  27, 

1898.  * 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _ 

0.638 

1.347 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

38.592 

81.506 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

.  46.128 

97.422 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

24.068 

50.832 

Carbonic  Acid... 

.  3.187 

6.731 

Potassic  Sulfate  _ 

0.696 

1.470 

Chlorin  _  _ 

.  6.745 

14.245 

Sodic  Sulfate  __  _ 

12.552 

26.510 

Sodic  Oxid  ...  _ 

16.311 

34.449 

Sodic  Chlorid  .  __ 

11.130 

23.506 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

.  0.378 

0.798 

Sodic  Carbonate,. 

7.685 

16.231 

Calcic  Oxid  _ 

.  15.898 

33.576 

Sodic  Silicate 

0.833 

1.759 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

8.02  L 

16.940 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  _ 

0.070 

0.148 

Oxids  _ _  ...  _ 

0.070 

0.148 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.060 

0.127 

Manganic  Oxid..  . 

0.060 

0.127 

Ignition 

4.524 

9.555 

Ignition 

4.524 

9.555 

— 

Sum 

100.210  211.644 

Sum 

101.960  215.338 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.228 

0.482 

Oxygen  r  quiv.  to 

Chlorin 

1.520 

3.210 

Total 

100.438 

212.126 

Total 

100.440  212.128 

Total  solids  211.2  grains  per  Imperial  gallon. 


*  Before  irrigation. 


TABLE  XIX. — ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  OF  WELL  B,  JULY  11, 1898  * 


Analytical 

Results 

Silicic  Acid _ 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

Chlorin _ 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

Calcic  Oxid _ 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids _ 

Manganic  Oxid  ___ 
Ignition _ 


Grs. 

Per  Imp . 
Cent.  Gal. 
0.453  1 .422 

47.321  148.493 
2d  86  6.546 

4.756  14.924 
23.015  72.221 
0.188  0.590 

10.933  34.3 '8 
5.874  18.433 

0.039  0.122 

0.039  0.122 

5.9  '8  18.539 


Sum _ 100.612  315.720 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 
Chlorin  1.072  3.364 


Total _  99.540  312.356 


Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate.  _ 

26.540 

83.283 

Magnesic  Sulfate 

17.626 

55.310 

Potassic  Sulfate _ 

0.346 

1 .086 

Sodic  Sulfate., _ 

35.166 

110.351 

Sodic  Chlorid  _ _ 

7.849 

24.630 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

5.030 

15.785 

Sodic  Silicate _ 

0.920 

2.887 

Ferric  and  Alu. 

Oxids  _  _  _  _ 

0.039 

0.122 

Manganic  Oxid.  .  . 

0.039 

0.122 

Ignition  _  _. 

5.908 

18.539 

Sum  .  _ 

99.463 

312.U4 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid 

0.076 

0.239 

Total _  _ 

99.539 

312.353 

Total  solids,  313.8  gx-ains  per  imperial  gallon. 


*  After  irrigation. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  33 


TABLE  XX.— ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  A,  JUNE  27,  1898.* 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid__ _ 

0.649 

1.399 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

35.648 

76.857 

Sulfuric  Acid...  ... 

46.854 

100.017 

Magnesic  Sulfate. _ 

28.750 

61.985 

Carbonic  Acid _  . 

3.099 

6.681 

Potassic  Sulfate _ 

0.670 

1.444 

Chlorin  _ _ _ 

6.115 

13.183 

Sodic  Sulfate..  . 

11.393 

24.563 

Sodic  Oxid  _ 

15.289 

32.963 

Sodic  Chlorid  _  _ 

10.091 

21.756 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

0.364 

0.785 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

7.472 

16.110 

Calcic  Oxid _ 

14.685 

31.661 

Sodic  Silicate  __  __ 

1.149 

2.477 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

9.581 

20.657 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.040 

0.086 

Ferric  and  Al.Oxids 

0.040 

0.086 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.060 

0.129 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.060 

0.129 

Ignition _  _ 

4.754 

10.249 

Ignition 

4.754 

10.249 

— 

Sum  .  ... 

100.027 

215.656 

Sum _ _ 

101.490 

218.810 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.083 

0.179 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin 

.  1.378 

2.971 

Total _ 

100.110 

215.835 

Total _ 100.112  215.839 


Total  solids,  215.6  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*  Before  irrigation. 


TABLE  XXI. -ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  OF  WELL  A,  JULY  11, 1898.* 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  0.265 

1.092 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

26,267 

108.168 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

.  46.461 

191.326 

Magnesic  Sulfate _ 

31.016  127.723 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

_  1.984 

8.172 

Potassic  Sulfate _ 

0.162 

0.668 

Chlorin 

_  6.808 

28.033 

Sodic  Sulfate 

18.217 

75.018 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

_  16.904 

69.612 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

11.230 

46.246 

Potassic  Oxid 

.  0.088 

0.361 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

4.781 

19.687 

Calcic  Oxid 

_  10.824 

44.572 

Sodic  Silicate 

0.368 

1.515 

Magnesic  Oxid 

.  10.330 

42.539 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.036 

0.149 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.036 

0.149 

Manganic  Oxid. 

0.082 

0.339 

Manganic  Oxid  ___ 

_  0.082 

0.339 

Ignition _ _ 

8.140 

33.521 

Ignition 

_  8.140 

33.521 

Sum 

100.299  413.034 

Sum _ 

.101.992 

419.716 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.084 

0.346 

Oxygen  Equiv.  to 

Chlorin 

.  1.534 

6.319 

Total  ._  . 

100.383  413.380 

Total _ 

_ 100.388 

413.397 

Total  Solids,  411.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*  After  irrigation. 


§  59.  We  probably  applied  eight  inches  of  water  in  this 
irrigation  and  had  a  very  small  off-flow,  so  small  that  it  may  be 
neglected  in  any  estimate  of  the  changes  produced  by  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  the  water.  The  whole  eight  inches  may,  in  this  case,  be 
regarded  as  having  entered  the  soil  and  as  resting  for  the  time¬ 
being  upon  the  water  plane  as  it  stood  before  irrigation.  That 
this  is  not  correct  is  evident  from  what  we  have  observed  to  be 
the  effect  of  a  comparatively  small  rainfall  upon  the  height  of  the 


bulletin  82. 


34 

water  plane.  Further,  there  must  be  a  rapid  diffusion  of  salts 
taking  place  between  the  two  solutions  represented  by  the  ground 
water,  which  probably  moves  upward  when  the  surface  is  first 
moistened,  and  the  descending  irrigation  water.  This  diffusion 
may  be  greatly  modified  by  the  soil,  but  that  some  diffusion  takes 
place  can  not  be  doubted. 

§  60.  I  see  no  better  way  to  present  the  general  changes 
than  to  compare  the  ground  water  as  actually  found  before  and 
after  irrigation.  This  varied  in  the  different  wells  under  observa¬ 
tion;  it  is  usually  a  difference  of  degree  rather  than  of  character. 
While  I  know  that  in  some  respects  I  do  violence  to  the  facts 
from  minor  points  of  view,  I  think  that  by  taking  the  averages 
of  results  found,  we  obtain  a  faithful  view  of  the  general  results 
for  the  given  irrigation  and,  while  this  does  not  answer  many 
questions  which  arise,  it  seems  the  best  approach  that  we  can 
make  to  a  knowledge  of  what  takes  place.  As  we  estimate  the 
amount  of  water  applied  at  the  rate  of  eight  inches  or  two-thirds 
of  an  acre-foot,  we  will  make  our  calculations  for  this  amount 
throughout.  The  irrigation  was  begun  on  the  8th  and  the 
samples  taken  on  the  nth  instant  and,  as  we  know  that  some 
diffusion  must  have  taken  place  in  these  three  days,  we  will  as¬ 
sume  that  this  took  place  completely  with  an  equivalent  of  eight 
inches  of  the  ground  water. 

§  61.  The  two-thirds  acre-foot  of  irrigation  water  contained 
a  total  of  1,297  pounds  of  salts  in  solution;  a  like  quantity  of 
ground  water  before  irrigation  contained  5,139  pounds  of  salts  and 
after  irrigation,  9,550  pounds.  The  ground  water  as  it  was  taken 
from  the  wells  after  irrigation  showed  an  increase  of  4,411  pounds 
in  the  salts  held  in  each  eight  inches  of  water.  If,  however,  we 
had  mixed  eight  inches  of  the  irrigation  water  with  a  like  quan¬ 
tity  of  the  ground  water  before  irrigation,  each  eight  inches 
should  have  contained  3,218  pounds.  But  we  find  9,550  pounds 
which  is  an  excess  of  6,332  pounds  in  each  eight  inches,  represent¬ 
ing  the  actual  solution  of  12,664  pounds  of  salts,  which  is  prob¬ 
ably  nearer  correct  than  the  4,411  pounds.  But  as  we  wish  to 
present  conservative  figures,  we  adopt  the  latter  and  assume  that 
the  eight  inches  of  irrigation  water  applied,  dissolved  from  the 
soil  4,411  pounds  of  salts  which  were  previously  not  in  solution. 
It  would,  however,  be  better  to  say  that  the  result  of  the  irrigation 
was  to  set  this  much  salt  free,  that  is,  that  whatever  reactions  inav 
have  been  induced  between  the  salts  within  the  soil,  resulted  in 
Fringing  this  additional  amount  into  solution  in  the  ground  water. 
That  the  irrigation  water  acts  not  merely  as  a  diluent  is  proven 
k>y  the  changed  ratio  of  the  salts  present,  which  is  best  presented 
as  follows: 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  35 

TOTAL  SOLIDS  IN  GROUND  WATER  BEFORE  AND  AFTER 
IRRIGATION,  JUNE  27— JULY  11,  1898. 


Ground  Water.  Before  Irrigation.  After  Irrigation. 

Total  Solids..   .  5,139.0  9,550.0 

Pounds  Gain. 
4,411.0 

Calcic  Sulfate... _ 

_  1,860.2 

2,750.4 

890.2 

Magnesic  Sulfate. 

_  1,238.5 

2,473.5 

1,235.0 

Sodic  Sulfate  _  _ 

_  698.9 

3,129.7 

1,430.8 

Sodic  Carbonate  .  __ 

_  421.4 

515.7 

94.3 

Sodic  Chlorid 

_  560.2 

916.8 

357.6 

Organic  Matter,  etc. 

_  360.8 

763.9 

403.1 

Total _  . 

_ 5,139.0 

9,550.0 

4,411.0 

§  62.  This  table  is  probably  too  conservative,  but  it  serves 
to  show  that  in  this  soil  the  solution  of  sodic  and  magnesic  sul¬ 
fates  takes  place  in  a  far  greater  degree  than  does  that  of  the 
other  salts.  The  amount  of  potassic  oxid  held  in  solution  or  in¬ 
volved  in  the  changes  produced  by  irrigation  does  not  seem  to  be 
very  significant.  The  average  amount  of  potassic  oxid  extracted 
from  this  soil  by  a  five  days’  digestion  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  1. 1 15  specific  gravity,  is  1.25  per  cent.,  or  in  an  acre-foot  of 
soil,  taking  its  weight  as  3,500,000,  we  have  43,750  pounds  and 
the  total  potassic  oxid  in  this  soil  is  about  2.25  per  cent.,  or  78,750 
pounds  per  acre.  I  have  pointed  out  elsewhere  that  there  is  an 
abundance  of  felspar  in  this  soil  and  also  that  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid  acts  very  perceptibly  upon  it,  as  do  also  water  and  carbonic 
acid.  The  amount  of  potassic  oxid  contained  in  the  ground  water 
before  irrigation  amounted  to  16.6  pounds  in  each  eight  inches  of 
water  per  acre,  and  after  irrigation,  31.7  pounds,  an  increase  of  91 
per  cent.,  or  15. 1  pounds.  This  quantity  is  apparantly  not  very 
significant  either  as  an  absolute  quantity  or  in  comparison  with 
that  soluble  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  but  there  is  a  view  in 
which  it  may  be  significant.  A  crop  of  beets  of  14  tons  to  the 
acre  would  at  maturity  contain  about  120  or  125  pounds  of  potas¬ 
sic  oxid,  or  including  the  tops,  240  to  250  pounds.  This  repre¬ 
sents  the  season’s  gathering  by  the  plants,  but  the  application  of 
eight  inches  of  water  has  in  three  days  involved  an  eighth  of  the 
quantity  used  by  the  roots,  and  one-sixteenth  of  that  used  by  the 
whole  crop  in  changes  whereby  it  has  passed  into  solution  in  the 
ground  water;  it  may  be  a  case  of  simple  solution,  or  the  solution 
may  have  been  preceded  by  other  chemical  changes,  which  seems 
exceedingly  probable. 

§  63.  In  1899  we  had  a  very  much  better  supply  of  water 
which  we  obtained  through  the  kindness  of  Water  Commissioner 
C.  C.  Hawley;  this  was  water  taken  from  the  Poudre  but  it  was 
impossible  to  prevent  the  inter-mixing  of  some  seepage  water  of 
which  we  shall  give  as  full  an  account  as  is  required  without  en¬ 
deavoring  to  give  too  many  details.  The  facts  concerning  these 
waters  will  appear  from  the  analyses  with  sufficient  fullness  and 
further  explanations  would  be  tedious  to  the  reader. 


bulletin  82. 


36 


TABLE  XXII. -WATER  USED  IN  IRRIGATING,  SEPT.  1,  1899. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silcic  Acid  ...  ... 

3.172 

0.729 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

44.112 

10.146 

Sulfuric  Acid _  . . 

28.578 

6.559 

Magnesic  Sulfate__ 

3.866 

0.889 

Carbonic  Acid...  _ 

14.493 

3.332 

Magnesic  Chlorid,. 

4.312 

0.992 

Chlorin  ...  ._  .. 

3.221 

0.741 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

5.230 

1.203 

Sodic  Oxid  _  _ 

17.371 

3.995 

Potassic  Carbonate 

1.904 

0.438 

Potassic  Oxid  _ 

1.298 

0.299 

Sodic  Carbonate _ 

26.881 

6.183 

Calcic  Oxid  ..  _ 

18.172 

4.180 

Sodic  Silicate  .  __  . 

3.227 

0.742 

Magnesic  Oxid 

5.597 

1.287 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.318 

0.073 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.318 

0.073 

Manganic  Oxid  _  _ 

0.259 

0.060 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.259 

0.060 

Ignition  _  _____ 

8.205 

1.887 

Ignition  _  ... 

8.205 

1.887 

Sum 

98.314 

22.613 

Sum  . 

100.624 

23.142 

Excess  Silicic  Acid. 

1.583 

0.364 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.726 

0.167 

Total  _  _ _ 

99.897 

22.977 

Total  _ 

99.898 

22.975 

Total  solids,  23.0  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

TABLE  XXIII.—  SEEPAGE  WATER  FROM  MERCER  DITCH 
USED  IN  IRRIGATING,  SEPT.  2,  1899. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid__  _ _ 

1.971 

0.976 

Calcic  Sulfate  _  _  __ 

43.219 

21.393 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

35.945 

17.793 

Magnesic  Sulfate.  _ 

15.793 

7.818 

Carbonic  Acid___  __ 

10.989 

5.440 

Magnesic  Chlorid__ 

1.114 

0.551 

Chlorin 

3.381 

1.674 

Potassic  Chlorid___ 

1.014 

0.502 

Sodic  Oxid _ _ 

18.296 

9.056 

Sodic  Chlorid _  _ 

3.411 

1.688 

Potassic  Oxid  __  _  _ 

0.641 

0.317 

Sodic  Carbonate _ 

26.498 

13.117 

Calcic  Oxid 

17.804 

8.813 

Sodic  Silicate _ 

19.923 

0.952 

Magnesic  Oxid  _ 

5.733 

2.838 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.478 

0.236 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.478 

0.236 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.159 

0.079 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.159 

0.079 

Ignition  ___  __  __  __ 

5.322 

2.634 

Ignition 

5.322 

2.634 

Sum _ 

98.931 

48.970 

Sum 

100.719 

49.856 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

1.024 

0.507 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.762 

0.377 

Total  ___  _ 

99.955 

49.477 

Total  _  ___ 

,99.957 

49.479 

Total  solids,  49.5  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

TABLE  XXIV— OFF-FLOW,  N.  SIDE  SEPT.  2,  1899;  1st 

SAMPLE.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

0.688 

0.597 

Calcic  Sulfate  _ 

36.408 

31.602 

Sulfuric  Acid  _ 

42.183 

36.615 

Magnesic  Sulfate,. 

22.259 

19.321 

Carbonic  Acid_. 

6.432 

5.583 

Potassic  Sulfate _ 

2.059 

1.787 

Chlorin  _ 

3.755 

3.259 

Sodic  Sulfate  __  __ 

8.862 

7.692 

Sodic  Oxid  ___ 

17.140 

14.878 

Sodic  Chlorid. _  . 

6.197 

5.379 

Potassic  Oxid  __ 

1.118 

0.970 

Sodic  Carbonate. 

15.509 

13.462 

Calcic  Oxid 

14.998 

13.018 

Sodic  Silicate 

1.397 

1.212 

Magnesic  Oxid 

7.418 

6.439 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.050 

0.043 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.050 

0.043 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.050 

0.043 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.050 

0.043 

Ignition  _  _ 

6.981 

6.060 

Ignition 

6.981 

6.060 

Sum  ___  _ 

99.772 

86.601 

Sum 

100.813 

87.505 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid. 

0.194 

0.168 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.846 

0.734 

Total  _ 

99.966 

86.769 

Total  _ ,___ 

99.967 

86.771 

Total  solids,  86.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

*  Sample  taken  at  beginning  of  off-flow;  on-flowing  water  was  ditch  water. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  37 
TABLE  XXV.— OFF-FLOW  E.  END.  SEPT.  2.  1899:  1st  SAMPLE.  * 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

.  2.056 

0.977 

Sulfuric  Acid 

.  32.472 

15.424 

Carbonic  Acid...  . 

.  14.188 

6.738 

Chlorin _ _ 

.  2.865 

1.361 

Sodic  Oxid  ...  _ 

.  18.675 

8.871 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

0.791 

0.376 

Calcic  Oxid 

.  18.641 

8.854 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

6.116 

2.905 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.039 

0.077 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.010 

0.005 

Ignition  _ _ _ 

5.069 

2.408 

Sum _ 

.100  922 

47.936 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 

_  0.646 

0.307 

Total _ 

.100.276 

47.629 

Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

45.251 

21.494 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

8.792 

4.176 

Magnesic  Chlorid,  _ 

3.835 

1.827 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

3.294 

1.565 

Potassic  Carbonate 

1.160 

0.551 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

29.162 

13.852 

Sodic  Silicate  _  ._ 

3.166 

1.504 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.039 

0.017 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.010 

0.005 

Ignition 

5.069 

2.408 

Sum  _ .  ...  .  _ 

99.778 

47.399 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

*0.497 

0.236 

Total _  100.275 

47.635 

Total  solids,  47.5  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

*  Sample  taken  from  the  first  portion  of  off-flow  after  running  the  full  length 
of  the  plot,  600  feet. 


TABLE  XXVI.— OFF-FLOW  N.  SIDE  SEPT.  2,  1899;  2nd  SAMPLE.  * 


Analtical 

Results. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  .  _ 

2.069 

0.761 

Calcic  Sulfate...  ... 

46.511 

17.116 

Sulfuric  Acid. 

_  32.676 

12  025 

Magnesic  Sulfate.. 

7.986 

2.939 

Carbonic  Acid 

.  .  14.379 

5.291 

Magnesic  Chlorid . 

3.451 

1.270 

Chlorin ....  _ 

2  578 

0.949 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

3.317 

1.221 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

18.247 

6  715 

Potassic  Carbonate. 

0.951 

0.350 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.648 

0.238 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

29.753 

10.949 

Calcic  Oxid ... 

19.160 

7.051 

Sodic  Silicate  . 

1.641 

0  604 

Magnesic  Oxid 

5.696 

2.096 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.010 

0  004 

Ferric  and  Al. 

Oxids  0.010 

0.004 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.060 

0.022 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.060 

0.022 

Ignition 

5.076 

1868 

Ignition 

5  076 

1.868 

Sum 

98.756 

36.343 

Sum 

100  599 

37.020 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

1.261 

0  464 

Oxygen  Eq.  to 

Cl...  0  5sl 

0.214 

Total  _ _ 

100.017 

36.807 

Total 

loo  018 

36  806 

Total  solids,  36.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

*  Sample  taken  just  before  on-flow  was  cut  off. 


TABLE  XXVII.— OFF-FLOW  E.  END,  SEPT.  2, 1899,  2nd.  SAMPLE.* 


Analytical 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Results 

Cent 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid.  .  _ 

2.725 

1.150 

Calcic  Sulfate  __  . 

41.989 

17.719 

Sulfuric  Acid.. 

34.007 

14.351 

Magnesic  Sulfate,  __ 

14.588 

6.156. 

Carbonic  Acid.. 

12.588 

5.312 

Magnesic  Chlorid,. 

2.296 

0.969 

Chlorin  .  _  _ 

3.029 

1.278 

Potassic  Chlorid  _ 

1.290 

0.544 

Sodic  Oxid..  _ 

18.978 

8.009 

Sodic  Chlorid.  _  _  .  _ 

1.157 

0.488 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.815 

0.344 

Sodic  Carbonate,. 

30.353 

12.809 

Calcic  Oxid 

17.709 

7.473 

Sodic  Silicate 

1.184 

0.499 

Magnesic  Oxid.. 

5.829 

2.460 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.316 

0.133 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.316 

0.133 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.010 

0.004 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.010 

0.004 

Ignition  . 

5.116 

2.159 

Ignition 

5.116 

2.159 

Sum 

98.299 

41.480 

Sum 

101.124 

42.673 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

2.142 

0.904 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.682 

0.288 

Total 

100.441 

42.384 

Total 

100.440 

42.385 

Total  solids,  42.2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

*  Sample  taken  just  before  on-flow  was  cut  off. 


38  BULLETIN  82. 


TABLE  XXVIII. 

-ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  D,  AUGUST  31,  1899.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analtical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid .  _ _ 

1.743 

1.119 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

35.410 

22.733 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

38  907 

24  978 

Magnesic  Sulfate 

23.339 

14.984 

Carbonic  Acid 

9.398 

6.034 

Potassic  Sulfate  ___ 

0.261 

0.168 

Chlorin  _  _  _ 

3.968 

2.547 

Sodic  Sulfate. _ 

4.269 

2  741 

Sodic  Oxid  _ 

19.144 

12.290 

Sodic  Chlorid  ... 

6  548 

4.204 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

0.142 

0.091 

Sodic  Carbonate  ... 

22.661 

14.548 

Calcic  Oxid _  _ 

14.587 

9.365 

Sodic  Silicate  ...  __ 

1.066 

0.684 

Magnesic  Oxid..  __ 

7.778 

4.993 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.079 

0.051 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.079 

0.051 

Manganic  Oxid..  __ 

0.159 

0.102 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.159 

0.102 

Ignition  .  .  ...  _  . 

5.165 

3.316 

Ignition  _ _  ... 

5.165 

3.316 

Sum  _  _. 

98.957 

63.531 

Sum _ 

101.070 

64.886 

Excess  Silicic  Acid. 

1.218 

0.782 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 

0.892 

0.572 

Total  _ _ 

100.175 

64.313 

Total  ..  _ 

100.178 

64.314 

Total  solids  64.2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*  Before  irrigation. 


TABLE  XXIX,— ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  D,  SEPT.  2,  1899.* 


Analytical 

Results 

Per 

Cent 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid... _  . 

0.460 

1.211 

Calcic  Sulfate 

40.381 

106.323 

Sulfuric  Acid _ _ 

52.466 

138.143 

Magnesic  Sulfate _ 

27.663 

72.837 

Carbonic  Acid...  . 

2.369 

6.237 

Potassic  Sulfate. __ 

0.871 

2.293 

Chlorin  ._  _ 

1.904 

5.013 

Sodic  Sulfate _ _ 

17.540 

46.183 

Sodic  Oxid.  ..  .. 

13.234 

34.845 

Sodic  Chlorid..  _ 

3.152 

8.299 

Potassic  Oxid  _ 

0.473 

1.245 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

5.712 

10.040 

Calcic  Oxid...  __  . 

16.635 

43.800 

Sodic  Silicate...  _ 

0.934 

2.459 

Magnesic  Oxid  ... 

9.219 

24.274 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.010 

0.026 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.010 

0.026 

Manganic  Oxid  _. 

0.030 

0.079 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.030 

0.079 

Ignition _ _ _ 

3.651 

9.613 

Ignition  _ _ 

3.651 

9.613 

Sum  ....  .  _ _ 

99.944  263.152 

Sum _ ..... 

100.451 

264.486 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid. 

0.074 

0.198 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.429 

1.129 

Total _  _  . 

100.018  263.347 

Total  . .  . 

100.022 

263.357 

Total  solids  263.3  grains  per  imperial'gallon. 
*After  irrigation. 


TABLE  XXX. -ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  C,  AUG.  31,  1899.  * 


Analtical 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid_ 

1.663 

1.369 

Calcic  Sulfate  _ 

34.075 

28.044 

Sulfuric  Acid__ _ 

40.327 

33.189 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

20.122 

16.560 

Carbonic  Acid..  _  . 

7.788 

6.410 

Potassic  Sulfate 

0.122 

0.100 

Chlorin  ...  ...  _ 

1.557 

1.281 

Sodic  Sulfate _  . 

12.107 

9.964 

Sodic  Oxid  ...  _ 

18.846 

15.510 

Sodic  Chlorid 

2.569 

2.114 

Potassic  Oxid  ...  _ 

0.066 

0.054 

Sodic  Carbonate  ___ 

18.775 

15.452 

Calcic  Oxid...  _ 

14.037 

11.552 

Sodic  Silicate  ... 

2.368 

1.949 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

6.706 

5.519 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.090 

0.074 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.090 

0.074 

Manganic  Oxid. .  __ 

0.040 

0.033 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.040 

0.033 

Ignition _ _ 

8.931 

7.350 

Ignition _ 

8.931 

7.350 

Sum _ _ 

99.199 

81.640 

Sum _ 

100.051 

82.341 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.497 

0.409 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 

0.350 

0.288 

Total _ 

99.696 

82.049 

Total _ 

99.701 

82.053 

Total  solids  82.8  grains 

per  Imperial  gallon. 

*  Before  irrigation. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  39 


TABLE  XXXI.— ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  C.  SEPT.  2,  1899.  * 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp . 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid...  _ 

0.397 

1.366 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

25.554 

87.957 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

47.826 

164.617 

Magnesic  Sulfate  . 

25.422 

87.503 

Carbonic  Acid. _ 

2.065 

7.108 

Potassic  Sulfate 

0.363 

1.249 

Chlorin _  ... 

6.483 

22.314 

Sodic  Sulfate  __  . 

27.848 

95.853 

Sodic  Oxid, __  .  .  . . 

21.438 

73.790 

Sodic  Chlorid _  _ 

10.698 

36.823 

Potassic  Oxid  . 

0.197 

0.678 

Sodic  Carbonate  __ 

4.979 

17.138 

Calcic  Oxid 

10.527 

36.234 

Sodic  Silicate  . 

0.806 

2.774 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

8.472 

29.161 

Ferric  and  AL  Oxids 

0.030 

0.103 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.030 

0.103 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.060 

0.206 

Manganic  Oxid... 

0.060 

0.206 

Ignition  _  _  . 

3.842 

13.224 

Ignition  _ 

3.842 

13.224 

Sum  _ 

99.602  342.830 

Sum  ._ 

101.337  348.801 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid_ 

0.272 

0.936 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 

1.461 

5.029 

Total _ 

99.874  343.766 

Total _ 

99.876  343.772 

Total  solids,  844.2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

*After  irrigation. 

TABLE  XXXII.- 

-ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  B,  AUGUST  31,  1899.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid 

1.838 

2.474 

Calcic  Sulfate 

34.184 

46.012 

Sulfuric  Acid 

42.859 

57.688 

Magnesic  Sulfate  _ 

21.584 

29.052 

Carbonic  Acid 

5.866 

7.896 

Potassic  Sulfate  _ 

0.379 

0.510 

Chlorin 

4.790 

6.447 

Sodic  Sulfate.  .  __ 

14.552 

19.587 

Sodic  Oxid 

19.527 

26.283 

Sodic  Chlorid  . 

7.904 

10.639 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.206 

0.277 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

14.144 

19.038 

Calcic  Oxid 

14.082 

18.954 

Sodic  Silicate 

1.369 

1.842 

Magnesic  Oxid 

7.193 

9.682 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.138 

0.186 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.138 

0.186 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.069 

0.093 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.069 

0.093 

Ignition _ _ 

4.691 

6.314 

Ignition  . 

4.69  L 

6.314 

Sum  .  . 

99.014 

133.273 

Sum 

101.259 

136.294 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

1.164 

1.567 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl. 

1.079 

1.452 

Total _ 100.178  134.840 

Total 

100.180  134.842 

Total  solids  134.6  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

*  Before  irrigation. 

TABLE  XXXIII.— ANALYSIS 

OF  WELL  B,  SEPT. 

2,  1899.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal.  • 

Silicic  Acid 

1.048 

1.555 

Calcic  Sulfate  .  . 

35.087 

52.069 

Sulfuric  Acid 

43.021 

63.843 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

21.398 

31.755 

Carbonic  Acid.. 

6.358 

9.435 

Potassic  Sulfate  ... 

0.123 

0.183 

Chlorin 

4.286 

6.360 

Sodic  Sulfate..  _  . _ 

14.221 

21.104 

Sodic  Oxid 

19.261 

28.583 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

7.073 

10.496 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.067 

0.099 

Sodic  Carbonate  _ 

15.331 

22.751 

Calcic  Oxid 

14.454 

21.450 

Sodic  Silicate _  . 

0.745 

1.106 

Magnesic  Oxid 

7.131 

10.582 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.020 

0.030 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.020 

0.030 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.040 

0.059 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.040 

0.059 

Ignition  ..  __  _ 

5.381 

7.985 

Ignition 

5.381 

7.985 

Sum  ... 

99.419  147.538 

Sum 

101.067  149.981 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.681 

1.011 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.966 

1.433 

Total _ 100.100  148.549 

Total _ 100.101  148.548 

Total  solids,  148.4  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*  After  irrigation. 


40 


BULLETIN  82. 


TABLE  XXXIV.— ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  A,  AUG.  31,  1899.  * 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ ... 

.  1.370 

1.586 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

30.416 

35.191 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

.  43.578 

50.420 

Magnesic  Sulfate  . 

27.369 

31.666 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  3.838 

4.441 

Potassic  Sulfate.. 

0.342 

0.396 

Chlorin  ...  ...  _ 

_  5.755 

6.658 

Sodic  Sulfate _ 

12.941 

14.973 

Sodic  Oxid__ _ 

_  17.006 

19.676 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

9.497 

10.988 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

.  0.186 

0.215 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

9.255 

10.708 

Calcic  Oxid  _  _ 

.  12.530 

14.497 

Sodic  Silicate  _  ... 

1.763 

2.040 

Magnesic  Oxid  __ 

9.121 

10.553 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.110 

0.127 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.110 

0.127 

Manganic  Oxid.. 

0.060 

0.069 

Manganic  Oxid  ... 

0.060 

0.069 

Ignition _  _ 

7.751 

8.967 

Ignition _ _ 

.  7.751 

8.967 

Sum  .  _  _  . 

99.504 

115.125 

Sum 

101.305  117.209 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.502 

0.581 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.. 

_  1.297 

1.501 

Total _ 100.006  115.706 

Total  _ _ _ 

.100.008  115.708 

Total  solids  115.7  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

^Before  irrigation. 

TABLE  XXXV.— ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  A,  SEPT. 

2,  1899.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid.  .  _  . 

_  0.907 

1.486 

Calcic  Sulfate.  .  . 

32.552 

53.320 

Sulfuric  Acid.. 

.  45.097 

73.869 

Magnesic  Sulfate  . 

27.354 

44.806 

Carbonic  Acid  . 

4.720 

7.731 

Potassic  Sulfate  . 

0.175 

0.287 

Chlorin 

.  4.621 

7.569 

Sodic  Sulfate. 

13.546 

22.188 

Sodic  Oxid 

.  16.900 

27.672 

Sodic  Chlorid  .  ... 

7.626 

12.491 

Potassic  Oxid 

_  0.095 

0.156 

Sodic  Carbonate 

11 .38  L 

18.642 

Calcic  Oxid 

_  13.407 

21.964 

Sodic  Silicate  ._ 

0.552 

0.914 

Magnesic  Oxid 

.  9.116 

14.932 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.040 

0.065 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.040 

0.065 

Manganic  Oxid__ 

0.030 

0.049 

Manganic  Oxid 

_  0.030 

0.049 

Ignition 

5.999 

9.826 

Ignition 

5.999 

9.826 

Sum 

99.255 

162.588 

Sum 

.100.932  165.329 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.635 

1.040 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 

_  1.041 

1.705 

Total 

99.890 

163.628 

Total 

_  99.891 

163.624 

l 

Total  solids  163.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
*After  irrigation. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  4 1 

SANITARY  ANALYSES  OF  IRRIGATION  WATERS,  AUGUST  31 

TO  SEPTEMBER  2,  1899. 

Ditch  water  as  it  flowed  onto  the  plot.  Sept.  1,  1899. 

Seepage  water  as  it  flowed  onto  the  plot. 

Water  as  it  flowed  off  at  north  side  of  plot.  Sept.  2,  1899.  Be¬ 
ginning  of  off-flow. 

Water  as  it  flowed  off  at  east  end  of  plot.  Sept.  2,  1899.  Begin¬ 
ning  of  off-flow. 

Water  as  it  flowed  off  at  north  side  of  plot.  End  of  off-flow. 
Water  as  it  flowed  off  at  east  end  of  plot.  End  of  off-flow. 
Water  of  well  A.  August  31,  1899.  Before  irrigation. 

August  31,  1899.  Before  irrigation. 

August  31,  1899.  Before  irrigation. 

August  31,  1899.  Before  irrigation. 
September  2,  1899.  After  irrigation. 
September  2,  1899.  After  irrigation. 
September  2,  1899.  After  irrigation. 
September.  2,  1899.  After  irrigation. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 
9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 


Water  of  well  B. 
Water  of  well  C. 
Water  of  well  D. 
Water  of  well  A. 
Water  of  well  B. 
Water  of  well  C. 
Water  of  well  D. 


SANITARY  ANALYSES  OF  WATER  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  IRRIGATION. 

PARTS  PER  MILLION. 


Total 

Solids 

Chlo- 

rin 

Nitrates 

Nitrites 

Ammonia 

Albuminoidal 

Ammonia 

Oxy¬ 

gen 

Con¬ 

sumed 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Nitric 

Acid 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Nitrous 

Acid 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Am¬ 

monia 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Am¬ 

monia 

1 

328.5 

9.40 

Trace 

Trace 

0.4400 

1.6730 

0.3180 

0.3860 

0.3380 

0.4100 

4.625 

2 

707.1 

15.30 

Trace 

Trace 

0.0700 

0.2340 

0.1820 

0.2210 

0.3140 

0.3825 

4.450 

3 

1240.0 

50.70 

0.440 

1.970 

0.1400 

0.4690 

0.3160 

0.3840 

0.5540 

0.6720 

7.740 

4 

678  5 

27.10 

0.240 

1.077 

0.2600 

0.8700 

0.0560 

0.0680 

0.2490 

0.3020 

3.875 

5 

525.7 

17.10 

Trace 

Trace 

0.1100 

0.3680 

0.0630 

0.0765 

0.3540 

0.4290 

4.555 

6 

602.8 

18.70 

0.080 

0.359 

0.1000 

0.3348 

0.0840 

0.1020 

0.3420 

0.4150 

5.720 

7 

1652.8 

76.80 

0.440 

1.970 

0.0025 

0.0088 

0.0320 

0.0388 

0.2500 

0.3029 

8 

1922.8 

99.50 

0.480 

2.154 

0.0003 

0.0010 

0.0190 

0.0230 

0.0950 

0.1147 

9 

1175.8 

57.40 

0.560 

2.513 

0.0025 

0.0084 

0.0220 

0.0267 

0.0560 

0.0674 

10 

917.1 

43.10 

0  600 

2.692 

0.0250 

0.0837 

0.0700 

0.0850 

0.0860 

0.1038 

11 

2340.0 

108.10 

0.720 

3.231 

0.0025 

0.0084 

0.0470 

0.0570 

0.2260 

0.2740 

12 

2120.0 

103.40 

0.440 

1.970 

0.0060 

0.0200 

0.0600 

0.0738 

0.1430 

0.1730 

13 

4917.1 

374.30 

1.700 

7-628 

0.0300 

0.1000 

0.4760 

0.5780 

2.5680 

3.1170 

14 

3761.4 

107.70 

0.360 

1.605 

0.0900 

0.1090 

0.4120 

0.5000 

2.3000 

2.7920 

§  64.  We  had,  as  already  stated,  a  good  supply  of  water  and 
can  therefore  make  our  calculations  •  on  the  basis  of  an  acre-foot 
and  approximate  closely  to  the  results  actually  produced.  As  it 
was  impossible  to  determine  with  any  approach  to  accuracy  the 
amount  of  seepage  water  which  got  mixed  with  the  .ditch  water 
before  it  reached  the  plot,  I  will  neglect  it  in  our  estimate  but 
will  state  separately  the  amount  of  salts  carried  by  the  seepage  as 
we  collected  it.  The  results  so  far  as  the  amount  and  character 
of  the  salts  in  the  ground  water  will  not  be  affected  thereby. 


42 


bulletin  82. 


§  65.  The  ditch  water  carried  total  solids  to  the  amount  of 
more  than  twice  as  much  as  I  have  ever  found  in  Poudre  water  at, 
or  rather  a  little  below,  the  point  where  this  water  was  taken  out. 
But  I  have  already  pointed  out  the  fact  that  the  Poudre  water  in¬ 
creases  materially  in  the  amount  of  total  solids  held  in  solution  from 
a  point  just  above  the  mouth  of  the  North  Fork  to  a  point  below 
Bellvue,  a  distance  of  less  than  eight  miles.  The  maximum  in¬ 
crease  observed  at  a  period  of  low  water  was  about  four  times  the 
amount  contained  at  the  higher  point.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  sur¬ 
prise  then  that  there  should  be  still  greater  increase  after  it  has 
flowed  through  a  cultivated  section,  for  a  little  more  than  four 
miles.  This  water  carried  894.5  pounds  of  total  solids  in  each  acre- 
foot  and  the  salts  represented  were  not  present  in  the  propor¬ 
tions  usually  found.  They  wer'e  calcic  sulfate,  393.6;  magnesic 
sulfate,  very  little  or  none;  sodic  carbonate  239.6  and  potassic  oxid 
(K20)  1 1.6  pounds. 

§  66.  An  acre-foot  of  the  seepage  water  as  it  was  gathered 
at  the  time,  carried  1,925  pounds  of  total  solids,  but  as  we  do  not 
know  the  amount  of  this  water  flowing  in  at  the  time,  we  cannot 
make  any  correction  for  it.  The  relative  amount  was  certainly  not 
as  much  as  one-fourth  and  the  weights  of  salts  subsequently  dealt 
with  being  large  and  only  approximate  at  best,  the  seepage  water 
can  justly  be  neglected.  The  salts  held  in  solution  show  clearly 
that  it  is  properly  classed  as  seepage  water  though  evidently 
mixed  with  ditch  water  which  had  run  over  the  surface  of  the 
meadow  along  the  edge  of  which  our  lateral  ran.  These  salts 
were,  according  to  our  manner  of  combining  the  analytical  results, 
as  follows;  calcic  sulfate,  828.0;  magnesic  sulfate,  304.0;  sodic  car¬ 
bonate,  511.6;  potassic  oxid  (K20)  12.4  pounds  per  acre-foot. 

§  67.  The  ground  water  before  and  after  irrigation  carried 
the  following  quantities  of  total  solids  composed  of  the  salts  given 
herewith: 

TOTAL  SOLIDS  IN  GROUND  WATER  AUG.  31.-SEPT.  2,  1899, 

PER  ACRE-FOOT. 

Before  Irrigation.  After  Irrigation.  Pounds  Gain. 


Total  Solids _  3,868.0  8,809.0  4,941.0 


Calcic  Sulfate _  1,303.5  2,942.2  1.638.7 

Magnesic  Sulfate _  893.5  2,237.5  1,344.0 

Sodic  Sulfate . . 425.5  1,612.0  1,186.5 

Sodic  Carbonate _ 543.0  740.0  197.0 

Sodic  Chlorid _  255.3  616.6  361.3 

Organic  Matter,  etc. _  447.2  660.7  213.5 


Total _ _ 3,868.0  8,809.0  4,941.0 


§  68.  This  shows  an  increase  in  the  total  solids  contained 
in  each  acre-foot  of  ground  water  of  4,941  pounds,  but  if  we  con- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  43 

sider,  as  suggested  in  the  observations  made  on  the  irrigation  of 

1898,  that  the  ground  water  as  taken  after  irrigation  represents  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  irrigation  water  and  ground  water  we 
find  that  to  produce  this  change  in  the  amount  of  total  solids 
12,856  pounds  of  salts  must  have  passed  into  solution. 

§  69.  For  the  experiment  of  1898  we  found  that  4,411 
pounds  went  into  solution  or,  assuming  a  mixing  to  the  extent  of 
equal  parts,  12,664  pounds  per  acre-foot;  for  1899  we  have  4,941 
pounds  and  12,856.  When  we  attempt  to  find  how  this  gain  was 
distributed  between  the  different  salts  we  find  the  same  order, 
namely  sodic  sulfate,  magnesic  sulfate  and  calcic  sulfate.  In 

1899,  however,  the  calcic  sulfate  shows  a  greater  increase  than  in 
1898.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  influence  of  well  D,  which  in 
1898  could  not  be  included,  because  being  near  the  point  of 
onflow  it  was  not  looked  after  as  carefully  as  it  should  have  been, 
and  the  water  getting  advantage  of  us  ran  into  the  well  from  the 
surface.  In  1898  the  percentage  of  calcic  sulfate  in  the  residue 
from  the  ground  water  was  lower  after  irrigation  than  before,  ex¬ 
cept  in  the  case  of  well  D,  which  showed  an  increase  of  five  per 
cent.  The  result  is  probably  correct  and  represents  what  actually 
took  place,  but  it  is  contrary  to  our  observations.  While  it  mod¬ 
ifies  our  general  results,  it  does  not  reverse  them. 

§  70.  The  potassic  oxid  in  an  acre-foot  of  the  ditch  water 
used  was  only  11.6  pounds,  in  the  ground  water  before  irrigation 
5.8  pounds,  in  the  ground  water  after  irrigation  18.3  pounds,  or  if 
we  consider  the  ground  water  after  irrigation  as  representing 
a  mixture  of  equal  parts,  as  before,  we  have  19.2  pounds  of 
potassic  oxid  brought  into  solution  by  the  application  of  an  acre- 
foot  of  water. 

§  7 1.  The  water  that  flowed  over  and  off  of  the  plot  was  not 
large  in  quantity  but  we  collected  samples  as  near  the  beginning 
and  end  of  off-flow  as  was  feasible.  The  salient  features  of  the 
results  will  be  seen  upon  an  examination  of  the  analyses. 

§72.  The  off-flow  took  place  at  two  points,  one  near  the 
center  of  the  north  side  of  the  plot,  the  other  at  the  east  end,  the 
water  flowing  from  west  to  east. 

§  73.  The  samples  obtained  of  the  off-flow  on  the  north  side 
showed  a  very  marked  difference  in  the  quantity  of  total  solids 
present  in  the  first  and  second  samples.  The  first  sample  con¬ 
tained  3,390,  the  second  1,431  pounds  per  acre-foot.  The  sample 
taken  at  the  east  end  of  the  plot  showed  the  same  fact  but  much 
less  markedly;  the  first  sample  containing  1,847,  the  second  1,641 
pounds  per  acre-foot.  This  difference  is  accounted  for,  I  think, 
by  the  fact  that  we  failed  to  get  the  first  portion  of  the  off-flow  at 
the  east  end,  while  we  succeeded  in  getting  it  at  the  north  side. 
The  decrease  in  the  total  salts  carried  in  solution  by  such  water  is 


bulletin  82. 


44 

very  rapid  at  first  and  gradually  becomes  slower  which  fully  ex¬ 
plains  the  differences  observed  in  these  two  sets  of  samples.  It  is 
evident  from  what  I  have  said,  relative  to  the  amount  of  off-flow 
and  the  fact  that  it  was  only  by  the  courtesy  of  the  water  com¬ 
missioner  that  we  obtained  this  water,  that  we  did  all  that  we 
could  with  this  subject.  When  we  consider  that  this  water 
on  leaving  the  plot  after  flowing  over  it  for  600  feet  had 
only  washed  off  and  dissolved  out  between  800  and  1,000  pounds 
of  salts  per  acre-foot,  under  very  favorable  conditions,  and  that  the 
rate  of  action  decreases  rapidly  it  would  seem  to  indicate  that  long 
continued  flooding  with  off-flow  would  not  be  an  advisable  pro- 
ceedure  in  order  to  remove  salts  from  the  soil. 

§  74.  There  is  one  thing  suggested  by  the  analyses,  i.  e., 
that  in  the  case  of  long  continued  flooding  the  amount  of  potash 
removed  might  become  a  matter  worthy  of  consideration.  The 
percentage  of  this  substance  present  in  the  residue  from  the  off- 
flowing  waters  is  not  so  high  as  in  the  residue  obtained  from  the 
waters  applied,  but  when  the  increase  in  the  total  solids  is  taken 
into  consideration  it  indicates  a  probable  loss  of  this  substance. 
Our  data  is  not  adequate  to  justify  general  conclusions  on  this 
subject.  My  opinion,  however,  is  that  the  loss  is  less  serious  than 
one  would  be  inclined  to  think,  judging  from  the  results  shown  by 
these  samples. 

§  75.  The  sanitary  analyses  show  the  same  facts  relative  to 
the  total  solids  and  chlorin,  but  they  are  given  in  terms  of  parts 
per  million,  instead  of  grains  per  gallon.  In  the  total  solids  we 
discover  an  extreme  quantity  in  the  well  waters  after  irrigation, 
equal  to  13  times  the  quantity  in  the  water  used  for  irrigating,  and 
over  four  times  the  amount  found  in  the  same  well  before  irriga¬ 
tion.  The  chlorin  is  40  times  greater  in  the  well  water  after  irri¬ 
gation  than  in  the  ditch  water  applied,  and  between  six  and  seven 
times  greater  than  in  the  same  well  before  irrigation.  The  principal 
object  in  making  the  sanitary  analyses  was  to  determine  the  dif¬ 
ferent  forms  and  quantities  in  which  nitrogen  was  present.  The 
quantities  found,  even  when  taken  together,  are  scarcely  worth 
considering  so  far  as  their  fertilizing  value  is  concerned.  The 
ditch  water  used  in  1899  contained  in  all  forms  almost  three 
pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre-foot.  The  soil  to  which  this  water 
was  applied  contained  in  the  first  foot  of  soil  3,500  pounds.  The 
three  pounds  of  nitrogen,  if  it  were  present  as  potassic  nitrate, 
would  be  insignificant,  but  the  analysis  shows  that  none  of  it  was 
present  as  nitric  acid.  This  ditch  water  shows  the  presence  of 
more  nitrous  acid  than  any  sample  analyzed  in  connection  with 
the  work. 

§  76.  The  seepage  water  that  mingled  with  the  ditch  water 
was  even  poorer  in  nitrogen  than  the  ditch  water,  so  the  water 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  45 

used  in  this  irrigation  literally  vanishes  as  a  factor  in  any  question 
pertaining  to  nitrogen. 

§  77.  The  nitrates,  or  rather  the  corresponding  nitric  acid 
in  the  ground  water  before  and  after  irrigation,  does  not  show 
changes  on  the  scale  I  anticipated.  An  acre-foot  of  ground  water 
before  irrigation  contained  6.413  pounds  of  nitric  acid,  as  nitrates, 
and  after  irrigation  9.861  pounds,  which  correspond  roughly  to  2.2 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  a  wholly  insignificant  amount  from  any  prac¬ 
tical  standpoint.  The  amount  is  not  only  small  but  it  must  also 
be  considered  that  at  least  three  and  one-half  feet  of  soil  have  prob¬ 
ably  been  involved  in  producing  this  result.  Whatever  reactions 
may  have  taken  place,  the  elimination,  or  the  passing  of  the 
nitrates  into  a  free  solution,  has  taken  place  to  a  very  small  extent.^ 

§  78.  Nitrous  acid  is  present,  both  before  and  after  irriga¬ 
tion,  in  such  small  quantities  that  a  much  more  extended  and 
careful  investigation  would  be  required  to  justify  even  a  tentative 
interpretation.  The  quantity  present  after,  is  greater  than  before 
irrigation,  but  the  quantity  present  in  either  case  is  small,  not  a 
tenth  of  that  present  in  the  ditch  water. 

§  79.  In  the  spring  of  1900  we  had  an  exceptionally  heavy 
precipitation,  snow  and  rain.  Beginning  March  27,  we  had  3.5 
inches  of  snow;  on  the  30th,  a  little  rain,  and  from  April  4  to  9 
inclusive,  rain  or  snow  daily.  During  this  time  we  had  12  inches 
of  snow  fall,  and  a  total  of  4.2  inches  of  water.  This  differs 
materially  from  an  irrigation  of  4.2  inches,  the  whole  surface  of 
adjacent  land  receiving  the  same  amount  of  water  which,  I  con¬ 
sider,  influences  the  water  plane  materially,  either  by  movement 
or  pressure.  The  water  plane  in  this  case  was  brought  up  to 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface.  This  may  have  been  the  result 
of  water  from  the  adjoining  lands.  The  snow  which  melted 
slowly,  and  to  which  there  was  a  daily  addition  of  from  .2  to  .4 
inches  of  rainfall  at  this  time,  gave  the  water  opportunity  to  enter 
the  soil  slowly  and  over  the  whole  area  at  the  same  time. 
Samples  of  well  A  were  taken  April  9  and  17,  1900,  when  the 
water  plane  was  perhaps  at  its  highest  point,  the  analysis  of  which 
resulted  as  follows: 


46 


bulletin  82. 


TABLE  XXXVI.— ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  A,  APR.  9,  1900. 


Analytical 

Results. 

Per 
Cent . 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  __ 

0.271 

1.965 

Calcic  Sulfate 

16.733 

121.314 

Sulfuric  Acid  ___  .  . 

45.332 

328.657 

Magnesic  Sulfate.. 

36.146 

262.059 

Carbonic  Acid  . 

1383 

10.027 

Potassic  Sulfate. 

0.291 

2.110 

Chlorin  __  _ 

8.931 

64.749 

Sodic  Sulfate  .  ._. 

19.993 

144.949 

Sodic  Oxid  .  _ 

18.936 

137.286 

Sodic  Chlorid. 

14.738 

106.850 

Potassic  Oxid. 

0158 

1.146 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

3.335 

24.179 

Calcic  Oxid 

6  893 

49.974 

Sodic  Silicate. 

0.550 

3.987 

Magnesic  Oxid 

12.046 

87.333 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.050 

0.363 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.050 

0.363 

Manganic  Oxid 
Ignition...  .  . 

0.060 

0  435 

Manganic  Oxid__  .  _ 

0.060 

0.435 

8.206 

59.493 

Ignition  _  _ 

8.206 

59.493 

Sum 

100.102 

725.739 

Sum  ___  _ 

102.266 

741.428 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid. 

0.148 

1.073 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

2.012 

14  587 

Total . 

100.250 

726.812 

Total _  _ 

100.254 

726.841 

Total  solids  725.0  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


TABLE  XXXVII.— ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  A,  APRIL  17,1900. 


Analytical 

Results. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  ...  ..  . 

0.284 

1285 

Calcic  Sulfate 

16.832 

76.131 

Sulfuric  Acid  ...  .. 

45.565 

206.090 

Magnesic  Sulfate.. 

33.716 

152.497 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

2.347 

10.615 

Potassic  Sulfate.. 

0.160 

0.724 

Chlorin _ _ _ 

7.554 

34.167 

Sodic  Sulfate 

23.286 

105.323 

Sodic  Oxid  _ _ _ 

20.108 

90  948 

Sodic  Chlorid 

12.466 

56.384 

Potassic  Oxid  _ _ 

0.087 

0.394 

Sodic  Carbonate _ 

5.659 

25.596 

Calcic  Oxid 

6.934 

31.362 

Sodic  Silicate 

0016 

0.072 

Magnesic  Oxid 

11.236 

50.820 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.030 

0.136 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.030 

0.136 

Manganic  Oxid 

0  030 

0.136 

Manganic  Oxid  ... 

0  030 

0.136 

Ignition  ..  ... 

7.618 

34.456 

Ignition 

7  618 

34.456 

Sum  ....  ... 

99.813  451  455 

Sum 

101.793 

460.409 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.276 

1.248 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

1.702 

7.698 

Total  ._  ... 

100  089  452.703 

Total 

100.091 

452.711 

Total  solids  452.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


TABLE  XXXVIII. — ANALYSIS  OF  WELL  G,  APRIL  17,  1900. 


\ 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _ 

0.285 

1.340 

Calcic  Sulfate 

24.535 

115.364 

Sulfuric  Acid 

44  885 

211.049 

Magnesic  Sulfate 

29.200 

137  298 

Carbonic  Acid  . 

1.964 

9.235 

Potassic  Sulfate _ 

0.655 

3.080 

Chlorin  ...  _  _ 

8.216 

38  632 

Sodic  Sulfate 

18  980 

89.244 

Sodic  Oxid  _ 

18.741 

88.120 

Sodic  Chlorid 

13.558 

63.750 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.359 

1  688 

Sodic  Carbonate 

4.736 

22.268 

Calcic  Oxid  _ 

10.107 

47.523 

Sodic  Silicate 

0.579 

2.722 

Magnesic  Oxid 

9  731 

45  755 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.040 

0.188 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0  040 

0.188 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.010 

0  047 

Manganic  Oxid..  _. 

0  010 

0  047 

Ignition 

7.534 

35.425 

Ignition 

7  534 

35.425 

Sum 

99.827 

469.386 

Sum 

101  872 

479.002 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid 

0.192 

0.903 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

1.851 

8.703 

Total 

100.019 

470.289 

Total 

100.021 

470.299 

Total  solids  470.2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  47 


§  80.  The  sample  of  water  taken  April  9,  1900,  well  A,  just 
before  the  end  of  an  unusually  heavy  and  protracted  rainfall, 
whereby  the  ground  was  filled  with  water,  contains  in  an  acre-foot 
of  water  28,197  pounds  of  salts.  The  water  of  this  well  is  usual¬ 
ly  high,  therefore  to  obtain  a  better  idea  of  what  the  actual  in¬ 
crease  is,  I  have  computed  the  average  amounts  of  sulfates  in  this 
water  as  given  for  11  samples  taken  in  1898.  When  the  water 
was  low  in  this  well  the  total  solids  were  also  low.  In  November, 
1898,  there  were  164  grains  per  gallon. 


WATER  OF  WELL  A. 


April  9 ,  1900. 


Total  solids  in  an  acre-foot _  28,197  pounds 

Calcic  Sulfate _  4,708  pounds 

Magnesic  Sulfate _  10,179  pounds 

Sodic  Sulfate _ _  5,639  pounds 


Average  for  1898. 
8,899  pounds 
3,115  pounds 
2,492  pounds 
979  pounds 


§  81.  The  sample  of  water,  well  A,  taken  eight  days  later, 
serves  to  show  how  rapidly  the  total  solids  fell  at  this  time.  The 
water  plane  had  in  meantime  fallen  about  0.8  of  a  foot.  The  total 
solids  in  an  acre-foot  have  fallen  from  28,197  to  17,722  pounds,  a 
difference  of  about  10,000  pounds.  Further,  the  salts  remaining 
in  solution  have  another  ratio.  On  April  9,  the  calcic  to  the  mag- 
nesic  to  the  sodic  sulfate  stood  roughly  as  1  :  2  :  1,  but  on  the 
17th  inst.  they  stood  as  1  :  5  :  3^,  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
calcic  sulfate  has  receded  to  the  greatest  extent,  magnesic  sulfate 
next  and  the  sodic  sulfate  in  the  least  measure. 

§  82.  Well  G  is  near  well  A  but  is  a  shallower  well  and  its 
waters  are  separated  from  those  in  an  underlying  stratum  of  gravel 
as  explained  in  a  former  bulletin.  This  sample  perhaps  represents 
the  water  in  the  soil  more  faithfully  than  does  the  water  of  well 
A,  but  in  the  main  it  presents  the  same  general  features,  the  rela¬ 
tive  quantity  of  the  salts  being  a  little  different  and  their  total 
quantity  a  little  higher. 

§  83.  Other  samples  of  water  were  taken  from  these  wells 
one  month  later,  when  the  water  plane  had  fallen  16  inches.  These 
samples  show  142.5  grains  total  solids  for  well  A,  a  decrease  of 
582.5  grains;  and  379  for  well  G,  a  decrease  of  91  grains  per  gal¬ 
lon.  The  percentage  of  calcic  sulfate  had  materially  increased  in 
well  A,  but  only  slightly  in  G;  that  of  the  magnesic  sulfate  was 
about  the  same,  while  the  percentage  of  sodic  sulfate  had  decreased 
in  each  case. 

§  84.  We  have  more  potassic  oxid  in  the  water  from  well  G 
than  in  that  from  well  A.  In  the  latter  we  have  44.5  pounds,  in 
the  former  63.6  pounds  per  acre-foot,  neither  of  them  being  very 
large  quantities;  the  smaller  being  scarcely  10  times  as  much  as 
water  dissolves  from  finely  divided  felspar  in  a  few  days. 

§  85.  These  experiments  indicate  that  either  simple  solution 
of  salts,  feebly  held  in  the  soil,  takes  place  on  a  large  scale,  or  else 


BULLETIN  82. 


48 

a  series  of  reactions  whereby  these  salts  pass  into  solution  when  the 
soil  is  supplied  with  an  abundant  quantity  of  water;  bnt  the  rela¬ 
tive  quantities  that  go  into  solution  vary,  and  the  ratios  in  which 
the  salts  are  present  are  not  those  of  their  solubilities. 

THE  DRAIN  WATERS. 

§  86.  There  was  110  drain  through  the  plot  of  ground  at 
the  time  the  irrigation  experiments  were  made,  so  I  can  not 
give  analyses  of  drain  waters  which  are  strictly  comparable  to 
the  waters  used  in  irrigation.  I  regret  this  bnt  I  could  not  do 
better  than  to  take  drain  water  from  another  point,  which  I  did. 
This  plot  was  subsequently  drained  and  an  analysis  of  the  water 
from  this  drain  will  be  given  later.  The  first  sample  of  drain  water 
which  I  shall  give  was  taken  April  20,  1900,  three  days  later 
than  the  last  sample  of  well  water  given,  and  is  fairly  comparable 
to  these,  though  taken  at  some  distance  below  the  plot  where 
the  wells  were  dug. 


TABLE  XXXIX.— ANALYSIS  OF  DRAIN  WATER,  APR.  20,  1900. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp . 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _ 

0.8i6 

0.P63 

Calcic  Sulfate  _  _  . 

40.406 

45,982 

Sulfuric  Acid  . 

40.284 

45.843 

Magnesic  Sulfate.  __ 

21.260 

24.194 

Carbonic  Acid  ...  . 

8.537 

9.715 

Potassic  Sulfate _ 

0  145 

0.165 

Chlorin  ... _ _  .. 

3.939 

4.483 

Sodic  Sulfate...  ... 

4.052 

4.611 

Sodic  Oxid  ... 

17.304 

19.692 

Sodic  Chlorid  ...  .. 

6.500 

7  397 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.079 

0.090 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

20  585 

23.426 

Calcic  Oxid 

16.645 

18.941 

Sodic  Silicate 

0.071 

0  081 

Magnesic  Oxid 

7.085 

8.063 

Ferric  and  Alu.  Oxids  0.050 

0.057 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0  050 

0.057 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0  060 

0.068 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.060 

0.068 

Ignition 

6379 

7.259 

Ignition 

6.379 

7.259 

Sum 

99.508 

113.240 

Sum 

101.208 

115.174 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.811 

0.923 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.887 

1.009 

Total  _ _ _ 

100.319 

114.163 

Total 

100.32  L 

114.165 

Total  solids,  118.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


§  87.  This  sample  was  taken  from  a  new  drain  which  was 
being  laid  beside  an  old  one.  The  gravel  at  this  time  was  full  of 
water  as  is,  so  far  as  I  know,  always  the  ease.  This  is  the  same 
stratum  of  gravel  mentioned  in  another  place,  also  in  former 
bulletins,  as  underlying  my  beet  plot.  A  comparison  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding  analysis  with  one  of  water  taken  from  this  gravel  under 
the  beet  plot,  shows  a  general  similarity,  but  with  some 
differences,  the  most  striking  of  which  is  in  regard  to  the  sodic 
sulfate,  which  is  much  more  abundant  in  the  water  taken  directly 
from  the  gravel  than  in  the  drain  water.  I11  this  connection  I 
would  repeat  what  I  have  said  in  Bulletin  No.  72,  page  33,  that 
the  ground  and  drain  waters  are  not  alike;  that  the  total  solids  de¬ 
crease  with  the  depth  from  which  the  sample  is  taken,  and  that 
while  sodic  sulfate  is  abundant  in  the  ground  waters,  it  is  not  so 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  49 

in  the  drain  waters.  We  have  in  this  case  an  illustration  in  point. 
The  ground  waters  taken  three  days  previously  showed  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  452  and  470  grains  total  solids  per  imperial  gallon;  the 
above  drain  water  showed  113.8  grains.  The  ground  waters 
showed  respectively  105  and  89  grains  of  sodic  sulfate  per  gallon, 
the  drain  water  4.6  grains,  which  in  proportion  is  very  greatly 
less,  the  sodic  sulfate  amounting  to  one-fourth  of  the  total  in  the 
case  of  ground  water,  represented  by  well  A,  and  1-24  in  that  of  the 
drain  water;  the  magnesic  sulfate  remaining  relatively  constant, 
one-third  in  the  well  waters  and  one-fifth  in  the  drain  water.  The 
calcic  sulfate,  on  the  contrary  constitutes  1-6  and  1-5  respectively  of 
the  total  solids  in  the  two  well  waters  and  2-5  of  those  in  the  drain 
water.  I  unfortunately  do  not  know  even  approximately  the  vol¬ 
ume  of  drainage  water,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  ratios  in  which 
the  various  salts  are  removed  are  wholly  different  from  these  in 
which  they  are  found  in  the  ground  water. 

§  88.  The  following  analyses  of  drain  waters  establish  and 
strengthen  these  statements  and  show  that  the  drain  waters  are 
much  more  nearly  constant  in  composition  than  the  ground  waters, 
and  vary  much  less  in  the  quantity  of  total  solids  that  they 
contain. 


TABLE  XL-ANALYSIS  OF  DRAIN  WATER,  JULY  23.  1900. 


Analytical 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Results 

Cent 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

1.405 

1.030 

Calcic  Sulfate  _  _ 

45.265 

33.179 

Sulfuric  Acid  __  _ 

42.442 

31.110 

Magnesic  Sulfate _ 

23.633 

17.323 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

7.847 

5.752 

Potassic  Sulfate. __ 

0.147 

0.108 

Chlorin  . 

3.782 

2.772 

Potassic  Chlorid _ 

0.055 

0.040 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

14.663 

10.748 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

6.198 

4.543 

Potassic  Oxid  _  . 

0.115 

0.084 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

18.921 

13.869 

Calcic  Oxid 

18.647 

13.668 

Sodic  Silicate  .  . 

0.589 

0.432 

Magnesic  Oxid  _ 

7.876 

5.773 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.040 

0.029 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.040 

0.029 

Manganic  Oxid  ___ 

0.040 

0.029 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.040 

0.029 

Ignition _ 

4.073 

2.985 

Ignition 

4.073 

2.985 

Sum 

98.961 

72.537 

Sum  . 

100.930 

73.980 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

1.115 

0.817 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl... 

0.852 

0.624 

Total  __  _  _ 

100.076 

73.354 

Total  .  . 

100.078 

73.356 

Total  Solids,  73.3  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


BULLETIN  82. 


50 


TABLE  XLI.-r- ANALYSIS  OF  DRAIN  WATER,  MRS.  CALLO¬ 
WAY’S  RANCH,  JULY  23,  1900. 


Analytical 

Results. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _ 

1.425 

0.886 

Calcic  Sulfate.. _ 

44.734 

27.824 

Sulfuric  Acid.  __  _ 

40.202 

25.006 

Magnesic  Sulfate  . 

18.013 

11.204 

Carbonic  Acid 

9.549 

5.930 

Potassic  Sulfate  _ 

0.212 

0.132 

Chlorin  _  _ 

3635 

2.261 

Sodic  Sulfate _ 

3.177 

1.976 

Sodic  Oxid  _ _ _ 

18.070 

11.239 

Sodic  Chlorid  ... 

5.998 

3.731 

Potassic  Oxid  _ 

0.115 

0.072 

Sodic  Carbonate  _ 

23.025 

14.322 

Calcic  Oxid _ 

18.428 

11462 

Sodic  Silicate  . 

0.047 

0.029 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

6.003 

3.734 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.050 

0.031 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.050 

0.031 

Manganic  Oxid 

0  080 

0050 

Manganic  Oxid_  _  _ 

0.080 

0.050 

Ignition _ 

3.405 

2.118 

Ignition  _  _ 

3  405 

2.118 

Sum  _ _ _ 

98.741 

61.417 

Sum  .  _  _ 

100.962 

62.798 

Excess  Silicic  Acid. 

1.402 

0.872 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 

0  819 

0  509 

Total  _  100.143 

62.289 

Total  ... 

100.143 

62.289 

Total  solids  62.2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


TABLE  XLII— ANALYSIS  OF  DRAIN  WATER,  BEET  PLOT, 


FEB.  23,  1903. 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

0.812 

1.302 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

44.033 

70.631 

Sulfuric  Acid,. _ 

49.143 

78.825 

Strontic  Sulfate.. 

0.508 

0.815 

Carbonic  Acid. 

2.955 

4.632 

Magnesic  Sulfate... 

26.310 

42.201 

Chlorin  .  . .  _  _ . 

3.545 

5.686 

Potassic  Sulfate.. 

0.353 

0.566 

Sodic  Oxid__  _  ... 

12.231 

19.618 

Sodic  Sulfate _ 

9.572 

15.354 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.191 

0.306 

Sodic  Chlorid...  ... 

5.712 

9.162 

Lithic  Oxid _ _ _ 

0.033 

>0.053 

Lithic  Chlorid.. 

0.092 

0.148 

Calcic  Oxid  __  . 

18.141 

29.098 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

7.115 

11.371 

Strontic  Oxid 

0.287 

0.460 

Sodic  Silicate 

1.646 

2.640 

Magnesic  Oxid _ 

8.822 

14.150 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.075 

0.120 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.075 

0.120 

Manganic  Oxid  . 

0.030 

0.048 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.030 

0.048 

Ignition _ _ 

4.512 

7.237 

Ignition _  _ 

4.512 

7.237 

Sum  ...  _ _ 

99.988  160.293 

Sum...  ...  _ 

100.777 

161.535 

Excess  _  . 

None 

None 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.799 

1.282 

Total _ 

99.988  160.293 

Total...  _ 

99.978  160.253 

Total  solids  160.4  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


§  89.  These  drain  waters  present  as  great  a  variety  as  I 
would  probably  have  obtained  had  I  taken  a  great  number  from 
other  localities.  I  hope  and  think  that  they  represent  such  drain 
waters  as  we  have  in  this  section  of  Colorado.  An  examination 
of  them  shows  that  they  contain  relatively  considerably  more  sodic 
carbonate  than  the  ground  waters,  but  less  potassic  salts. 

§  90.  The  drain  on  Mrs.  Calloway’s  ranch  is  500  feet  long, 
four  feet  deep  at  its  upper  end,  nine  feet  at  the  lower  and  has  been 
open  for  some  years.  The  rainfall  during  March,  April  and  May 
of  the  year  1900  amounted  to  13.38  inches,  and  the  sample  being 
taken  July  23rd,  was  taken  subsequently  to  the  irrigation,  if  any 
were  applied,  which  was  probably  the  case,  though  I  have  no 
specific  information  on  this  point.  Such  were  the  conditions  pre- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  5 1 

ceding  the  taking  of  the  sample  and  they  also  apply  to  the  sample 
taken  from  the  drain  east  of  the  beet  plot. 

•  §  91.  The  sample  taken  from  the  drain  underlying  the  beet 
plot  in  1903  ought  to  be  the  nearest  representative  of  the  ground 
waters,  analyses  of  which  have  been  given.  This  drain  was  not  laid 
at  the  time  the  samples  of  the  ground  water  were  taken.  This 
sample  ought  to  represent  the  drain  water  from  this  plot  of  ground. 
There  had  been  but  little  or  no  rain  for  some  time,  the  surface 
ground  was  frozen  and  the  sample  was  taken  on  this  date,  Feb.  23, 
because  we  feared  that  a  thaw  might  set  in  and  we  would  have  to 
wait  a  long  time  and  perhaps  never  obtain  a  more  representative 
drain  water  than  that  which  we  were  then  able  to  procure.  The 
presence  of  strontic  and  lithic  oxids  in  this  analysis  is  what  we 
would  expect  from  what  has  been  said  in  connection  with  the  river 
water.  They  have  been  found  present  whenever  tested  for,  but  be¬ 
ing  of  subordinate  importance  they  were  not  determined  in  the 
other  samples,  the  one  being  included  with  the  lime  and  the  other 
with  the  sodic  oxid. 

§  92.  The  potassic  oxid  found  in  the  ground  waters  varied 
from  0.0 1  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  total  solids  to  1.2  per  cent.,  with 
an  average  of  0.262  for  the  92  samples  averaged;  whereas  the  aver¬ 
age  for  the  drain  waters  is  0.125  per  cent.,  which  calculated  per 
acre-foot  of  water  gives  20.7  pounds  in  the  ground  water  to  5.0 
pounds  in  the  drain  water.  From  the  point  of  its  fertilizing 
value,  this  amount  is  not  very  significant,  but  it  serves  to  show 
the  ratio  which  exists  between  the  amounts  in  the  ground  and 
drain  waters  or  the  extent  to  which  the  soil  retains  the  potash,  if 
we  may  put  it  that  way. 

§  93.  In  regard  to  the  sodic  salts  we  find  a  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  sulfates  and  chlorids.  Adopting  the  average  percentage 
of  sodic  sulfate  found  in  the  total  solids  of  well  A  in  1898,  which 
is  probably  a  little  too  high  to  be  accurate  but  will  represent 
the  general  facts  with  sufficient  accuracy,  we  find  in  an  acre- 
foot  of  the  ground  water  868  pounds  of  sodic  sulfate,  and  in  a  like 
quantity  of  drain  water  168  pounds,  or  one-fifth  as  much.  In 
Bulletin  No.  72  I  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  salts  in 
solution  fell  as  the  water  plane  fell,  the  salts  seeming  to  remain  in 
the  soil.  I  also  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  upper  portions 
of  the  ground  water  were  richer  in  total  solids  than  the  lower  and 
at  the  same  time  contained  higher  percentages  of  sodic  sulfate.  I 
find  in  the  drain  water  further  proof  of  what  I  then  observed  by 
taking  samples  directly  from  the  soil.  We  see  that  sodic  sulfate 
does,  not  pass  readily  into  the  drain  waters.  Not  only  the  absolute 
amount  falls,  but  its  relative  amount,  showing  that  the  soil  par¬ 
ticles  retain  it  as  there  suggested. 


52 


BULLETIN  82. 


§  94.  The  sodic  chlorid  deports  itself  in  the  same  manner. 
Again,  using  well  A  as  an  example,  we  have  in  an  acre-foot  of 
its  water  925  pounds  of  sodic  chlorid,  or  common  salt,  and  240 
pounds  in  an  acre-foot  of  drain  water.  I  have  compared  other 
well  waters  and  find  this  to  be  the  rule.  The  difference  is  not 
necessarily  the  same  but  it  is  always  in  the  same  direction.  The 
only  time  that  the  percentage  of  sodic  chlorid  in  the  total  solids 
of  the  ground  waters  approaches  that  of  those  of  the  drain  waters, 
is  when  the  water  plane  has  fallen  quite  low,  in  other  words,  when 
it  has  approached  the  level  of  the  drain.  These  statements  do  not 
seem  to  be  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  theory  of  absorption  of 
salts  by  different  soils,  and  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule,  there  is  an  ex¬ 
cess  of  bases  in  the  residues  left  by  these  waters,  rather  than  acids, 
as  would  be  required  by  the  theories  set  forth  in  our  text  books, 
points  to  the  prevalence  of  conditions  entirely  different  from  those 
under  which  the  classical  experiments,  upon  which  our  theories 
are  based,  were  made. 

§  95.  Only  two  of  these  drain  waters  were  submitted  to  san¬ 
itary  analysis,  with  the  following  results: 


TABLE  XLIII. -SANITARY  ANALYSES  OF  DRAIN  WATERS 

1.  Drain  water,  Mrs.  Calloway’s  ranch,  July  23,  1900. 

2.  Drain  east  of  beet  plot,  July  23,  1900. 


Total 

Ohio- 

Nitrates 

Nitrites 

Ammonia 

Albnminoidal 

Ammonia 

Oxy¬ 

gen 

Con¬ 

sumed 

Solids 

rin 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Nitric 

Acid 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Nitrons 

Acid 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Am¬ 

monia 

Nitro¬ 

gen 

Am¬ 

monia 

1 

880  5 

40.7 

0.240 

1.0770 

0.1400 

0.4690 

0.0410 

0.0496 

0.1000 

0.1210 

1.3650 

2 

1047.1 

44.3 

0.480 

2.1540 

1.8000 

4.3550 

0.0720 

0.0871 

0.1900 

0.2299 

2.0500 

§  96.  I  regret  that  these  samples  were  not  taken  at  the  same 
time  that  the  samples  of  irrigation  water  were  taken,  but  they 
were  not,  and  these  will  have  to  serve  our  purpose  in  such  measure 
as  they  may. 

§  97.  It  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  table  of  analyses  of 
irrigation  waters  that  the  well  waters  taken  August  31,  1899,  be¬ 
fore  irrigation,  were  richer  in  nitric  acid  than  these  drain  waters, 
as  were  also  those  taken  after  irrigation;  but  the  drain  waters  are 
very  much  richer  in  nitrous  acid.  The  ammonia,  both  saline  and 
albuminoidal,  is  less  in  the  drain  water  than  in  the  irrigation  and 
ground  waters.  The  nitric  acid  removed  per  acre-foot  by  the 
richer  of  the  two  drainage  waters  is  but  5.748  pounds.  In  the 
course  of  a  year  the  amount  of  nitric  acid  in  pounds  avoirdupois 
transported  by  such  waters,  in  the  form  of  nitrates,  is  a  compara¬ 
tively  large  number,  but  when  we  attempt  to  estimate  the  area 
from  which  this  is  collected  and  think  of  the  scale  on  which  na- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  53 

ture  operates,  the  amount  is  trifling.  An  example  will  show  how 
thoroughly  justified  is  this  statement.  If  our  soil  contained  0.1 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  we  take  two  acre-feet  of  it,  it  will  con¬ 
tain  in  round  numbers  7,000  pounds  of  nitrogen.  It  would 
take  1,227  acre-feet  of  drain  water  to  contain  this  amount,  taking 
all  forms  of  nitrogen  existing  in  the  water.  The  drain  water  does 
not,  unfortunately,  represent  the  water  draining  from  any  given 
acre  of  soil,  but  that  draining  from  many  acres.  It  is  understood 
that  the  value  of  such  examples  is  purely  illustrative. 

THE  RETURN  WATERS. 

§  98.  We  have  considered  the  Poudre  water  and  seen  that  it 
suffers  little  or  no  change  in  character  so  long  as  it  remains  in  its 
mountain  course,  but  that  its  character  changes  rapidly  as  it  enters 
the  plains.  We  have  seen  that  in  flowing  through  the  ditches  for 
use  in  direct  irrigation  it  also  changes  rapidly.  (See  table  XII — 
analysis  of  ditch  water  as  used  for  irrigation ).  We  have  studied 
the  effects  of  storage  upon  the  amount  and  character  of  the  salts 
held  in  solution.  (See  analysis  of  waters  of  Terry  lake,  Long  pond, 
Warren’s  and  Windsor  lakes ).  We  have  further  endeavored  to 
present  the  manner  and  extent  that  its  composition  is  changed  by 
flowing  over  the  soil  as  off-flow  water;  by  entering  the  soil  as 
ground  water;  by  passing  through  and  flowing  out  of  it  as  drain 
water. 

§  99.  If  possessed  with  the  desire  to  do  so,  anyone  could 
make  suggestions  which,  had  they  been  feasible  at  the  time,  or 
perhaps  even  been  seen  as  they  can  now  be  seen,  would,  if  fol¬ 
lowed  out,  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  this  work.  From  the  very 
beginning  I  desired  to  make  a  study  of  the  changes  taking  place 
upon  the  application  of  water  for  irrigation  purposes  in  a  different 
manner,  but  it  was  not  feasible  and  I  have  done  the  best  that  I 
could.  While  I  think  the  results  of  my  experiments  in  this  re¬ 
gard  exaggerate  some  of  the  relations  of  the  individual  results  to 
one  another,  I  am  not  prepared  to  regret  the  fact,  for  I  believe  that 
the  exaggeration  serves  a  good  purpose  by  emphasizing;  for  in¬ 
stance,  the  profound  manner  in  which  the  laws  of  diffusion  are 
modified  within  the  soil,  and  the  tenacity  with  which  the  soil  par¬ 
ticles  retain  the  molecules  of  different  salts,  without  in  any  appre¬ 
ciable  way  destroying  their  value,  as  a  presentation  of  the  typical 
reactions  which  take  place.  I  think  that  it  is  true  everywhere 
under  our  conditions  that  calcic  sulfate  is  permitted  to  pass  with 
comparatively  more  freedom  than  sodic  sulfate  or  chlorid.  I  do 
not  know  whether  this  is  due  to  the  presence  of  this  salt  in  quan¬ 
tities  approaching  the  point  of  saturation  of  the  soil  and  water,  or 
not.  With  whatever  weaknesses  and  insufficiencies  our  experi¬ 
ments  may  be  beset,  we  have  placed  them  upon  record  and  will 


BULLETIN  82. 


54 

examine  what  the  results  of  the  bigger  practice,  i.  e.,the  irrigation 
of  the  whole  valley  may  show. 

§  100.  I  have  stated  that  seepage  or  return  waters  begin  to 
enter  the  river  almost  immediately  upon  its  leaving  the  mountains, 
and  have  cited  the  increase  in  the  total  solids  in  the  river  water 
between  a  point  above  the  North  Fork  and  the  water  works,  in 
support  of  it.  The  amount  of  such  water  increases  as  we  go  down 
the  river. 

§  101.  We  can  present  the  matter  thus:  The  water  of  the 
Poudre  is  taken  from  the  river,  used  for  irrigation,  and  after  a 
time  returns.  The  return  waters  have  passed  through  or  flowed 
over  the  soil.  The  amount  returning  to  the  river  as  waste  water,  is 
so  small  that  I  would  not  take  note  of  it,  even  if  I  had  sufficient  data 
to  justify  me  in  attempting  to  do  so.  But  I  have  not  such  data. 
Much  of  the  water  appearing  in  the  lower  part  of  the  river  has 
doubtlessly  been  used  several  times,  but  I  doubt  whether  its  com¬ 
position  is,  on  this  account,  any  more  or  less  indicative  of  the 
effects  of  the  irrigation  waters  upon  the  soil,  or  of  changes  which 
take  place  within  the  soil,  than  water  which  has  not  been  used  re¬ 
peatedly.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  in  such  cases  the  composi¬ 
tion  of  the  return  waters  is  dependent  almost  wholly  upon 
the  character  of  the  soil  from  which  it  last  issued.  This  question 
is  of  great  importance  in  interpreting  the  results  of  the  analysis 
of  return  waters.  The  river  bed  may  be  bordered  by  a  margin  of 
low  land,  as  it  frequently  is,  the  water  draining  from  the  higher 
land  having  to  pass  through  this,  either  in  small  streams  or  by  the 
slower  method  of  percolation.  In  either  event  there  is  opportun¬ 
ity  for  a  material  modification  of  the  composition  of  the  water. 
Still,  as  has  already  been  said,  we  have  in  the  return  waters  the 
result  of  all  the  changes,  and  a  measure  of  the  effects  produced  by 
irrigating,  not  a  field,  but  a  whole  section  of  country.  Our  meas¬ 
ure  is  essentially  the  drain  water  of  all  this  larger  section,  and  in 
this  case  drain  water  means  water  that  has  passed  through,  not  run 
over,  the  soil  as  rain  water  or  as  waste  water  from  ditches. 

§  102.  In  order  to  save  space  and  bring  the  analyses  of  return 
waters  together,  I  will  anticipate  a  little  and  introduce  the  analy¬ 
sis  of  the  Platte  river  water  below  the  mouth  of  the  Poudre,  it 
being  return  water,  but  I  shall  give  those  of  the  Poudre  the  first 
place,  not  only  in  order,  but  in  importance. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  55 


TABLE  XLIV. — ANALYSIS  OF  POUDRE  RIVER  WATER, 
SAMPLE  TAKEN  TWO  MILES  ABOVE  GREELEY, 

AUGUST  11,  1902. 


Analytical 

Results. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs* 
Imp • 
Gab 

Silicic  Acid  . 

0.004 

1.035 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

40.186 

46.013 

Sulfuric  Acid _  . 

48.009 

54.970 

Magnesic  Sulfate.. 

31.796 

36.406 

Carbonic  Acid _  . 

5.171 

5.920 

Potassic  Sulfate..  _ 

0.628 

0.719 

Chlorin. __  _ _ 

2.419 

2  770 

Sodic  Sulfate  _ 

5.292 

6.059 

Sodic  Oxid  . . . 

12.742 

14.590 

Sodic  Chlorid  _ _ 

3.987 

4.565 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.394 

0  451 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

12.469 

14.277 

Calcic  Oxid.. 

16.540 

18.938 

Sodic  Silicate  _ 

1.833 

2.099 

Magnesic  Oxid 

10  646 

12.190 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0  069 

0.079 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.069 

0.079 

Manganic  Oxid 

Trace 

Trace 

Manganic  Oxid. 

Trace 

Trace 

Ignition.  _  __ 

3.660 

4.191 

Ignition  _ _ 

3.660 

4  191 

Sum 

99  920 

114  408 

Sum _ _  .  _ 

100.554 

115.134 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid  _ 

0  084 

0.096 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.545 

0.634 

Total  .... 

100.004 

114.504 

Total  ... 

100.009 

114.500 

Total  solids  114.5  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ _ 1,017.140 

Chlorin _  36.630 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.400 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  0  022 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  Ammonia _  0  060 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia _ 0.160 

Oxygen  consumed _  1.160 


TABLE  XL V.— ANALYSIS  OF  POUDRE  RIVER  WATER, 
SAMPLE  TAKEN  THREE  MILES  EAST  OF 
GREELEY,  AUGUST  10,  1902. 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _ 

1.336 

0.951 

Sulfuric  Acid  ._ 

42.660 

30.374 

Carbonic  Acid _ _ 

7.144 

5.087 

Chlorin  ..... 

3.013 

2.145 

Sodic  Oxid 

12.819 

9.117 

Potassic  Oxid  _ 

0.523 

0.372 

Calcic  Oxid.  ...  _ 

19.785 

14.087 

Magnesic  Oxid 

7.854 

5.592 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

;  0.055 

0.039 

Manganic  Oxid.. 

0.110 

0.078 

Ignition  . 

5.433 

3  868 

Sum  _ _ 

100.731 

71.710 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

0.679 

0.483 

Total..  _  .  . 

100.052 

71.227 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate _  . 

48.068 

34.124 

Magnesic  Sulfate, __ 

21.621 

15.394 

Magnesic  Chlorid.,. 

1.431 

1.019 

Potassic  Chlorid.. 

0  827 

0  589 

Sodic  Chlorid _  .  _ 

2.566 

1827 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

17.227 

12.266 

Sodic  Silicate... 

2.710 

1.930 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.055 

0.039 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.110 

0.078 

Ignition 

5.433 

3.868 

Sum  ._  _ _ _ 

100.048 

71.134 

Excess  _ 

None 

None 

Total  _  .  .. 

100.048 

71 134 

Total  solids,  71.2  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY 
Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _  _ 1,635.710 

Chlorin . . 45.550 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.300 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  0.015 


ANALYSIS. 

Parts  Per  Million. 

Saline  Ammonia.. . 0.120 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia  ...  0.180 
Oxygen  consumed _ 2.127 


56  BULLETIN  82. 


TABLE  XLVI. -ANALYSIS  OF  PLATTE  RIVER  WATER,  SAM¬ 
PLE  TAKEN  ONE  MILE  SOUTH  AND  FOUR  EAST 
OF  GREELEY,  AUGUST  11,  1902. 


Ors. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid.  ...  . 

.  1.214 

0.891 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

43.651 

32.040 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

_  44.416 

32.601 

Magnesic  Sulfate 

22.504 

16.518 

Carbonic  Acid..  _ 

_  6.205 

4.554 

Potassic  Sulfate  ._. 

0.892 

0.655 

Chlorin  . 

_  3.653 

2.681 

Sodic  Sulfate _  . 

5.959 

4.374 

Sodic  Oxid  ...  _ 

.  15.617 

11.463 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

6.028 

4.425 

Potassic  Oxid  _. 

.  0.483 

0.355 

Sodic  Carbonate  . 

14.962 

10.982 

Calcic  Oxid  .  _ 

.  17.966 

13.117 

Sodic  Silicate _ _ 

2.087 

1.532 

Magnesic  Oxid.. 

.  7.535 

5.530 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.257 

0.189 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0  257 

0.189 

Manganic  Oxid.  _  _ 

0.257 

0.189 

Manganic  Oxid  __ 

0.257 

0.189 

Ignition  _ _ 

3.266 

2.397 

Ignition  _  _  _ 

3.266 

2.397 

Sum  _ _  _ 

99.863 

73.301 

Sum  ...  _ 

.100.869 

73.967 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

0.124 

0.091 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.. 

_  0.823 

0.604 

Total  . . 

99.987 

73.392 

Total _ 

.100.046 

73.372 

Total  solids. 

73.4  grains 

per  Imperial  gallon. 

SANITARY 

ANALYSIS. 

Parts  Per  Million. 

Parts  Per  Million. 

Total  Solids..  __ 

_ 1,048.570 

Saline  Ammonia _ 

0.020 

Chlorin 

42.590 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia.. 

0.150 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates 

0.400 

Oxygen  consumed.. 

0.994 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites 

0.015 

§  103.  The  samples  of  Poudre  water  were  taken  at  points  at 
least  seven  miles  apart  ds  the  river  flows.  The  water  on  this  date 
was  not  only  representative  of  return  water,  but  was  wholly  such 
as  had  come  into  the  river  within  the  last  few  miles  above  these 
points.  The  water  taken  at  the  lower  point  had,  for  the  greater 
part,  returned  within  the  last  seven  miles.  This  fact  may  account 
for  the  differences  presented  by  the  analyses.  There  is  no  reason 
for  any  one  to  stumble  over,  or  raise  any  question  about,  the  manner 
of  combining  these  salts,  for  the  variations  which  can  be  shown  in 
this  way  have  no  weight  in  the  larger  features  presented  by  these 
results. 

§  104.  The  three  principal  salts  in  these  waters  are,  in  the 
order  of  their  relative  quantities,  calcic  sulfate,  magnesic  sulfate 
and  sodic  carbonate.  The  sulfate  of  soda  present  in  such  notable 
quantities  in  the  ground  waters,  and  still  more  so  in  nearly  all  of 
the  efflorescences,  is  very  subordinate  or  absent.  The  potassic  oxid 
is  present  in  a  slightly  higher  percentage  than  the  average  found 
for  our  ground  waters,  but  the  total  solids  is  very  much  less. 

§  105.  The  sanitary  analyses  show  that  in  total  nitrogen  the 
return  waters  are  not  so  unlike  the  ground  waters  as  one  would 
expect,  as  they  resemble  those  taken  before  irrigation  quite  close¬ 
ly.  The  only  exception  being  the  Arkansas  river  water,  taken  at 
Rockyford,  in  which  we  found  large  quantities  of  both  nitrates  and 
nitrites.  I  know  much  less  about  the  conditions  obtaining  in  re- 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  57 

gard  to  this  sample  than  in  the  other  cases,  and  it  is  not  feasible 
for  me  to  gather  the  facts  in  this  case  with  the  completeness  and 
accuracy  that  would  permit  me  to  make  any  explanatory  state¬ 
ments,  therefore  I  content  myself  with  recording  the  results  of  the 
analysis  which  is  given  later. 

§  106.  Fortunately  the  Poudre  river  was  gauged  in  1902,  a 
few  days  before  my  samples  were  taken,  and  we  have  very  excel¬ 
lent  data  enabling  us  to  calculate  the  results  indicated  by  our 
analyses,  with  the  assurance  that  they  are  correct  within  narrow 
limits.  On  July  27,  the  flow  at  the  pump  house  above  Greeley 
was  24  second-feet,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  it  was  29  second-feet. 
We  will  use  the  latter  figure  in  calculating  the  total  work  done  by 
the  Poudre  river  as  an  irrigation  stream.  This  flow  delivers  near¬ 
ly  2.4  acre-feet  per  hour,  or  57.6  acre-feet  per  day.  At  the  pump 
house  the  flow  amounted  almost  to  48  acre-feet  per  day.  As  the 
supply  of  water  during  the  season  of  1902  was  very  short,  we  may 
consider  the  following  figures  as  representing  the  minimum  effect 
of  the  stream. 

§  107.  With  a  flow  of  57.6  acre-feet  daily,  it  carries  a  total 
of  79.75  tons  of  salts  into  the  Platte  river.  A  like  quantity  of 
water,  as  it  flows  through  the  canyon  of  the  Poudre,  would  con¬ 
tain  only  3.25  tons,  or  a  gain  of  76.5  tons,  but  the  flow  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  is  not  the  same  as  in  the  canyon,  it  being  much 
greater.  The  following  figures  will  show  the  total  salts  carried 
through  the  canyon  in  solution,  and  will  also  give  an  idea  of  the 
daily  consumption  of  water  taking  place  between  the  canyon  and 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  weight  of  the  salts  carried  through 
the  canyon  of  the  Poudre  on  this  date  was  32.5  tons.  The  amount 
delivered  to  the  Platte  was  79.75  tons,  a  difference  of  47.25  tons. 
This  naked  statement  of  end  results  does  not  give  a  fair  idea  of  the 
work  accomplished.  The  water  had  all  been  taken  out  of  the 
Poudre,  together  with  the  return  water,  and  at  a  point  six  miles 
above  its  mouth,  just  below  the  Camp  ditch,  it  was  entirely  dry. 
Yet,  there  was  a  discharge  of  29  second-feet  at  its  mouth  carrying 
8°  (79.75)  tons  of  salts,  all  of  which  must  have  come  into  the 
river  within  the  intervening  six  miles. 

§  108.  To  show  still  further  how  inadequate  this  way  of 
presenting  the  matter  is,  I  will  take  the  analysis  of  the  sample 
from  above  Greeley,  where  the  flow  was  24  second-feet  and  the 
total  solids  114.5  grains  per  imperial  gallon.  There  were  accord¬ 
ingly  100.8  tons  of  salts  being  carried  past  this  point  daily,  but 
the  gaging  shows  that  there  was  an  increase  of  21  second-feet 
between  this  point  and  the  Camp  ditch,  which  of  course  increased 
the  quantity  of  salts  being  carried  by  the  river.  The  Camp  ditch 
took  all  of  the  water  in  the  river  at  this  point  and  consequently 
took  not  only  the  10 1  tons  of  salts,  but  much  more,  including  the 


bulletin  82. 


58 

sewage  of  the  town  of  Greeley.  The  water  returning  within  the 
next  six  miles  came  from  land  irrigated  with  this  water  and  carried, 
in  round  numbers,  80  tons  of  salts.  Our  method  shows  the  .  net 
results  effected,  but  the  work  done  by  the  irrigation  waters  is 
actually  much  greater  than  the  figures  indicate. 

§  109.  The  salts  removed  stand  as  follows  in  the  order  of 
their  relative  quantities;  calcic  sulfate,  magnesic  sulfate,  sodic  car¬ 
bonate  and  sodic  sulfate.  In  the  case  of  the  Arkansas  river  water, 
the  sodic  sulfate  stands  next  to  the  calcic  sulfate.  The  samples 
of  ground  water  from  the  Arkansas  valley  which  I  have  examined, 
have  been  very  rich  in  total  solids  with  much  sodic  sulfate.  In 
one  there  was  over  57  per  cent  of  this  salt  and  in  another  almost 
30  per  cent. 

§  1 10.  It  is  true,  the  area  in  the  Poudre  valley  under  irrigation, 
the  seepage  water  from  which  finds  its  way  into  the  Poudre,  is 
large.  In  1894  it  was  176,848  acres.  It  is  now  much  greater, 
but  the  amount  of  salts  carried  out  of  the  valley  under  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  1902  is  also  large.  Assuming  the  flow  of  29.1  feet  of 
water,  as  found  by  us,  to  continue  for  270  days — the  results  will 
be  too  low,  for  the  flow  is  at  least  six  second-feet  below  the  aver¬ 
age — we  will  have  removed  from  the  valley  21,532.5  tons  of  salts, 
over  one-third  of  which  is  calcic  sulfate,  one-fourth  magnesic  sul¬ 
fate  and  a  little  less  than  one-eighth  sodic  carbonate. 

§  1 1 1 .  I  am  not  certain  that  the  Arkansas  water  is  compar¬ 
able  as  a  return  water  to  these  samples  of  Poudre  water.  If  it  is,  the 
ratio  would  be  materially  changed  and  we  would  have  2-5  for  the 
calcic  sulfate,  1-5  for  the  sodic  sulfate,  almost  1-5  for  the  magnesic 
sulfate  and  very  much  less  sodic  carbonate.  The  analysis  of  this 
water  shows  a  very  considerable  excess  of  bases.  I  have  already 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  sometimes  occurs  and  that  I 
am  unable  to  satisfactorily  account  for  it.  The  alkalies  and  some 
other  determinations  were  repeated  in  this  analysis  with  excel¬ 
lently  agreeing  results.  We  therefore  leave  the  excess  unexplained. 

§  1 1 2.  The  analysis  of  the  Platte  river  water  gives  results 
in  agreement  with  those  of  the  Poudre  water  and  there  is  nothing 
to  be  gained  by  further  discussion  of  this.  The  flow  of  the  Platte 
at  this  point  is  very  much  larger  than  that  of  the  Poudre  and  the 
amount  of  salts  carried  will  be  almost  exactly  proportional  to  their 
respective  flows.  All  that  has  been  said  concerning  the  Poudre 
could  be  repeated  concerning  the  Platte.  Its  water  is  made  to  re¬ 
peatedly  serve  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  Their  waters  receive 
the  sewage  of  several  towns,  the  Platte  proportionately  more  than 
the  Poudre.  The  general  character  of  the  land  irrigated  is  similar 
and  so  are  the  general  features  of  the  results  produced. 

§  1 1 3.  Too  much  emphasis  should  not  be  laid  upon  the 
similarities  between  the  composition  of  the  drain  waters  analyzed 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  59 

and  these  return  waters,  for,  as  already  clearly  stated,  the  return 
water  taken  near  the  month  of  the  Pondre  must  have  come  in 
within  the  last  six  miles  of  its  course.  Still  it  seems  that  the 
drain  waters  and  these  return  waters  are  representative  of  the  end 
results  produced  by  water  applied  to  onr  soils,  and  passing  through 
it  to  a  depth  of  say  four  and  one-half  feet,  and  then  finding  a  free 
channel  of  escape.  These  similarities  are  clearly  shown  by  the 
analyses,  the  average  percentages  of  which  are  as  follows:  Calcic 
sulfate  in  return  water,  44.2;  in  drain  water,  43.9;  magnesic  sul- 
sulfate  in  return  water,  25.2;  drain  water,  22.4;  sodic  sulfate,  re¬ 
turn  water,  3.3;  drain  water,  4.3  per  cent.  The  reason  for  the 
omission  of  the  Arkansas  river  water  at  Rockyford  from  these 
averages  is  evident  from  what  has  been  previously  said. 

THE  WATERS  OF  SOME  OTHER  STREAMS. 

§  1 14.  The  streams  of  this  section  of  Colorado  including  the 
Laramie,  Poudre,  Big  Thompson,  St.  Vrain,  Boulder,  Clear  Creek, 
South  Platte  and  Arkansas,  have  collecting  grounds  of  essentially 
the  same  character.  Some  of  them,  it  is  true,  receive  drainage 
from  large  parks,  but  these  are  surrounded  by  mountains  of  the 
same  character  as  those  forming  the  collecting  areas  of  the  other 
streams.  The  South  Platte,  for  instance,  receives  drainage  from 
South  Park,  but  this  water,  springs  excepted,  some  of  which  in 
this  case  are  very  rich  in  mineral  matter  and  others  are  brines 
which  at  one  time  were  used  as  a  source  of  salt,  comes  from  the 
mountains.  Some  of  the  tributaries  of  the  South  Platte  carry  as 
pure  water  as  is  to  be  found  within  the  state. 

§  1 15.  The  analyses  of  these  waters  will  be  given  without 
comment,  except  such  as  is  necessary  to  a  reasonable  understand¬ 
ing  of  the  samples,  some  of  which,  like  the  water  served  to  the 
town  of  Fort  Collins,  fail  to  represent  the  true  character  of  the 
water,  but  represent  it  after  the  stream  has  become  a  plains 
stream  and  has  already  received  enough  seepage  to  perceptibly 
modify  its  composition.  This  applies  to  all  the  following  samples 
with  the  exception  of  the  Boulder  and  Clear  Creek  samples.  The 
sample  of  Platte  river  water  was  taken  from  a  tap  in  the  City  of 
Denver,  but  inquiry  of  the  Denver  Union  Water  Company  elicited 
the  fact  that  the  water  obtained  was  not  pure  Platte  river  water, 
but  was  a  mixture  of  this  with  water  from  some  other  sources  of 
suPply*  Tor  analyses  of  Poudre  river  water  see  table  II. 


6o 


BULLETIN  82. 


TABLE  XLVII.— ANALYSIS  OF  BIG  THOMPSON  WATER, 
SAMPLE  TAKEN  THREE  MILES  WEST  OF 
LOVELAND,  AUGUST  20,  1902. 


Analytical 

Results 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Per 

Cent. 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid  _  ... 

3.890 

0.447 

Calcic  Sulfate. 

60.335 

6.939 

Sulfuric  Acid_ 

43.331 

4.983 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

11.775 

1.354 

Carbonic  Acid 

6.768 

0.778 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

11.789 

1.356 

Chlorin 

0.565 

0.065 

Magnesic  Chlorid.. 

0.482 

0.055 

Sodic  Oxid 

4.771 

0.549 

Potassic  Chlorid.. 

0.433 

0.050 

Potassic  Oxid 

0.430 

0.049 

Potassic  Silicate.. 

0.257 

0.029 

Calcic  Oxid 

24.833 

2.856 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

1.492 

,0.172 

Magnesic  Oxid  ... 

9.790 

1.126 

Sodic  Silicate  _  _ 

7.688 

0.884 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.169 

0.019 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.169 

0.019 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.019 

0.002 

Manganic  Oxid _ 

0.019 

0.002 

Ignition 

[5.561] 

0.640 

Ignition 

[5.561] 

0.640 

Sum 

100.127 

11.514 

Sum  .  ...  ... 

100.000 

11.500 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl... 

0.127 

0.015 

Excess  _  _  ... 

None 

None 

Total _  ... 

100.000 

11.499 

Total  .  _ _ 

100.000 

11.500 

Total  solids  11.5  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY 
Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 164.290 

Chlorin _  2.970 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.300 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _ None 


ANALYSIS. 

Parts  Per  Million . 


Saline  Ammonia _  0.030 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia _ 0.120 

Oxygen  consumed _  1.625 


TABLE  XLVIIL— ANALYSIS  OF  ST.  VRAIN  WATER,  TAKEN 
THREE  MILES  WEST  OF  LONGMONT,  AUGUST  19,  1902. 


* 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results 

Cent 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid .  . 

.  3.074 

0.483 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

50.053 

7.858 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

.  41.873 

6.574 

Strontic  Sulfate _ 

0.305 

0.048 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

.  7.945 

1.247 

Magnesic  Sulfate... 

18.482 

2.902 

Chlorin  _  __  _ 

.  0.957 

0.150 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

7.729 

1.223 

Sodic  Oxid 

.  10.117 

1.588 

Potassic  Chlorid  . 

0.844 

0.133 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

.  0.533 

0.084 

Sodic  Chlorid.. . . 

0.915 

0.144 

Calcic  Oxid  _ 

.  20.601 

3.234 

Sodic  Carbonate _ 

9.438 

1.482 

Strontic  Oxid 

.  0.172 

0.027 

Sodic  Silicate  _ _ 

6.234 

0.979 

Magnesic  Oxid.. 

9.892 

1.553 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.199 

0.031 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.199 

0.031 

Manganic  Oxid  _ 

0.054 

0.008 

Manganic  Oxid  .  . 

.  0.054 

0.008 

Ignition _  __  ___ 

5.179 

0.813 

Ignition 

.  5.179 

0.813 

Sum _ _ 

99.432 

15.591 

Sum  ....  ... 

.100.596 

15.792 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid 

0.948 

0.149 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.. 

_  0.215 

0.034 

Total _ 100.380 

15.740 

Total _ 

.100.381 

15.758 

Total  solids. 

15.7  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

SANITARY 

ANALYSIS. 

Parts  Per  Million. 

Parts  Per  Million. 

Total  Solids  _ 

224.290 

Saline  Ammonia.  . 

0.300 

Chlorin  .  .  .  ...  .. 

4.950 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia _ 

0.140 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates  .  .  .. 

0.100 

Oxygen  consumed.. 

2.026 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites.  ...  . 

None 

COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  6 1 


TABLE  XLIX  —  ANALYSIS  OF  BOULDER  CREEK  WATER, 
TAKEN  FROM  TAP  IN  BOULDER,  AUG.  27,  1902.  * 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

21.985 

0.6156 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

8.305 

0.2325 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

17.037 

0.4770 

Chlorin _ 

7.425 

0.2079 

Sodic  Oxid...  ..  . _ 

6.870 

0.1924 

Potassic  Oxid _ _ 

2.720 

0.0762 

Lithic  Oxid  _ _ 

Trace 

Trace 

Calcic  Oxid  _.  _ 

23.373 

0.6544 

Strontic  Oxid _ 

0.165 

0.0046 

Magnesic  Oxid...  . 

4.760 

0.1313 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

1.098 

0.0307 

Manganous  Oxid... 

0.340 

0.0095 

Zincic  Oxid  _____ 

Trace 

Trace 

Ignition _ _ 

[7.607] 

0.2130 

Sum  . 

101.676 

2.8451 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

1.676 

0.0469 

Total  _  _ . 

100.000 

2.7982 

Grs . 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

14.124 

0.3955 

Calcic  Carbonate.  __ 

31.317 

0.8769 

Strontic  Carbonate. 

0.235 

0.0066 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

6.143 

0.1720 

Magnesic  Chlorid__ 

4.305 

0.1205 

Potassic  Chlorid  ___ 

4.304 

0.1205 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

3.586 

0.1004 

Sodic  Silicate _ 

9.818 

0.2749 

Lithic  Oxid . 

Trace 

Trace 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

1.098 

0.0307 

Manganous  Oxid___ 

0.341 

0.0095 

Zincic  Oxid  . 

Trace 

Trace 

Ignition _  . 

[7.607] 

0.2130 

Sum  . 

82.878 

2.3205 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

17.144 

0.4789 

Total  __  __ 

100.022 

2.7994 

Total  solids,  2.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids..  _ _ 40.000 

Chlorin _  2.970 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.100 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  None 


Parts  Per  Million . 


Saline  Ammonia _ _ Trace 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia...  0.050 
Oxygen  consumed _  1.170 


*  Attention  is  called  to  the  similarity  of  this  analysis  to  those  of  the  Poudre 
water,  pages  13, 14  and  15. 


TABLE  L.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  DRAWN  FROM  TAP  IN  OF¬ 
FICE  OF  DENVER  FIRE  CLAY  CO.,  DENVER,  AUG.  26,  1902. 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silcic  Acid _ 

2.573 

0.427 

Sulfuric  Acid  _ _ 

25.785 

4.280 

Carbonic  Acid__  _  . 

14.110 

2.342 

Chlorin  _  _ 

7.508 

1.240 

Sodic  Oxid  _ _ 

13.447 

2.232 

Potassic  Oxid _ 

1.261 

0.209 

Calcic  Oxid _  . 

23.640 

3.924 

Magnesic  Oxid 

6.022 

1.000 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.071 

0.012 

Manganic  Oxid  _ 

0.178 

0.030 

Ignition 

7.097 

1.178 

Sum  . 

101.692 

16.874 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__ 

1.692 

0.281 

Total 

100.000 

16.593 

Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate _ 

43.853 

7.280 

Calcic  Carbonate.  __ 

9.943 

1.651 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

12.587 

2.089 

Potassic  Carbonate 

1.849 

0.307 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

12.390 

2.057 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

6.236 

1.035 

Sodic  Silicate 

5.218 

0.866 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.071 

0.012 

Manganic  Oxid 

0.178 

0.030 

Ignition  _  _  _ 

7.097 

1.178 

Sum 

99.422 

16.505 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid 

0.576 

0.095 

Total 

99.998 

16.600 

Total  solids  16.6  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 

SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 
Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ _ 237.142 

Chlorin _ 21.780 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  0.500 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _ 0.540 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  Ammonia _  0.100 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia...  0.180 
Oxygen  consumed _  1.453 


62  BULLETIN  82 


TABLE  LI. -ANALYSIS  OF  CLEAR  CREEK  WATER,  .TAKEN 
FROM  WELCH  DITCH  ONE  MILE  W.  OF  GOLDEN, 

AUG.  27,  1902. 


Analytical 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Per 

Grs. 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid. _ 

.  17.953 

1,3644 

Calcic  Sulfate.  . 

42.252 

3.2111 

Sulfuric  Acid _ _ 

.  24.844 

1.8881 

Calcic  Carbonate.. 

6.483 

0.4927 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

6.870 

0.5221 

Magnesic  Carbonate 

7.707 

0.5856 

Chlorin  _ _ 

.  2.479 

0.1884 

Magnesic  Chlorid  ._ 

0.764 

0.0581 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

.  7.073 

0.5375 

Potassic  Chlorid  _ 

4.017 

0.3053 

Potassic  Oxid.  .  _ 

.  3.506 

0.2665 

Potassic  Silicate. 

1.578 

0.1197 

Lithic  Oxid.  .  ... 

Trace 

Trace 

Sodic  Silicate _ 

13.952 

1.0604 

Calcic  Oxid _  ... 

21.041 

1.5991 

Lithic  Oxid . 

Trace 

Trace 

Strontic  Oxid  _  _. 

Trace 

Trace 

Aluminic  Oxid  ._  __ 

2.477 

0.1883 

Magnesic  Oxid  ... 

4.011 

0.3048 

Ferric  Oxid _ 

1.916 

0.1450 

Zincic  Oxid.  _  _ 

_  0.207 

0.0127 

Zincic  Oxid...  _ 

0.207 

0.0157 

Aluminic  Oxid  ... 

2.477 

0.1883 

Cupric  Oxid.. _ 

Trac6 

Trace 

Ferric  Oxid.  .  _ 

1.916 

0.1456 

Plumbic  Oxid. _ 

None 

None 

Manganic  Oxid.  _ 

0.691 

0.0525 

Manganic  Oxid..  __ 

0.691 

0.0525 

Cupric  Oxid  ..  ... 

Trace 

Trace 

Ignition  .  _ _ 

7.491 

0.5693 

Plumbic  Oxid _ 

None 

None 

Sum _  . 

89.535 

6.8036 

Ignition  ...  .  .  __ 

7.491 

0.5693 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

10.464 

0.7953 

Sum.  ...  _ 

.100.559 

7.6423 

Total _ 

99.999 

7.5989 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 
Total _ 

.  0.559 
.100.000 

0.0425 

7.5998 

Total  solfds,  7.6  grains 

per  imperial  gallon. 

SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 

Parts  Per  Million 

Total  Solids _ 

108.571 

Saline  Ammonia.. 

0.040 

Chlorin...  _ 

2.970 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia.. 

0.140 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates.  _ 

0.200 

Oxygen  consumed  . 

2.360 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _ 

0.013 

TABLE  LII.- 

-ANALYSIS  OF 

ARKANSAS  RIVER  WATER, 

TAKEN  AT  CANON  CITY,  FEBRUARY  2, 1898.  * 

Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gcil. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  7.840 

0.847 

Calcic  Sulfate  _  _ 

18.863 

2.037 

Sulfuric  Acid... 

....  11.676 

1.261 

Calcic  Carbonate. __ 

34.565 

3.733 

Carbonic  Acid.. 

_  26.383 

2.849 

Magnesic  Carbonate  17.185 

1.856 

Chlorin  _ _ _ 

_  3.699 

0.399 

Potassic  Sulfate... 

1.275 

0.138 

Sodic  Oxid 

....  12.364 

1.335 

Sodic  Chlorid  _ _ 

6.102 

0.659 

Potassic  Oxid  .. 

....  0.689 

0.074 

Sodic  Carbonate  _ 

5.305 

0.573 

Calcic  Oxid.  ... 

....  27.149 

2.932 

Sodic  Silicate  .  ... 

11.860 

1.280 

Magnesic  Oxid. 

...  .  '  8.193 

0.885 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids 

0.215 

0.023 

Ferric  and  Al.Oxids  0.215 

0.023 

Manganic  Oxid.. 

0.098 

0.011 

Manganic  Oxid. 

....  0.098 

0.011 

Ignition _ 

2.528 

0.273 

Ignition _ 

 2.528 

0.273 

Sum _ 

97.996 

10.283 

Sum  ._ 

....  100.000 

10.889 

Excess  Silicic  Acid 

2.003 

0.216 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl.__  0.834 

0.090 

Total _ 

99-999 

10.799 

Total  .  ._ 

....  100.000 

10.799 

Total  solids,  10.8  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 
No  sanitary  analysis  made  of  this  sample. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  63 

TABLE  LIIL— ANALYSIS  OF  ARKANSAS  RIVER  WATER, 
TAKEN  AT  BRIDGE  NEAR  ROCKYFORD,  APRIL  24,  1903. 


Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

_  0.428 

0.669 

Sulfuric  Acid _ 

.  48.299 

75.540 

Carbonic  Acid _ 

1.858 

2.905 

Chlorin _ 

_  4.667 

7.299 

Sodic  Oxid  _ _ 

.  18.662 

29.187 

Potassic  Oxid  .. 

0.326 

0.510 

Calcic  Oxid. 

.  17.090 

26.729 

Magnesic  Oxid.  _ 

5.993 

9.373 

Ignition 

4.346 

6.797 

Sum  _  _ 

101.669 

159.010 

Oxygen  Eq.  to  Cl._ 

.  1.051 

1.644 

Total _ 

.100.618 

157.366 

Grs. 

Per 

Imp. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Calcic  Sulfate  ..  ... 

41.523 

64.942 

Magnesic  Sulfate  __ 

17.899 

27.994 

Potassic  Sulfate  ... 

0.602 

0.942 

Sodic  Sulfate _ 

20.747 

32.449 

Sodic  Chlorid _ 

7.701 

12.044 

Sodic  Carbonate  _ 

4.480 

7.007 

Sodic  Silicate  ...  _. 

0.868 

1.358 

Ignition _ 

4.346 

6.797 

Sum _ 

98.166 

153.533 

Excess  Sodic  Oxid 

2.450 

3.832 

Total  _ _ 

100.616 

157.365 

Total  solids  156.4  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY 
Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 2,234.290 

Chlorin _  103.971 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  1.500 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites .  0.040 


ANALYSIS. 

Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  Ammonia _  0.065 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia _  0.140 

Oxygen  consumed _  2.000 


TABLE  LIV.— ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FROM  QUEEN  RESER¬ 
VOIR,  SAMPLE  TAKEN  JANUARY  23,  1903. 


Grs. 

Grs. 

Analytical 

Per 

Imp. 

Per 

Imp. 

Results. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Combined. 

Cent. 

Gal. 

Silicic  Acid _ 

....  0.273 

0.197 

Calcic  Sulfate. _  _ 

._  36.765 

26.581 

Sulfuric  Acid.  _ 

....  48.973 

35.407 

Magnesic  Sulfate 

._  23.705 

17.139 

Carbonic  Acid 

3.370 

2.437 

Potassic  Sulfate  . 

..  0.911 

0.659 

Chlorin  .. 

....  3.810 

2.755 

Sodic  Sulfate.  ___ 

..  19.900 

14.388 

Sodic  Oxid _ 

....  17.066 

12.339 

Sodic  Chlorid  _ 

._  6.287 

4.546 

Potassic  Oxid  . 

.  0.493 

0.356 

Sodic  Carbonate.. 

8.125 

5.874 

Calcic  Oxid..  . 

...  15.095 

10.914 

Sodic  Silicate  _.  . 

_.  0.554 

0.401 

Magnesic  Oxid  _ 

7.937 

5.738 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.075 

0.054 

Ferric  and  Al.  Oxids  0.075 

0.054 

Manganic  Oxid 

._  0.075 

0.054 

Manganic  Oxid. 

0.075 

0.054 

Ignition  _ _ 

[3.692] 

2.669 

Ignition  . . 

[3.692] 

2.669 

Sum  _  .  .  . 

..100.089 

72.365 

Sum _ 

.... 100.859 

72.920 

Excess...  .. 

. None 

None 

Oxygen  Eq.  to 

Cl.  0.859 

0.621 

Total _ _ 

..100.089 

72.365 

Total _ 

....100. 000 

72-299 

Total  solids  72.3  grains  per  imperial  gallon. 


SANITARY  ANALYSIS. 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Total  Solids _ 1,032.850 

Chlorin _ _  47.529 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates _  Trace 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrites _  0.010 


Parts  Per  Million. 


Saline  Ammonia _ _ 0.060 

Albuminoidal  Ammonia _  0.620 

Oxygen  consumed _  6.415 


64 


BULLETIN  82. 


§  1 16.  In  glancing  at  these  analyses,  a  few  things  will  be 
noticed.  First,  that  the  waters  of  onr  mountain  streams  are  of 
excellent  quality  and  carry  a  small  amount  of  salts  in  solution;, 
second,  that  the  amount  of  salts  held  in  solution  is  materially  in¬ 
creased  almost  immediately  upon  their  entering  the  plains,  par¬ 
ticularly  after  they  emerge  from  the  foothills;  third,  that  the 
waters  of  the  mountain  streams  contain  calcic  sulfate — almost 
as  their  only  sulfate — after  this,  carbonates  and  silicates;  fourth, 
that  the  carbonates  and  silicates  are  rapidly  exchanged  for  magne- 
sic  and  sodic  sulfates  upon  entering  the  plains  (compare  tables 
LII.  and  LIU.)  While  these  samples  are  not  strictly  comparable 
as  samples  of  Arkansas  river  water,  because  of  the  length  of  time 
elapsing  between  the  dates  on  which  the  samples  were  taken,  they 
illustrate  well  the  differences  between  the  mountain  and  plains 
waters.  A  still  better  illustration  will  be  found  by  comparing 
table  III,  an  analysis  of  Poudre  water,  with  table  XI,  an  analysis 
of  Windsor  lake  water,  or  with  table  XLIV,  an  analysis  of  Poudre 
river  water,  taken  above  Greeley.  The  influence  of  the  plains  is 
already  discernible  in  the  composition  of  the  water  drawn  from 
the  tap  in  the  chemical  laboratory,  also  in  samples  of  the  Big 
Thompson  and  St.  Vrain,  taken  a  few  miles  west  of  the  towns  of 
Loveland  and  Longmont  respectively. 

§  1 1 7.  The  sample  of  the  Arkansas  river  water,  taken  near 
Rocky  ford,  probably  represents  seepage  water,  but  the  extremely 
large  amounts  of  nitrates  and  nitrites  met  with  in  the  sanitary 
analysis  suggest  sewage.  I  am  satisfied,  however,  that  such  is 
not  the  case,  no  sewage  entering  nearer  than  Pueblo,  which  is  70 
miles  above,  and  this  is  taken  out  by  the  ditches.  The  person 
who  took  this  sample  reported  the  water  as  very  clear  and  the 
ditches  above  as  taking  all  of  the  river  water.  We  have  in  this 
sample,  I  believe,  as  good  a  one  of  return  waters  for  the  river  at 
this  point  as  could  possibly  have  been  obtained.  It  differs  some¬ 
what  from  the  Poudre  return  waters  in  containing  a  good  percent¬ 
age  of  sodic  sulfate.  This  salt  is  present,  however,  in  the  ground 
waters  of  this  district  in  large  quantities. 

§  1 1 8.  The  analysis  of  the  water  of  the  Queen  Reservoir 
represents  flood  water  which  had  been  stored  22  months  and  was 
obtained  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  W.  M.  Wiley.  The  salts 
held  in  solution  differ  in  amount  and  slightly  in  their  relative 
quantities,  but  it  otherwise  agrees  with  the  seepage  water  taken 
at  the  bridge  near  Rockyford.  This  may  be  due  to  the  return 
waters  entering  the  river  during  flood  time,  but  this  would  seem  to 
indipate  a  very  great  in-flow  of  return  waters  at  such  a  period,  and 
it  would  seem  that  a  portion,  at  least,  of  these  salts  must  find  their 
way  into  the  water,  either  in  the  ditch  or  reservoir,  during  the 
period  of  storage.  The  Arkansas  river  in  the  month  of  February,. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  65 

a  month  of  low  water,  carried  only  10.8  grains.  This 
flood  water,  after  storage  for  twenty-two  months,  carried  72 
grains.  Our  data  is  not  sufficiently  full  to  enable  us  to  go  further 
with  this  discussion. 

§  1 19.  The  work  done  by  the  irrigating  waters  of  the  Ar¬ 
kansas  valley  is  evidently  similar  to  that  done  by  them  in  the 
Poudre  valley,  and  so  far  as  the  rate  at  which  the  salts  are  carried 
out  of  the  soil  is  indicated  by  the  contents  of  total  solids  per  gal¬ 
lon,  it  is  very  nearly  the  same,  differing  principally  in  carrying  a 
fairly  large  percentage  of  sodic  sulfate,  while  the  Poudre  return 
water  carries  relatively  but  little  or  none  of  this  salt. 

THE  SUSPENDED  MATTER  CARRIED  IN  TIMES  OF  HIGH  WATER. 

§  120.  This  will  vary  both  in  amount  and  character,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  conditions  prevailing  within  the  drainage  area  of  the 
streams  carrying  it.  The  Rio  Grande,  in  New  Mexico,  would 
scarcely  be  expected  to  carry  the  same  character  of  suspended 
matter,  especially  after  a  torrential  rain  somewhere  within  its 
plains  section,  as  at  Del  Norte,  Colorado,  after  a  similar  rain  in 
the  mountain  districts  to  the  west  of  it. 

§  1 2 1.  The  amount  of  sediment,  as  I  have  found  it,  has  been 
a  great  disappointment  to  me,  it  being  very  small  in  amount  com¬ 
pared  with  my  preconceived  notions,  and  of  a  somewhat  different 
quality. 

§  122.  On  May  22,  1902,  we  had  an  excellent  opportunity 
of  obtaining  a  sample  of  Poudre  flood  water,  caused  by  a  heavy 
rainfall  within  the  foothills,  whereby  the  river  was  swollen  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  passed  beyond  its  bounds.  It  carried  on 
this  date  12,000  second-feet,  or  about  ten  times  its  usual  volume 
at  this  season  of  the  year.  This  water  was  very  thick  with  mud 
and  debris,  such  as  the  unusual  volume  of  water  would  tear  loose 
along  its  course.  I  had  a  large  sample,  102  pounds,  of  this  water 
collected  from  the  middle  of  the  stream.  The  bucket  with  which 
the  water  was  dipped  was  allowed  to  sink  as  far  as  it  would  in  such 
a  current.  The  whole  sample  was  allowed  to  settle  for  several 
days,  on  account  of  the  suspended  clay,  and  then  filtered.  The 
suspended  matter  amounted  to  0.213  per  cent,  or  2,130  parts  per 
million.  The  analysis  of  the  sediment  gave  the  following  results: 


66  BULLETIN  82. 


TABLE  LV—  ANALYSIS  OF  SUSPENDED  MATTER  CARRIED 
IN  FLOOD  WATER  OF  POUDRE  RIVER,  MAY  22,  1902. 

PER  CENT. 

Silicic  Acid . 01.482 

Sulfuric  Acid . . .  None 

Carbonic  Acid .  0.350 

Chlorin . Trace 

Phosphoric  Acid .  None 

Potassic  Oxid .  2  603 

Sodic  Oxid .  1.519 

Calcic  Oxid .  2.575 

Mangesic  Oxid .  1.948 

Ferric  Oxid  . : .  6.826 

Aluminic  Oxid . 7.866 

Manganic  Oxid .  0.461 

Moisture . 8.040 

Ignition .  6.485 


Total . 100.213 

Nitrogen  0.306  per  cent. 


§  123.  Our  people  do  not  have  opportunity  to  apply  such 
water  in  irrigating,  and  there  is  but  little  object  in  calculating 
what  the  value  of  an  acre  foot  of  it  would  be,  still  some  may  be 
curious  to  see  the  figures.  The  total  suspended  matter  per  acre 
foot  would  be  5,799  pounds.  The  total  potash  (KsO)  would  be 
154  pounds;  the  total  nitrogen,  17  pounds,  and  the  total  organic 
matter  377  pounds. 

§  124.  While  the  suspended  matter,  in  this  case,  came  from 
the  foothills,  it  is  not  so  different  in  its  composition  from  that 
usually  carried  by  this  stream  as  would  be  anticipated. 

§  1 25.  A  sample  of  Arthur  ditch  water  was  taken  July  5,  1900, 
when  the  river  was  high,  and  the  water  much  more  turbid  than 
usual.  The  percentage  of  suspended  matter  was  found  to  be  only 
0.0016,  16  pounds  per  million,  or  44  pounds  per  acre  foot. 
The  sample  taken  was  sufficiently  large,  over  100  pounds, 
to  give  entirely  trustworthy  results.  The  analysis  was  made  by 
fluxing  with  calcic  carbonate,  therefore  the  lime  and  magnesia  are 
included  in  the  undetermined.  The  analysis  gave  the  following 
results: 

TABLE  LVI.- -ANALYSIS  OF  SUSPENDED  MATTER  IN  ARTHUR 
DITCH  WATER,  SAMPLE  TAKEN  JULY  5,  1900. 


PER  CENT. 

Silicic  Acid .  58.838 

Potassic  Oxid .  2.818 

Sodic  Oxid  .  1.998 

Ferric  Oxid .  6.985 

Aluminic  Oxid . .  1  <  .505 

Ignition  .  9  722 

Undetermined .  8.084 


Total . 100.000 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  67 

§  126.  The  potassic  and  sodic  oxids  in  these  two  sediments 
are  nearly  the  same;  the  silicic  acid,  iron  and  alnminic  oxids  are 
as  nearly  so  as  we  could  expect  to  find  in  samples  taken  on  differ¬ 
ent  days;-  with  like  conditions  prevailing  in  the  river,  instead  of 
samples  taken  under  very  unlike  conditions.  In  this  case,  these 
samples  show  that  there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  suspended 
matter  brought  from  the  mountains  by  the  flood  water,  produced 
by  the  melting  snow,  and  that  carried  into  the  river  by  torrential 
rains  within  the  foothills.  This  remark  applies  to  the  inorganic 
constituents  only,  and  would  not  be  strictly  applicable  to  heavy 
rains  falling  within  the  sections  where  the  red  clays  of  the  jura- 
triassic  abound.  The  ignited  suspended  matter  of  May  22,  shows 
an  abundance  of  red  clay. 

§  127.  The  Queen  Reservoir  was  filled  with  flood  water  from 
the  Arkansas  river.  As  the  reservoirs,  of  which  this  is  only  one, 
are  filled  in  this  manner  for  the  most  part,  I  obtained  through  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  W.  M.  Wiley  a  sample  of  the  silt  deposited  in 
this  reservoir.  This  matter  had  evidently  been  some  time  in  ac¬ 
cumulating.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  this  may  have  been  silt 
carried  by  the  flood  waters  of  the  Arkansas,  and  yet  the  judgment 
of  Mr.  Wiley  and  his  assistants  ought  to  be  thoroughly  reliable 
in  this  matter.  When  passed  through  a  fifty  mesh  sieve  15  per 
cent  of  it  remained  upon  the  sieve.  Before  ignition,  bits  of  coal 
were  easily  recognizable  among  the  large  fragments  of  roots,  stems, 
etc.  It  is  possible  that  these  bits  of  coal  had  been  swept  along 
by  the  flood  waters  from  Canon  City  or  Pneblo.  After  ignition 
the  mineral  and  rock  particles  recognizable  were  mica,  quartz, 
felspar  and  grains  of  a  vesicular  igneous  rock,  probably  andesite. 
The  latter  was  abundant.  There  were  also  fragments  of  shells  and 
pear-shaped  bodies,  being  quite  sharp  at  one  end.  Some  of  these 
were  spirally  marked,  others  apparently  not.  These  bodies  dis¬ 
solved  in  hydrochloric  acid  with  effervescence,  and  were  probably 
seed  or  spore  cases  of  chara. 

§  128.  I  am  not  familiar  enough  with  the  country  to  sug¬ 
gest  any  source  for  the  particles  of  igneous  rock,  but  if  I  have  made 
no  mistake  they  have  probably  been  transported  a  long  way.  The 
part  that  passed  through  the  sieve  was  separated  into  a  coarser 
and  finer  portion  by  washing.  The  particles  of  the  coarser  part  of 
this  portion  were  largely  quartz,  some  felspar  and  mica  grains  and 
also  some  of  the  eruptive  rock.  Such  was  the  mechanical  com¬ 
position  of  this  silt.  The  chemical  analysis  gave  the  following 
results: 


68  BULLETIN  82. 


TABLE  LVIL— ANALYSIS  OF  SILT  FROM  QUEEN  RESERVOIR, 
PROWERS  COUNTY,  COLO.,  SAMPLE  TAKEN  JAN.  23,  1903. 

PER  CENT. 

Silicic  Acid . 69.262 

Sulfuric  Acid  .  0.080 

Carbonic  Acid . 2.819 

Phosphoric  Acid . .  0  120 

Chlorin  . ..Trace 

Sodic  Oxid .  1.401 

Potassic  Oxid .  1.807 

Calcic  Oxid .  4.904 

Magnesic  Oxid . 1.081 

Ferric  Oxid .  3  603 

Aluminic  Oxid . 10.428 

Manganic  Oxid . 0.082 

Ignition  . 4.283 

Total .  99.870 

Nitrogen,  0.075  per  cent. 


§  129.  The  elements  of  plant  food  contained  in  this  are  the 
potassic  oxid,  the  phosphoric  acid,  and  perhaps  the  lime  and  the 
organic  matter.  The  exceedingly  low  content  of  nitrogen  indi¬ 
cates  that  the  value  of  the  organic  matter  is  small.  This  silt 
differs  from  the  two  previously  given  in  carrying  a  little  phospho¬ 
ric  acid.  This  may  come  from  the  rock  particles  or  from  the  shells, 
and  may  be  from  fragments  of  bone,  a  few  of  which  were  found 
in  the  silt.  The  chief  value  is  in  the  potash,  forty  pounds  per 
ton,  but  I  can  see  but  little  difference  between  this  potash,  which, 
for  the  greater  part  at  least,  is  contained  in  the  felspar  in  the  silt, 
and  potash  contained  in  any  other  finely  divided  felspar.  The 
only  question  involved  is  the  one  of  the  degree  of  fineness.  The  quan¬ 
tity  of  potash  is  small,  scarcely  greater  than  that  contained  in  an 
acre  foot  of  some  irrigation  waters,  especially  those  which  have 
been  stored — an  acre  foot  of  the  Queen  Reservoir  water  carrying 
72.3  grains  per  gallon,  and  the  salts  in  solution  containing  0.5  per 
cent  of  their  weight  of  potassic  oxid,  contains  fourteen  pounds  of 
potassic  oxid,  while  a  ton  of  the  silt  carries  forty  pounds,  every 
whit  of  which  has  to  be  brought  into  solution.  The  three  sam¬ 
ples  of  suspended  matter,  or  silts,  which  have  been  presented  rep¬ 
resent  very  different  conditions,  and  yet  the  composition  is  essen¬ 
tially  the  same.  We  find  the  mineralogical  constituents  the  same, 
and  essentially  the  same  percentages  of  potassic  oxid  in  the  two 
from  the  Poudre,  but  less  in  the  third,  representing  the  lower 
Arkansas,  and  in  none  of  them  is  it  high,  2.9  per  cent  in  round 
numbers. 

§  130.  The  fourth  sample  of  suspended  matter,  of  which  I 
shall  give  an  analysis,  is  of  an  entirely  different  nature.  This 
material  is  not  soil,  or  the  natural  products  of  decay  on  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  crust,  but  refuse  from  mills,  the  products  of 
decay  formed  in  veins,  comminuted  gangue  rock,  slimed  ore,  etc., 
which  is  discharged  into  the  water  course  and  carried  by  the 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  69 

stream,  even  to  the  distributing  furrows  in  the  fields.  The  analysis 
of  this  material  gave  the  following  results: 

TABLE  LVIII.  —  ANALYSIS  OF  SUSPENDED  MATTER  IN 
WELCH  DITCH,  SAMPLE  TAKEN  ONE  MILE  ABOVE 

GOLDEN,  AUGUST  27,  1902. 


PER  CENT. 

Silicic  Acid . 5:1.991 

Sulfuric  Acid,  Sol.  in  HC1 .... .  0.064 

Sulfur  .  1.908 

Ferric  Oxid .  9.420 

Aluminic  Oxid  .  15  822 

Manganic  Oxid .  0  636 

Calcic  Oxid .  1 015 

Magnesic  Oxid .  1.613 

Zinc .  0.383 

Copper .  0  201 

Lead .  1  214 

Potassic  Oxid . .  4  650 

Sodic  Oxid .  1.057 

Loss  at  60° .  2.386 

Loss  above  260° .  5.495 

Total . 9iK?75 

Nitrogen  0.121  per  cent. 


PJF  §  131.  The  suspended  matter  amounted  to  0.149  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  water,  equal  to  4,056  pounds  per  acre  foot, 
carrying  4.9  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  .190.6  pounds  of  potassic  oxid. 
This  mud  is  richer  in  these  elements  of  plant  food  than  the  mud 
of  flood  waters.  The  lead,  copper  and  zinc  found  indicate  the 
presence  of  1.402  per  cent,  of  galena,  2.502  per  cent,  of  pyrites, 
0.517  per  cent,  of  sphalerite  or  zinc  blende  and  0.581  per  cent,  of 
chalcopyrite.  These  quantities  of  these  minerals  have  escaped 
the  concentrators  and  failed  to  be  deposited  before  they  reached 
this  point.  We  have  here  to  deal  with  a  mixture  of  clay  and  fels¬ 
par,  a  conclusion  entirely  in  harmony  with  the  facts  known  con¬ 
cerning  the  concentrating  ores  in  this  district. 

§  132.  It  appears  from  the  results  of  the  examination  of 
these  sediments,  that  they  are  composed  essentially  of  the  finer 
particles  formed  by  the  decay  and  comminution  of  the  rocks  form¬ 
ing  the  mountains,  or  rock  particles  forming  the  soil,  which  in  our 
case  amounts  to  saying  the  same  thing.  Our  soils  contain,  as  their 
mass  analysis  shows,  a  little  over  two  per  cent  of  potassic  oxid, 
2.2  to  2.6.  These  sediments  contain  less  than  the  soils,  except  in 
the  case  of  the  mud  from  Clear  Creek,  which  contains  about  as 
much  as  ordinary  granite,  4.6  per  cent.  These  results  confirm  an 
opinion  which  I  have  long  entertained,  i.  e.,  that  there  is  danger 
of  our  overestimating  the  value  of  the  silts  carried  by  our  streams, 
as  it  seems  almost  impossible  for  this  silt  to  be  other  than  it  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  from  the  study  of  the  silts  themselves,  and  the  analysis 
thereof;  namely,  a  mixture  of  the  fine  particles  of  the  minerals 
constituting  the  mountain  masses  of  the  country. 


70 


BULLETIN  82. 


SUMMARY. 


1.  The  general  character  of  the  water  of  our  mountain  streams  is 
dependent  upon  the  character  of  their  collecting  area  and  is  essentially 
the  same  for  the  streams  studied  in  this  bulletin. 

*2  The  character  of  the  water  changes  rapidly  as  soon  as  it  leaves 
the  mountain  section  of  its  course  and  enters  the  plains. 

3.  In  the  case  of  the  Poudre  water,  used  by  the  town  of  Fort  Col¬ 
lins,  the  total  solids  contained  in  the  water  increases  from  2.9  grains  per 
imperial  gallon,  in  the  mountain  section,  to  an  average  of  perhaps  10.2 
grains  as  delivered  to  the  town,  an  increase  of  three  and  one-third  times 
the  original  amount  present. 

4.  This  change  is  produced  by  its  flowing  through  less  than  eight 
miles  of  its  course  lying  within  its  plains  section. 

5  The  mineral  substances  held  in  solution  by  the  water,  as  moun¬ 
tain  streams,  are  derived  principally  from  the  felspars  by  the  action  of 
water  and  carbonic  acid.  Pure  water  attacks  these  minerals,  but  its 
action  is  greatly  increased  by  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid. 

.  6  Our  river  and  ground  waters  contain  both  strontia  and  lithia, 
which  are  shown  to  be  dissolved  out  of  the  felspars  by  carbonated  wa¬ 
ters,  and  which  are  therefore  to  be  considered  as  their  source. 

I.  The  amount  of  mineral  matter  which  the  Poudre  carries  through 
its  canyon  daily,  assuming  a  flow  of  3u0  second  feet,  is  nearly  twenty- 
six  tons,  equal  to  320  cubic  feet  of  solid  rock,  having  the  average  density 
of  quartz. 

«.  The  Poudre  water  is  not  nearly  saturated,  for  by  direct  experi¬ 
ment  with  finely  ground  felspar  we  were  able  to  bring  4.536  grains  into 
solution  in  each  imperial  gallon. 

9  The  composition  of  the  material  dissolved  out  of  the  felspar  by 
water  and  carbonic  acid,  is  almost  identical  with  that  held  in  solution  by 
the  river  water. 

10.  The  organic  matter  in  the  river  water  is  not  large  in  quantity 
and,  while  probably  of  vegetable  origin,  became  exceedingly  offensive 
when  the  water  was  evaporated  to  a  small  volume 

II.  The  waters  of  the  Boulder  and  Clear  Creek  agree  closely  in 
composition  and  character  with  that  of  the  Poudre. 

12.  The  influence  of  the  plains  section  of  the  stream  upon  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  water  is  increased  by  the  irrigation  of  the  adjacent  lands. 

13.  The  effect  of  storage  is  to  increase  the  mineral  matter  held  in 
solution.  Some  of  the  increase  is  derived  from  the  ditches  through 
which  the  water  flows  and  from  seepage  directly  into  the  reservoirs. 

14.  A  small  increase,  0.5  grains  per  gallon,  is  due  to  evaporation, 
but  by  far  the  largest  increase  is  shown  in  instances  where  seepage  wa¬ 
ter  is  either  intentionally  stored  or  flows  into  the  reservoir. 

15.  In  the  case  of  Terry  Lake  the  total  solids  found  in  two  different 
years  were  134.5  grains  and  175.6  grains  per  imperial  gallon.  The  average 
of  which  shows  that  this  lake  held  in  solution  27,127  tons  of  solids  in  its 
9,000  acre-feet  of  water. 

16  Windsor  Lake,  containing  14,000  acre-feet,  held  18,894  tons  in 
solution. 

17.  The  water  with  which  these  reservoirs  were  filled  was  taken,  for 
the  greater  part,  directly  from  the  Poudre,  and  the  rest  of  it  indirectly,  it 
having  in  the  meantime  passed  into  the  soil  and  reappeared  as  seepage. 

18.  The  mineral  matters  held  in  solution  in  the  different  reservoirs 
differ  considerably.  Those  of  Terry  Lake  resemble  in  their  composition 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  7 1 

the  alkali  incrustations,  which  appear  in  many  localities ;  those  of  Long- 
Pond  and  the  Windsor  Reservoir  resemble  the  water  soluble  portion  of 
the  soil,  rather  than  the  efflorescent  alkalies.  The  water  of  Warren’s 
Lake  has  suffered  less  change  in  the  character  of  the  salts  held  in  solu¬ 
tion  than  the  others,  and  yet,  the  sulfates  compose  rather  more  than  50 
per  cent,  of  the  salts  held  in  solution. 

19.  The  salts  predominating  in  the  water  of  the  Poudre,  while  it  is  a 
mountain  stream,  are  the  carbonates,  with  some  chlorids  and  sulfates, 
but  as,  stored  in  Terry  Lake  and  Windsor  Reservoir,  the  carbonates 
have  almost  disappeared  and  their  place  has  been  taken  by  the  sulfates. 

20.  The  amounts  of  calcic  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates  which  ap¬ 
pear  in  the  stored  waters  are  large.  We  find  in  Terry  Lake  5,859  tons  of 
calcic  sulfate,  10,616  tons  of  magnesic  sulfate  and  7,1J3  tons  of  sodic  sul¬ 
fate.  In  the  Windsor  Reservoir  we  have  the  same  salts,  but  in  different 
quantities,  6,083  tons  calcic  sulfate,  7,029  tons  of  magnesic  sulfate,  1,999 
tons  of  sodic  sulfate.  These  are  the  salts  which  constitute  our  alkalies^ 

21.  The  only  constituent  contained  in  these  stored  waters  which, 
under  our  conditions,  may  have  any  great  interest  or  significance  as  a 
plant  food,  and  consequently  tend  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
is  the  potash,  K20.  The  quantity  of  potash  held  by  the  stored  waters 
is  not  great.  The  aggregate  amount  present  in  the  four  lakes  discussed 
is  188  tons,  contained  in  27,672  acre-feet  of  water,  which,  allowing  two 
acre  feet  of  water  to  an  acre  of  land,  would  give  an  application  of  fifty 
pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash  to  the  acre,  which  undoubtedly  tends  to 
maintain  the  fertility  of  the  land  to  which  it  is  applied 

22.  The  potash  contained  in  the  stored  waters  is  largely  brought 
into  the  reservoirs  by  seepage  or  other  than  river  water. 

23.  The  application  of  two  acre-feet  of  river  water  as  it  flows  through 
the  canyon  would  give  only  12.5  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash  per  acre,  or 
exactly  one-fourth  as  much  as  the  stored  waters.  As  the  seepage  water 
contains  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  latter  in  either  of  these  cases, 
it  follows  that  the  amount  of  potash  carried  by  it  and  neccessarily  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  soil  through  which  it  has  seeped,  is  much  greater  than 
that  carried  by  pure  river  water,  and  we  may  note  that  the  quantity  in¬ 
dicated  is  greater  than  that  carried  by  drain  water  or  by  soil  water,  as  a 
rule,  but  is  less  than  that  carried  by  off-flow  water,  and  sometimes  by 
soil  water. 

24.  The  amount  of  nitrogen,  including  all  forms,  added  with  the  irri¬ 
gation  water,  being  less  than  four  pounds  per  acre,  is  negligible.  . 

25.  The  quantities  of  useless,  or  even  deleterious  salts,. added  to  the 
soil  by  the  application  of  two  acre-feet  of  stored  water  to  an  acre  of 
land,  are  worthy  of  consideration.  In  the  case  of  the  Windsor  Reservoir 
we  add  the  equivalent  of  54  pounds  sulfate  of  potash,  and  at  the 
same  time  5,347  pounds  of  other  salts;  in  the  case  of  Terry  Lake  we  add. 
55  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash  and  11,349  pounds  of  other  salts. 

26.  Water  used  in  direct  irrigation,  that  is,  water  conveyed  by 
means  of  ditches  directly  from  the  river  to  the  land  irrigated,  suffers 
less  change  than  when  stored,  but  does  not  by  any  means  escape  alto¬ 
gether.  The  best  measure  that  I  have  of  the  extent  of  this  change,,  and 
one  which,  judging  by  the  extent  that  the  water  supplied  to  Fort  Col¬ 
lins  is  changed  in  flowing  less  than  eight  miles,  is  not  an:  extreme  or  an 
exaggerated  one,  indicates  that  the  total  solids  are  not  less  than  five 
times  as  much  as  in  the  river  water  when  the  ditch  was  not  more  than 
ten  miles  long. 

27.  The  water  used  in  irrigating,  in  order  to  study  its  changes,  was 
water  taken  directly  from  the  river,  so  far  as  we  could  obtain  such.  The 
general  results  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

28.  The  water  flowing  over  the  soil  carries,  in  the  first  portions 
which  flow  off,  very  considerable  amounts  of  salts  in  solution.  The 
Samples  which  gave  the  most  reasonable  results  indicated  that  water  flow¬ 
ing  for  6(H)  feet  over  the  plot  experimented  with,  carried  between  *nn  and 
1,000  pounds  more  salts  in  solution,  per  acre  foot,  than  the  on-flowing 


bulletin  82. 


72 

water.  The  first  water  that  flowed  off  gave  much  higher  results,  but 
subsequent  samples  showed  a  rapid  falling  off. 

29.  The  water  entering  the  soil  caused  the  solution  of  not  less  than 

4,400  pounds  of  salts  per  acre-foot,  and  probably  very  nearly  three  times 
this  amount.  ' 

30.  The  salts  taken  into  solution  by  the  water  entering  the  soil  and 
becoming  ground  water,  are  calcic, magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates.  The  salts 
dissolved  in  the  next  largest  quantities  were  sodic  chlorid  and  sodic  car¬ 
bonate. 

31.  The  amount  of  salts  brought  into  solution  in  the  ground  water, 
due  to  the  application  of  water  to  the  surface,  varies  not  only  in  the 
total  amount  of  salts,  but  also  in  the  relative  quantities  of  the  individual 
salts.  The  salt  that  went  into  solution  the  most  freely  in  1893,  that  is, 
the  salt  that  showed  the  largest  increase  in  the  ground  water,  due  to  the 
irrigation  of  the  plot  with  which  we  were  experimenting,  was  sodic  sul¬ 
fate,  for  which  we  found  an  increase  of  1,430  pounds  in  each  acre-foot  of 
ground  water.  In  1899,  the  largest  increase  was  shown  by  calcic  sulfate, 
an  increase  of  1,638  pounds  per  acre  foot. 

32.  In  1898  there  were  two  causes  which  may  have  contributed  to 
bringingaboutthe  relatively  large  increase  of  the  sodic  sulfate.  One  was 
the  scanty  supply  of  water,  which  did  not  enable  us  to  fill  the  soil  with 
water  to  the  same  extent  that  we  did  in  1899,  so  that  the  relative  mass 
of  water  to  that  of  the  soil,  or  to  the  salts  in  the  soil,  was  not  the  same. 
This  is  an  important  condition  and  one,  for  the  effect  of  which  we  have 
no  measure.  The  other  was  the  necessity  that  we  were  under  of  exclud¬ 
ing  the  water  of  well  D.  from  our  consideration  of  the  results  of  this 
irrigation,  because  of  an  accident.  The  results  shown  by  this  well  sub¬ 
sequently  indicate  that  it  would  have  showed  a  greater  increase  in  the 
amount  of  calcic  sulfate  than  the  other  three,  and  would  consequently 
have  reduced  the  relative  increase  of  sodic  sulfate.  The  general  results 
were  slightly  influenced  by  this  omission.  Still,  after  all  due  allowance 
for  these  facts  has  been  made,  there  remains  a  decided  difference  in 
the  results  of  these  two  experiments,  one  in  1898,  the  other  in  1899. 

33.  The  character  and  supply  of  the  water  exert  an  influence  upon 
the  relative  quantities  of  the  salts  that  go  into  solution,  but  there  are 
evidently  other  factors  that  influence  these  ratios.  The  general  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  soil,  the  temperature  and  the  season  of  the  year,  including 
all  the  meteorological  conditions,  probably  have  a  great  influence  upon 
the  salts  in  the  soil,  and  the  relative  quantities  of  them  in  solution  in 
the  ground  water. 

34.  The  effect  of  a  long  continued  rain  in  the  spring  of  1900,  when 
the  temperature  of  the  water  entering  the  soil  was  not  far  from  zero,  as 
the  ground  was  covered  with  melting  snow,  is  given  in  Tables  XXXVI, 
XXXVII  and  XXXVIII.  The  salt  present  at  this  time,  April  9,  1900,  in 
well  A,  in  the  largest  quantity,  was  magnesic  sulfate.  The  quantity  of 
this  salt  present,  on  this  date,  was  between  four  and  five  times  greater 
than  the  average  quantity  present  during  the  season  of  1898.  The  quan¬ 
tities  of  calcic  and  sodic  sulfates  were  also  greater  than  their  respective 
average  quantities  for  the  same  time;  that  of  calcic  sulfate  was  one- 
third  higher,  while  that  of  sodic  sulfate  was  between  five  and  six  times 
greater.  The  increase  of  the  sodic  sulfate  over  its  average  quantity  for 
1898,  is  greater  than  that  of  the  magnesic  sulfate,  but  the  amount  of  the 
former  salt  present  is  just  a  little  more  than  one-half  that  of  the  latter. 

3  >.  The  following  general  conditions  may  have  contributed  in  bring¬ 
ing  about  these  variations.  The  weather  during  the  preceding  weeks,  or 
even  months,  also  the  abundant  supply  of  water  simultaneously  over  a 
large  area.  I  conceive  this  last  condition  to  differ  very  greatly  from  the 
application  of  even  a  copious  irrigation  applied  to  a  limited  area  of  soil. 

36  It  is  a  common  observation  that  the  alkali  salts  effloresce  freely 
during  the  winter  season.  It  may  have  been  the  case  in  this  instance 
that  an  unusual  amount  of  this  sait,  magnesic  sulfate,  had  accumulated 
in  the  upper  portions  of  the  soil,  owing  to  evaporation  during  the  pre¬ 
ceding  winter.  Such  a  result  is  suggested  by  the  presence  of  this  salt  in 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  73 

large,  sometimes  predominating  quantities,  in  the  effloresced  alkalies,  but 
I  have  no  other  observed  fact  to  support  it. 

37.  The  very  large  quantity  of  magnesic  sulfate  present  may  also 
be  accounted  for  by  supposing  that  the  ground  water,  under  the  then 
obtaining  conditions,  actually  dissolved  larger  quantities  of  this  salt  out 
of  the  soil  than  of  the  others. 

38.  It  is  not  clear  from  any  facts  which  I  was  able  to  discover,  to 
which  of  these  conditions,  if  to  any  of  them,  the  observed  fact  ought  to 
be  attributed;  to  the  accumulation  of  the  magnesic  salt  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  soil,  due  to  evaporation  from  the  surface  and  the  conse¬ 
quent  action  of  capillarity,  to  low  temperature,  to  the  abundant  supply 
of  water  over  a  large  area,  or  to  some  other  unrecognized  cause. 

39  The  fact  is  simply  this,  that  the  salts  in  the  ground  water  are 
essentially  the  same  at  all  times,  and  the  application  of  water  to  the 
surface,  whether  it  be  irrigation  water  or  rainfall,  does  not  change  in 
any  material  way  the  salts  present.  The  relative  quantities  in  which 
they  are  held  in  solution  in  the  ground  water  varies  quite  widely,  while 
the  causes  of  the  variations  are  not  evident.  It  is  not  probable,  for  in¬ 
stance,  that  the  quantity  of  magnesic  sulfate  in  the  soil  experimented 
with,  predominates  at  any  time  over  the  calcic  sulfate,  as  the  relative 
quantities  of  these  salts  found  in  the  ground  water  in  the  spring  of  1900 
might  be  held  to  suggest.  The  solution  obtained  by  thoroughly  exhaust¬ 
ing  this  soil  with  water,  shows  that  there  is  from  two  to  three  times  as 
much  calcic  as  magnesic  sulfate  in  the  top  four  inches  of  it.  The  total 
lime  contained  in  this  soil,  as  shown  by  analysis  of  the  whole  soil,  is  in 
round  uumbers,  double  that  of  the  magnesia.  The  lime  in  the  hydro¬ 
chloric  extract  of  this  soil  usually  exceeds  the  magnesia;  in  the  subsoil 
it  is  even  eight  times  as  great. 

40.  The  ground  waters,  under  ordinary  conditions,  always  contain 
more  calcic  than  magnesic  sulfate,  but  under  the  conditions  prevailng 
during  the  spring  of  1900,  we  find  the  rule  reversed— see  analyses 
XXXVI,  XXXVII  and  XXXVIII.  The  cause,  or  causes,  of  this  were 
evidently  not  permanent,  for  within  a  period  of  eight  days  we  observe  a 
change,  in  which  the  ratio  of  magnesic  to  calcic  sulfate,  in  the  water  of 
well  A,  falls  from  2:  l  to  1.2: 1,  a  ratio  which  had  already  been  found  for 
these  salts  immediately  after  irrigation.  In  the  drain  water  taken  on  the 
same  date,  April  2<»,  1900,  we  observe  the  usual  ratio  between  these  salts. 
The  drain  water  is  at  all  times  different  from  the  ground  water,  and  too 
much  stress  should  not  be  placed  upon  the  ratio  of  these  salts  observed 
in  it.  Its  chief  value,  in  this  case,  is  to  show  that,  though  the  condi¬ 
tions  in  regard  to  temperature,  water  supply,  etc.,  were  general,  they 
have  produced  no  noticeable  effect  upon  the  kind  or  relative  quantities 
of  the  salts  carried  in  the  drain  water. 

41.  The  water  of  well  A,  on  April  9,  1900,  was  intermediate  in  the 
character  of  the  salts  held  in  solution  between  the  alkali-incrustations 
forming  on  this  soil,  under  favorable  conditions,  and  the  water  usually 
present  in  the  well.  It  differed  from  the  former  in  having  less  sodic  sul¬ 
fate,  and  from  the  latter  in  carrying  less  calcic  sulfate  and  very  much 
more  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates.  These  facts  do  not  seem  to  be  in 
any  way  dependent  upon  the  solubilities  of  the  salts  themselves,  nor 
upon  any  known  state  of  hydration. 

42.  The  quantities  of  potash  involved  were  not  large,  being  15.1  and 
19.2  pounds  respectively,  for  the  two  seasons,  1898  and  1899.  These 
quantities  are  extremely  small,  when  we  consider  the  mass  of  other 
salts  which  was  brought  into  solution.  In  1898  we  have  nearly  2.25  tons, 
in  1899,  2.5  tons  of  salts  brought  into  solution,  and  this  on  plainly  too 
conservative  an  sstimate,  while  only  these  small  quantities  of  potash  are 
carried  along  with  them.  If  we  were  to  treat  an  equal  amount  of  ground 
granite  with  this  amount  of  water,  it  would  dissolve  out  more  potash 
than  is  here  shown  to  have  gone  into  solution,  notwithstanding  the  ten¬ 
dency  of  such  a  large  quantity  of  salts,  2.5  tons,  to  carry  others  into 
olution.  This  is  entirely  in  accord  with  facts  observed  long 


74  bulletin  82. 

ago,  i.  e.,  that  the  soil  retains  potash  salts  more  tenaciously  than  it 
does  others. 

43.  The  drain  waters,  as  indicated  by  such  data  as  we  have  been 
able  to  gather,  though  we  have  not  been  able  to  study  this  subject  as  we 
desired,  differ  materially  from  the  ground  waters.  They  contain  a 
smaller  quantity  of  salts  in  solution,  and  are  more  uniform  in  this  con¬ 
tent  than  the  ground  waters.  The  salts  present  stand  in  a  different 
order,  especially  in  regard  to  their  relative  quantities,  sodic  sulfate 
sometimes  disappearing  entirely.  Calcic  sulfate  is  uniformly  first  in 
quantity;  magnesic  second,  sodic  carbonate  third,  and  sodic  chlorid 
fourth,  with  sodic  sulfate  quite  irregular,  but  usually  less  than  the  sodic 
chlorid. 

44.  The  first  significance  of  these  facts  is  that  our  drains  benefit 
our  lands  by  removing  the  surplus  water,  rather  than  the  useless  or 
deleterious  salts,  from  the  soils.  This  is  by  no  means  a  small  service. 
Indeed,  it  is  the  most  important  service  to  be  rendered  to  nearly  all  of 
our  alkalized  land.  Of  the  salts  removed,  the  most  injurious  one,  when 
present  in  sufficient  quantity,  is  the  sodic  carbonate.  Relative  to  the 
amount  of  this  salt  present  in  the  drain  and  ground  waters,  a  compari¬ 
son  of  the  analyses  of  the  drain  waters  with  those  given  of  ground  wa¬ 
ters  in  this  Bulletin,  and  also  with  those  in  Bulletin  No.  72,  pages  23-26, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  grains  per  gallon  remain  quite  constant.  In 
other  words,  the  sodic  carbonate  does  not  seem  to  be  retained  by  the 
soil,  or  removed  from  solution  by  passing  through  it,  while  the  sodic 
sulfate,  or  white  alkali,  is  retained  to  a  very  marked  extent. 

45.  The  only  samples  of  drain  and  ground  waters  taken  on  the  same 
date,  are  those  taken  April  17,  1900.  The  samples  of  ground  water  are 
unusual,  as  set  forth  in  preceding  paragraphs,  but  the  features  to  which 
I  wish  to  call  attention  are  so  bold  that  thev  will  not  be  hidden,  or  even 
distorted  by  these  facts.  In  the  ground  waters  we  have  452  and  470 
grains  respectively,  in  the  drain  water  114 grains  of  total  solids.  The  sodic 
carbonate  in  the  ground  waters  amounts  to  26  and  22  grains  respectively 
in  the  drain  water  23  grains.  The  range  of  this  salt  in  the  ground  waters, 
given  in  this  Bulletin,  is  from  10  to  23  grains  per  imperial  gallon,  and  in 
those  given  in  Bulletin  No.  72,  it  is  from  9  to  18  grains,  while  the  range 
of  the  same  salt  in  the  drain  waters  given  in  this  Bulletin  is  from  11  to 
23  grains.  Returning  to  the  samples  of  April  17,  we  have  in  the  ground 
waters  76  and  115  grains  of  calcic  sulfate  per  gallon,  for  the  drain  water 
45  grains.  We  have  152  and  137  grains  magnesic  sulfate  per  gallon  for 
the  ground  water  and  24  grains  in  the  drain  water.  Still  more  marked 
than  either  of  these  is  the  case  of  the  sodic  sulfate,  of  which  we  have 
105  and  89  grains  respectively  in  the  ground  waters,  and  5  grains  in  the 
drain  water.  The  sodic  chlorid  is  also  retained  within  the  soil,  but  in  a 
less  degree  than  some  of  the  other  salts.  The  ground  waters  on  this 
date,  April  17,  1900,  carried  56  and  64  grains  respectively,  while  the  drain 
water  carried  7  grains  per  gallon,  or  one-eighth  as  much  as  one  of  the 
samples  and  one-ninth  as  much  as  the  other. 

46.  The  analyses  of  the  ground  water  before  and  after  irrigation 
show  that  one  of  the  effects  of  irrigation  is  to  rather  increase  the  rela¬ 
tive  amount  of  sodic  chlorid  in  the  ground  water,  so  that  the  above 
figures  appear  more  favorable  to  my  statement  than  the  facts  as  they 
are  found,  under  less  extreme  conditions,  might  appear.  Reference  to 
the  analyses  of  ground  water,  given  on  pages  30-33  and  38-4' >  of  this 
Bulletin,  and  to  those  given  on  pages  21-26,  Bulletin  No.  72,  will  show 
that  the  sodic  chlorid  in  the  drain  waters  is  less  than  in  the  ground 
waters,  under  the  wide  range  of  conditions  represented  by  these  numer¬ 
ous  samples.  Some  of  the  analyses  referred  to,  especially  some  of  those 
in  Bulletin  No.  72,  suggest  very  pointedly  that  the  character  of  the  soil 
has  a  decided  influence  upon  these  points;  the  indications  being  that  the 
soil  experimented  with  permitted  the  respective  salts  to  pass  through 
more  freely  than  soils  freer  from  alkali  salts,  and  in  better  mechanical 
condition,  would  have  done. 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  75 

47.  The  amount  of  potash  salts  removed  by  the  drain  water  is  less 
than  that  existing  in  solution  in  the  ground  water.  The  total  amount 
removed  in  the  course  of  years  is  a  large  one  and,  while  we  are  re¬ 
minded  that  the  draining  is  going  on  all  the  time,  day  and  night,  year 
after,  year,  we  have  to  consider  also  that  potash  is  not  taken  from  any 
single  acre-foot  of  soil,  nor  from  a  mass  represented  by  a  single  acre  of 
surface,  but  for  the  sake  of  keeping  our  numbers  within  limits  which  we 
can  appreciate,  I  will  give  the  figures  showing  the  amounts  of  potash, 
on  the  basis  of  the  acre-foot.  One  acre-foot  of  our  soil  contains  a  total 
of  78,750  pounds.  Of  this  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  dissolves  43,750 
pounds.  An  acre-foot  of  ground  water,  before  irrigation,  in  1898,  con¬ 
tained  22  pounds,  and  in  1899,  6  pounds  of  potash.  After  irrigation,  in 
1898,  it  contained  41  pounds,  in  1899,  18  pounds.  An  acre-foot  of  drain 
water  carries  but  5  pounds,  taking  the  average  of  four  drains.  The 
water  draining  from  any  given  acre  of  land  is  probably  small,  not  ex¬ 
ceeding  a  hundredth  of  an  acre-foot  daily,  in  which  case  the  amount  re¬ 
moved  from  any  single  acre  of  land  is  very  small.  We  will  put  this 
another  way,  in  which  the  statements  may  seem  more  definite.  If  we 
take  a  strip  of  our  land  18  miles  long  and  one  mile  wide,  from  which 
there  is  discharged  3t)  acre-feet  of  drainage  water  daily,  it  would  take 
upwards  of  50, <>00  years  for  it  to  carry  out  an  amount  of  potash  equal  to 
that  contained  in  the  first  three  feet  of  soil. 

48.  The  nitrogen  carried  by  the  drain  waters  is  only  a  little  more 
per  acre-foot  than  the  potash,  it  being  5.8  pounds.  The  supply  of  nitro¬ 
gen  in  the  soil  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  the  potash,  by  any  means,  but 
while  there  is  no  accession  of  potash,  except  it  be  added,  there  may  be 
of  nitrogen.  The  amount  found  in  the  first  two  acre-feet  of  our  soil  was 
7,000  pounds,  and  it  would  take  1,227  acre-feet  of  drain  water  to  contain 
this  much  nitrogen. 

49.  The  return  waters  furnish  us  a  bigger  and  slightly  different 
measure  for  the  effects  of  drainage,  and  as  this,  with  us,  is  mainly  due 
to  irrigation,  they  furnish  us,  perhaps,  the  best  criteria  by  which  to 
judge  of  the  effects  of  irrigation  upon  our  lands.  We  would  expect  to 
find  their  composition  very  similar  to  that  of  the  drain  waters,  provided 
our  samples  of  drain  water  were  numerous  enough  to  represent  the  va¬ 
rious  soils  and  conditions  to  be  met  with  in  the  176,848  acres  of  land 
nominally  under  irrigation  within  this  valley,  of  which  probably  140,000 
are  actually  irrigated.  This  remark  applies,  of  course,  to  the  Poudre 
Valley  and  river. 

50.  We  find  the  total  solids  in  the  return  waters  lower  than  in  the 
ground  waters,  and  having  the  same  range  as  found  for  the  drain  wa¬ 
ters.  We  find  them  characterized  by  the  same  salts,  and  in  the  same 
order  in  regard  to  their  relative  quantities;  i.‘  e.,  calcic  sulfate,  magnesic 
sulfate  and  sodic  carbonate,  with  sodic  sulfate  irregular  in  its  quantity, 
but  always  subordinate,  except  in  the  sample  of  Arkansas  river  water, 
taken  at  Rocky  Ford,  April  24,  1903,  concerning  which  some  doubts  may 
be  entertained,  but  which  is  probably  correct,  because  the  ground  wa¬ 
ters  of  that  section  are  extremely  rich  in  sodic  sulfate. 

51.  The  salts  discharged  by  the  Poudre  into  the  Platte  river  do  not 
amount  to  less  than  22,000  tons  annually,  which  come  from  the  lower 
section  of  the  river,  besides  what  may  be  carried  from  sections  further 
up  the  river  when  the  waters  are  not  all  taken  out,  as  was  the  case  at 
the  time  our  samples  were  taken. 

52.  The  chief  difference  between  the  drain  waters  and  the  return 
waters  taken  from  the  rivers,  is  in  the  potash  present,  which  is  greater 
in  the  return  waters  than  in  the  drain  waters.  While  some  of  the  drain 
waters  contain  almost  as  much  potash  as  the  return  waters,  the  latter 
are,  as  a  rule,  richer  in  potash  than  the  former.  The  main  features  of 
these  two  classes  of  waters  are,  however,  identical. 

53.  The  waters  of  other  streams,  which  we  examined  fully,  justify 
us  in  assuming  that  the  Poudre  river  water  is  typical  of  the  mountain 
waters  on  this  side  of  the  range.  They  show  that  the  waters  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  streams,  while  in  their  mountain  sections,  are  identical;  that  all 


BULLETIN  82. 


76 

alike  suffer  changes  on  entering  the  plains,  and  their  return  waters,  as 
represented  by  the  Platte  river  below  the  mouth  of  the  Poudre,  indicate 
that  the  changes  suffered  by  them  are,  in  all  essential  particulars,  the 
same. 

54.  These  mountain  waters  are  interesting  and  worthy  of  fuller  and 
more  detailed  study  than  is  proper  to  devote  to  them  in  this  place. 
Therefore  the  discussion  of  them  will  be  omitted,  except  one  feature  of 
the  Clear  Creek  sample.  Clear  Creek  presents  an  instance  of  a  stream 
whose  waters  are  laden  with  the  mud  and  slimes  from  many  mills,  and 
whose  waters  are  also  used  for  irrigation.  The  sample  analyzed  was 
taken  from  an  irrigation  ditch.  A  full  and  careful  analysis  was  made 
of  it,  a  fuller  and  more  careful  one  than  would  probably  have  been  made  in 
the  case  of  a  legal  controversy,  and  yet  it  shows  nothing  that  can  be  in¬ 
terpreted  as  a  serious  pollution  of  the  water.  The  essential  character¬ 
istics  of  a  pure  mountain  water  have  scarcely  been  modified  in  the 
least.  The  purest  mountain  water  in  any  of  these  streams  carried  2.6 
grains  per  imperial  gallon,  Poudre  river  water,  sample  taken  July  30, 
1902.  The  sample  of  water  taken  from  Clear  Creek,  a  stream  which 
drains  a  section  of  country  with  a  population  of  at  least  25,000  souls,  and 
receives  indefinite  quantities  of  mine  water,  and  the  refuse  from  twenty 
odd  mills,  carries  less  than  eight  grains  to  the  imperial  gallon,  an  in¬ 
crease  which  is  less  than  that  caused  by  a  flow  of  a  few  miles  (four  to 
eight)  in  the  plains  section.  Of  the  heavy  metals,  salts  of  which  we 
might  expect  to  find  in  this  water,  due  to  oxidation  of  the  ores  treated 
in  the  mills,  we  find  none,  a  trace  of  zinc  oxid,  0.0157  grain  in  each  im¬ 
perial  gallon,  excepted. 

55.  The  suspended  matter  in  our  streams  and  ditches  was  found  to 
be  very  much  less  than  was  expected,  even  in  time  of  flood,  due  to  heavy 
rains  in  the  lower  and,  largely  soil  covered  sections  of  the  mountains, 
or  in  the  foothills.  The  water,  at  the  time  the  first  sample  given  in  the 
text  was  taken,  corresponded  to  the  colloquial  expression,  “as  thick 
as  mud.”  The  season  was  one  of  high  water,  when  the  usual  flow  is 
1,200  second-feet,  due  to  the  melting  of  the  snow,  but  at  this  time  it  was 
ten  times  as  great,  or  12,000  second-feet.  The  rain  fell  in  a  hilly  section 
and  the  fall  of  the  river  being  great,  we  had  conditions  favorable  to  the 
tearing  loose  of  soil,  rocks  and  other  debris.  The  crest  of  the  flood  had 
not  passed  at  the  time  the  sample  was  taken,  and  the  amount  of  sus¬ 
pended  matter  in  this  sample  probably  represents  the  maximum  that  we 
may  expect  to  find  in  this  stream  at  any  time.  The  amount  of  sediment 
equalled  3  tons  per  acre-foot  of  water.  The  aggregate  amount  of  sediment 
carried  by  such  a  flow,  12,000  second-feet,  laden  as  this  was,  is  not  far 
from  2,800  tons  per  hour,  all  of  which,  it  is  true,  must  sooner  or  later  be 
deposited  somewhere,  and  in  considering  this  as  a  source  of  fertility  we 
permit  the  impression  of  this  big  aggregate,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  de¬ 
posited  somewhere,  to  lead  us  to  form  too  high  an  estimate  of  its  actual 
available  amount,  and  we  at  the  same  time  assume  that  it  is  feasible  to 
apply  it  to  the  land.  If  it  were  feasible  and  we  applied  two  acre-feet  of 
it  to  an  acre  we  would  add  six  tons  of  this  suspended  matter  to  the  acre. 
This  would,  if  spread  evenly  over  the  surface  of  the  acre,  fopm  a  coat¬ 
ing  less  than  0.04  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  or  twenty-five  such  floodiligs 
would,  under  very  favorable  conditions,  furnish  a  dressing  of  this  sedi¬ 
ment  one  inch  in  thickness.  This  would,  of  course,  if  rich  in  plant  food, 
be  a  very  desirable  addition  to  the  acre  of  land.  There  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  several  considerations  to  be  weighed  before  we  set  this  gain  down 
as  an  easily  attainable  fact.  It  is  not  a  fact  that  we  can  apply  this 
muddy  water  to  our  land  when  it  is  in  the  river,  and  the  occasions  when 
it  is  in  the  river  are  very  seldom;  this  one  scarcely  having  been  equalled 
since  the  occupancy  of  this  valley  by  the  white  man,  except  once,  when 
it  was  due  to  the  breaking  of  a  dam.  The  facts  on  which  the  assumed 
supply  of  sediment  is  based,  are  wholly  exceptional.  But  if  we  grant 
the  supply,  the  question  of  value  is  an  open  one,  and  here,  as  in  the 
question  of  quantity,  we  permit  our  judgment  to  be  imposed  upon.  In 
that  case  the  large  total,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  deposited,  leads  us  to  the 


COLORADO  IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  CHANGES.  77 

conclusion  that  it  is  deposited  in  large  quantities  on  the  soil  we  have  in 
mind.  In  this  case  the  color  and  fineness  of  the  sediment  make  a  gen¬ 
eral  impression  of  richness  upon  our  minds,  and  we  forthwith  accept  it 
as  an  established  fact  when  it  is  not.  The  composition  of  this  sediment 
does  not  justify  the  inference. 

56.  This  sediment,  very  naturally,  resembles  in  composition  the 
source  from  which  it  was  derived,  which  was  the  soil  of  the  mountain  or 
hillsides  and  their  valleys.  These  soils  have  a  common  source  with 
those  of  the  plains,  and  it  is  therefore,  on  reflection,  no  matter  for 
surprise  that  the  sediments  should  not  be  found  to  be  richer  than  the 
latter.  There  are  two  respects  in  which  the  sediments,  in  some  measure, 
differ  from  the  soils  on  which  they  would  be  deposited  in  our  case,  but 
this  measure  is  not  very  great.  These  two  respects  are  the  fineness  of 
division  and  the  amount  of  organic  matter  contained  in  them.  The  fine¬ 
ness  of  the  sediment  is  a  condition  favorable  to  the  alteration  of  those 
mineral  particles  containing  elements  of  plant  food,  whereby  these  lat¬ 
ter  are  made  available.  The  amount  of  organic  matter  contained  is 
larger  than  in  the  average  of  our  plains  soil,  but  is  not  large  when  con¬ 
sidered  by  itself.  The  case  resolves  itself  to  about  this,  that  the  0.04-inch 
of  sediment,  which  an  application  of  two  feet  of  water  to  an  acre  of  our 
soil  would  add,  would  be  equivalent  to  adding  a  layer  of  the  same  soil 
only  a  little  more  uniformly  fine  and  containing  a  little  more  organic 
matter. 

57.  The  sediments  from  the  ditch  waters  are  of  the  same  character, 
and  resemble  more  closely  still,  the  soils  to  which  they  would  be  ap¬ 
plied  with  the  water. 

58.  Another  sample  of  sediment  examined  was  one  which  had  been 
carried  by  flood  waters  and  deposited  as  silt  in  a  reservoir,  the  Queen 
reservoir,  Prowers  County,  Colo.  The  mineralogical  and  chemical  com¬ 
position  of  this  suggests  the  same  considerations,  and  points  to  the  same 
conclusions  that  I  have  endeavored  to  set  forth  in  discussing  the  sedi¬ 
ment  carried  by  the  flood  water  of  the  Poudre.  This  sediment,  however, 
is  less  suggestive  of  the  probability  of  any  considetable  benefit  accruing 
to  the  land  by  its  application  to  it. 

59.  The  fourth  sediment  examined  was  of  an  entirely  different  ori¬ 
gin,  and  naturally  of  a  different  character,  and  certainly  ought  to  be 
looked  at  from  two  different  and  opposite  points  of  view.  The  prac¬ 
tically  more  important  one  being  in  regard  to  the  possible  injurious 
effect  which  any  minerals  present  in  it  might  have  upon  the  vegetation 
to  which  it  might  be  applied  with  the  water.  The  other  point  of  view  is 
the  same  as  that  from  which  we  have  briefly  considered  sediments  car¬ 
ried  by  our  streams  in  general. 

60.  The  analysis  of  the  sediment  answers  the  question  relative  to 
the  presence  of  minerals,  either  injurious  in  themselves,  or  by  the  prod¬ 
ucts  of  their  decomposition,  in  the  negative.  The  amounts  of  sulphid 
of  lead,  zinc,  copper  and  iron  do  not  exceed  35  pounds  per  ton  of  sedi¬ 
ment,  or  if  the  whole  of  the  sulfur  found  were  present  as  iron  pyrites, 
probably  the  most  dangerous  form  in  which  it  is  likely  to  be  present, 
the  total  amount  would  be  43  pounds  per  ton,  about  86  pounds  per  acre- 
foot  of  water,  a  quantity,  of  itself  small,  and  which  can  be  reduced  by 
the  use  of  settling  ponds,  or  other  settling  devices. 

61.  From  the  second  point  of  view  the  quantity  is  not  only  mate¬ 
rially  in  excess  of  the  quantity  carried  by  our  streams  in  times  of  ordi¬ 
nary  high  water,  but  actually  carries  more  potash,  nitrogen  and  organic 
matter,  the  former  constituting  the  principal  value  in  either  case. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


SECTION. 

1.  Source  of  waters . 

2.  Preservation  of  water  supply. 

3 .  Character  of  streams  and  collecting  grounds. 

4.  Headwaters  of  the  Cache  a  la  Poudre  river. 

5.  Poudre  conditions  applicable  to  other 

streams. 

6-7-8.  Reasons  for  taking  the  Poudre  as  typ¬ 
ical  stream . 

9.  The  present  time  an  opportune  one  for  this 
study. 

10.  Character  of  water  changed  by  return  wa¬ 

ters  . 

11.  Quantity  of  return  waters. 

13.  Character  of  collecting  grounds  of  the  Pou¬ 

dre  river. 

14.  Changes  in  water  while  in  mountain  section 

of  river. 

15.  Chemical  work  done  by  water  per  day. 

16.  Object  of  the  Bulletin  stated. 

17-20.  Felspar  as  the  source  of  the  mineral  flat¬ 
ter. 

21.  Rocks  of  the  drainage  area. 

22.  Experiment  with  felspar. 

23.  Other  experiments  with  felspar  of  cumu¬ 

lative  value  only. 

24-25.  Analyses  of  Poudre  water  and  the  object 
purposed. 

26.  Felspar  the  source  of  the  mineral  matter  in 
the  Boulder  and  Clear  Creek  waters. 

28.  Sulfuric  acid  and  chlorin  furnished  by  fels¬ 

par. 

29.  Significance  of  strontia  and  lithia  in  our 

river  waters. 

30.  Poudre  water  represented  by  samples  ana¬ 

lyzed. 

31.  Increase  in  total  solids  contained  in  the 

Poudre  water. 

32.  Character  of  changes  in  total  solids. 

33.  Quantity  of  solids  carried  above  mouth  of 

North  Fork  and  at  water  works  ditch 
compared. 

34.  Water  so  changed  in  lower  portions  of  the 

river  that  comparisons  cannot  be  made. 

35.  The  sources  of  water  stored  in  reservoirs; 

evaporation  neglected. 

36.  Increase  of  total  solids  in  stored  water  due 

to  evaporation .  • 

37.  Area  of  Terry  Lake.  Aggregate  of  solids 

contained  in  water  annually  evaporated 
from  its  surface. 

38.  Terry  Lake  presents  extreme  changes,  pro¬ 

duced  by  storage. 

39.  Sources  of  supply  of  water  for  Terry  Lake. 

40.  Weight  of  the  mineral  matter  held  in  solu¬ 

tion  by  the  water  of  Terry  Lake. 

41.  Extent  of  drainage  area  of  Dry  Creek. 

42.  Location  and  size  of  Long  Pond. 

43.  Location  of  Warren’s  Lake. 

44.  Location  of  Windsor  Reservoir;  conditions 

under  which  sample  was  taken. 

45.  Amount  of  mineral  matter  held  in  solution 

by  water  of  Windsor  Reservoir. 

46.  Relative  quantities  of  the  various  salts  in 

water  ot  Windsor  Reservoir. 

47 .  Reason  why  potash  is  the  only  plant  food 

considered . 

48.  Amount  of  potash  contained  in  two  acre- 

feet  of  stored  water.  Potash  largely 
furnished  by  seepage  water. 

49.  Nitrogen  furnished  by  water  is  not  signifi¬ 

cant  in  amount. 

50.  Aggregate  of  plant  food  distributed  tends 

to  maintain  the  ferti  ity  of  the  soil. 

51.  Amount  of  salts  not  plant  foods  distributed 

by  the  water  o'  Windsor  Reservoir. 

52.  Amount  of  salts  not  plant  foods  distributed 

by  the  water  of  Terry  Lake. 

54-55.  Poudre  water  taken  for  direct  irrigation 
ought  to  be  the  standard  for  the  compari- 


SEOTION. 

son  of  changes  suffered  by  water  used  in 
irrigation. 

56.  Dates  of  experiments  on  changes  of  water 

used  in  irrigation. 

57.  Water  an!  soil  experimented  with  in  1899. 

58.  Conditions  under  which  experiments  of 

1898  were  made. 

59.  Amount  of  water  applied,  the  whole  of  it 

entered  the  soil  and  was  added  to  the 
ground  water. 

60.  Reason  why  average  results  are  presented. 

61.  Amount  of  salt  passing  into  solution  within 

the  soil. 

62.  The  amount  of  potash  passing  into  solution 

in  the  ground  water. 

63.  The  water  used  in  1899.  Acknowledgment 

to  Water  Commissioner  C.  C.  Hawley. 

64.  Seepage  water  neglected  in  the  calculation 

of  results  obtained  in  1899. 

65.  Amount  of  total  solids  in  ditch  water  used. 

66.  Amount  of  total  solids  and  of  the  several 

salts  in  the  seepage  water . 

67..  Total  solids  in  the  ground  water  before  and 
after  irrigation. 

68.  The  amount  of  salts  brought  into  solution 

in  ground  water  by  irrigation  in  1899. 

69.  Order  in  which  the  respective  salts  went 

into  solution. 

70.  Amount  of  potash  brought  into  solution  in 

the  ground  water  by  the  application  of 
an  acre-foot  of  water. 

71-72-73.  Off-flow,  amount  of  salts  removed. 

74.  Potash  is  removed  from  soil  by  off-flow 

water. 

75.  Effect  of  irrigation  upon  composition  of 

ground  water  as  shown  by  the  sanitary 
analyses. 

76.  Nitrates  in  seepage  water. 

77.  Nitrates  in  ground  water  before  and  after 

irrigation. 

78.  Nitrous  acid  before  and  after  irrigation. 

79.  Condition  prevailing  in  spring  of  1900. 

80.  Composition  of  well  A  in  spring  of  1900 

compared  with  average  composition  in 
1898. 

81.  Rate  at  which  the  mineral  matter  held  in 

solution  in  well  A  decreased  in  spring  of 
1900. 

82.  Facts  shown  by  well  G. 

83.  Facts  shown  by  samples  taken  one  month 

later,  when  the  water  plane  had  fallen  16 
inches. 

84.  Potash  in  waters  of  wells  A  and  G. 

85.  Irrigation  experiments  indicate  that  the 

salts  do  not  pass  into  ground  water  by 
simple  solution. 

86.  Drain  waters. 

87.  Drain  and  ground  water  not  identical- 

cause  of  the  differences. 

88.  Drain  waters  more  constant  in  composition 

than  ground  waters. 

89.  Drain  waters  contain  more  sodic  carbonate 

than  ground  waters. 

90.  Drain  on  ranch  of  Mrs.  Calloway. 

91.  Sample  taken  Feb.  23,  1903,  •  comparable  to 

ground  water  analyzed. 

92.  Potash  in  ground  waters  and  in  drain  water. 

93.  Sodic  sulfate  in  ground  and  drain  waters. 

94.  Sodic  chlorid  in  ground  ana  drain  waters 
95-96-97.  Sanitary  analyses,  nitric  and  nitrous 

acid  in  ground  and  drain  waters. 

93.  Return  waters;  brief  recapitulation. 

99.  The  experiments  may  exaggerate  relations 
of  individual  results. 

100.  Seepage  begins  to  return  immediately  on  a 

stre  »m’s  entering  the  plains. 

101.  Return  waters  are  essentially  the  drain  wa¬ 

ter  from  a  large  section. 

102-103.  Samples  of  Poudre  water  given  prece- 


SECTION . 

dence;  samples  taken;  manner  of  combin¬ 
ing  analytical  resalts  not  important. 

104.  The  principal  salts  in  return  waters  are  cal¬ 

cic  sulfate,  magnesic  sulfate  and  sodic 
carbonate. 

105.  Nitrogen  in  return  waters. 

106.  Volume  of  return  water  in  Poudre,  July  27, 

1902. 

107.  Salts  carried  by  return  water  Julv  27,  1902. 

108.  Method  of  presentation  does  not  adequately 

show  chemical  work  done. 

109.  Salts  in  return  water  of  Arkansas  river  do 

not  stand  in  same  order  as  in  the  Poudre. 

110.  Amount  of  salts  carried  by  return  waters  in 

the  Poudre  valley. 

111.  Doubt  concerning  real  nature  of  Arkansas 

water. 

112.  Platte  river  return  water  agrees  with  that  of 

the  Poudre. 

113.  Drain  and  return  waters  represent  end 

products. 

114.  The  waters  of  some  other  streams. 

115.  Remarks  relative  to  the  samples  taken, 

116.  Characteristics  of  the  mountain  waters. 

LIST  OF 

1.  Analysis  of  portion  of  felspar  dissolved  by 

water  and  carbonic  acid  in  twenty-two 
days. 

2.  Analysis  of  Cache  a  la  Poudre  water,  sample 

taken  above  mouth  of  North  Fork,  Nov. 
3,  1902. 

3.  Analysis  of  Cache  a  la  Poudre  water,  sample 

taken  150  feet  above  headgate  of  Larimer 
county  ditch,  July  30,  1902. 

4.  Analysis  of  Cache  a  la  Poudre  water,  sample 

taken  from  faucet  in  Chemical  Labora¬ 
tory,  May  23,  1897. 

5.  Sample  taken  from  faucet  in  Chemical  Lab¬ 

oratory  Sept  21,  1900, 

6.  Sample  taken  from  faucet  in  Chemical  Lab¬ 

oratory  Sept,  6,  1902. 

7.  Analysis  of  water  from  the  Larimer  and  Weld 

Reservoir  (Terry  Lake),  Sample  taken 
Joly  28,  1900. 

8.  Analysis  of  water  taken  from  the  Larimer 

and  Weld  Reservoir  (Terry  Lake),  July 
30,  1902. 

9.  Analysis  of  sample  of  water  taken  from 

Long  Pond,  Aug.  1,  1902. 

10.  Analysis  of  sample  of  water  taken  from  War¬ 

ren’s  Lake,  Aug.  4,  1902. 

11.  Analysis  of  sample  of  water  taken  from 

Windsor  Reservoir,  Aug.  5,  1902. 

12.  Analysis  of  water  as  it  flowed  onto  plot,  July 

8  and  9,  1898. 

13.  Analysis  of  water  as  it  flowed  off  at  middle 

of  north  side  of  the  plot,  July  14,  1898. 

14.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  C,  June  27,  1898. 

15.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  C.  July  11.  1898. 

16.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  G,  June  27,  1898. 

17.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  G,  July  11,  1898. 

18.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  B,  June  27,  1898. 

19.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  B,  July  11,  1898. 

20.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  A,  June  27,  189a. 

21.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  A,  July  11,  1898. 
Total  solids  in  ground  water  before  and 

after  irrigation,  June  27  to  July  11,  1898; 
page  35 . 

22.  Analysis  of  water  used  in  irrigation,  Sept.  1, 

1899. 

23.  Analysis  of  seepage  water  from  Mercer  ditch, 

Sept.  2,1899. 

24.  Analysis  of  off-flow  water  taken  at  north 

side  of  plot.  Sept.  2,  1899;  first  sample. 

25.  Analysis  of  off-flow  water  taken  at  east  end 

of  plot.  Sept.  2,  1899,  first  sample. 

26  Analysis  of  off-flow  water  taken  at  north  side 
of  plot,  Sept.  2,  1899,  second  sample. 

27 .  Analysis  of  off -flow  water  taken  at  east  end 

of  plot,  cept.  2,  1899,  second  sample. 

28.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  D,  Aug.  31,  1899. 

29.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  D,  Sept.  2,  1899. 

30.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  C,  Aug  31,  1899. 

31.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  C,  Sept.  2,  1899. 


SECTION. 

117.  Significance  of  nitrates  and  nitrites  in  Ar¬ 

kansas  river  water. 

118.  Water  from  Queen  Reservoir,  Arkansas 

river  flood  water. 

119.  Work  done  by  irrigation  waters  in  Arkan¬ 

sas  valley  same  as  that  done  in  Poudre 
valley. 

120-121.  Amount  and  character  of  suspended 
matter  carried. 

122.  Suspended  matter  carried  in  flood  water  of 

the  Poudre. 

123 .  Amount  of  potash  and  nitrogen  carried  in 

Poudre  water. 

125.  Suspended  matter  in  ditch  water  July  5, 1900. 

126.  Sediment  from  ditch  water  similar  to  that 

from  flood  water. 

127.  Silt  from  Queen  Reservoir. 

128.  The  minerals  present  in  the  silt. 

129.  The  composition  of  silt,  Queen  Reservoir. 

130.  Silt  from  Clear  Creek. 

131.  Amount  and  character  of  silt  in  Clear  Creek 

water. 

132.  The  sediments  contain  less  potash  than  the 

soil. 

TABLES. 

32.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  B,  Aug.  31,  1899. 

33.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  B,  Sept.  2,  1899. 

34.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  A,  Aug.  31,  1899, 

35.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  A,  Sept.  2,  1899. 
Sanitary  analyses  of  irrigation  waters,  Aug. 

31  to  Sept.  2,  1899;  page  41. 

Total  solids  in  ground  water,  Ang.  31  to 
Sept.  2,  1899;  page  42. 

36.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  A,  April  9,  1900. 

37.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  A,  April  17,  1900. 

38.  Analysis  of  water  of  well  G,  April  17,  1900. 
Total  solids  in  one  acre-foot  of  water  of  well 

A;  page  47. 

39.  Analysis  of  drain  water,  April  20,  1900. 

40.  Analysis  of  drain  water,  July  23,  1900. 

41.  Analysis  of  drain  water,  Mrs.  Galloway  s 

ranch,  July  23, 1900. 

42.  Analysis  of  drain  water,  beet  plot,  Feb.  23, 

1903. 

43.  Sanitary  analyses  of  drain  waters,  Mrs.  Cal¬ 

loway’s  ranch  and  drain  east  of  beet  plot, 
July  23,  1900. 

44.  Analysis  of  Poudre  river  water,  sample  taken 

two  miles  above  Greeley,  Aug.  11,  1902. 

45.  Analysis  of  Poudre  river  water;  sample  taken 

three  miles  east  of  Greeley,  Aug.  10,  1902. 

46.  Analysis  of  Platte  river  water,  sample  taken 

one  mile  south  and  four  east  of  Greeley, 
Aug.  11, 1902. 

47.  Analysis  of  Big  Thompson  water,  sample 

taken  three  mile 3  west  of  Loveland,  Aug. 
20,  1902. 

48.  Analysis  of  St.  Vrain  water,  taken  three  miles 

west  of  Longmont,  Aug.  19,  1902. 

49.  Analysis  of  Boulder  Creek  water,  sample 

taken  from  tap  in  Boulder,  Aug.  27,  1902. 

50.  Analysis  of  water  drawn  from  tap  in  office  of 

Denver  Fire  Clay  Co.,  Denver,  Aug.  26, 

1902. 

51.  Analysis  of  Clear  Creek  water,  taken  from 

Welch  ditch,  one  mile  west  of  Golden, 
Aug.  27,  1902. 

52.  Analysis  of  Arkansas  river  water,  taken  at 

Canon  City,  Feb.  2,  1898. 

53.  Analysis  of  Arkansas  river  water,  taken  at 

bridge,  near  Rocky  Ford,  April  24,  1903. 

54.  Analysis  of  water  from  Queen  Reservoir, 

sample  taken  Jan.  23,  1903. 

55.  Analysis  of  suspended  matter  carried  in  flood 

water  of  Poudre  river.  May  22,  1902. 

56.  Analysis  of  suspended  matter  in  Arthur  ditch 

water,  sample  taken  July  5,  1900. 

57.  Analysis  of  silt  from  Queen  Reservoir,  Prow¬ 

ers  County,  Colo.,  sample  taken  Jan.  23, 

1903. 

58.  Analysis  of  suspended  matter  in  Welch  ditch, 

sample  taken  one  mile  above  Golden, 
Aug.  27,  1902. 


' 


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i 


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n 


Bulletin  83.  October,  1903* 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


Irrigation  Waters  and  Their 

Effects. 


j 


BY 


WILLIAM  P.  HEADDEN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATCON 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1903. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , . 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  . 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS,  -  ... 

Mrs.  ELIZA  ROUTT, . 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  .... 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE. . - 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 
Hon.  EUGENE  <H.  GRUBB, 

•Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY,  )  ~  . 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  J  ex'°nlcl0' 


TEAM 


Denver, 

EXPIRES 

•  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

-  1905 

Denver,  - 

-  1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum,  - 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

Canon  City, 

1911 

Carbondale, 

-  1911 

Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 

Cj.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ....  Irrigation  Engineer 

G.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . T  -  Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . -  Chemist 

"W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

"W.  L.  CARLYLE,  M.  S., . Agriculturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S., . Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S„ . Assistant  Horticulturist 

IF.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

B.  G.  D.  BISHOPP,  B.  S , . Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

P.  H.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M;,  LL.  D. 

Li.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  •  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN., .  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR 

EFFECTS. 


BY  W.  P.  HEADDEN. 


I  shall  endeavor  to  set  forth  in  general  terms  some  of  the 
broader  features  of  the  questions  pertaining  to  the  changes  caused 
by  irrigating  onr  lands,  without  making  any  attempt  to  go  into  de¬ 
tails,  or  any  pretense  to  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  questions 
connected  with  this  subject.  The  following  pages  are  intended  as 
a  brief  or  popular  bulletin,  presenting  some  of  the  conclusions  ar¬ 
rived  at  in  bulletin  No.  82,  but  are  entirely  independent  in  the 
manner  of  presentation. 

The  waters  used  for  irrigation  in  earlier  years  were  really 
derived  directly  from  the  melting  snows  of  the  mountains  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  at  the  present  time.  The  cold  of  the 
higher  altitude  of  the  mountains  was  then  the  only  cause  prevent¬ 
ing  the  waters  falling  in  these  regions,  or  formed  by  the  melting 
of  the  snow,  from  flowing  rapidly  from  the  place  of  their  precipi¬ 
tation  to  the  lower  reaches  of  the  rivers,  through  which  they  find 
their  way  to  join  the  oceanic  waters.  This  agent  is  as  active  now 
as  then  but  alone  it  is  inadequate  to  effect  a  sufficiently  regular  dis¬ 
tribution  of  these  waters  to  meet  the  varied  and  growing  require¬ 
ments  of  agriculture,  and  it  has  been  supplemented  by  the  use  of 
reservoirs  to  store  the  waters  and  prevent  them  from  going  to 
waste.  Not  only  has  the  attempt  been  made  to  store  the  flood 


4  bulletin  83. 

and  other  surplus  waters  in  order  to  subsequently  distribute  them, 
that  they  might  add  to  the  well-being  and  prosperity  of  those  liv¬ 
ing  in  sections  further  down  the  stream,  but  our  agriculture  has 
so  increased  that  much  more  water  is  required  than  formerly,  and 
in  order  to  meet  this  requirement  our  reservoir  systems  have  con¬ 
stantly  grown.  All  available  sources  of  water  are  rapidly  being 
made  to  render  service,  until  the  waters  of  the  mountains  are 
taken  out  of  the  streams  and  returned  several  times,  before  being 
finally  discharged  into  the  bigger  streams  of  which  their  natural 
channels  or  smaller  streams  are  confluents.  We  may  yet  learn  to 

•r  mf 

further  increase  the  duty  of  water,  but  if  we  do  we  will  not  lessen 
the  questions  relative  to  the  changes  produced  and  suffered  by 
these  waters  used  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  We  will,  on  the 
contrary,  intensify  them  and  probably  find  that  new  questions 
will  be  raised.  . 

It  is  well  known,  but  still  more  generally  accepted  as  a  fact, 
that  the  waters  of  rivers  rising  in  high  mountains  where  there  is 
little  soil,  a  scanty  vegetation  and  no  human  beings  to  pollute 
them,  are  comparatively  pure,  many  of  them  very  pnre  indeed. 
This  is  the  case  with  the  waters  of  our  mountain  streams  and  is 
not  a  fancy  arising  from  the  notions  which  we  associate  with  the 
mountains  and  their  seclusion.  The  rocky  face  which  their  sur¬ 
face  so  generally  presents  does  not  wholly  withstand  the  attack, 
gentle  though  it  seem,  of  the  falling  rain  or  melting  snow.  The 
rocks  yield  little  by  little  it  is  true,  but  the  water  is  never  able  to 
enrich  itself  greatly  in  mineral  matter  at  their  expense.  The 
work  done  by  the  waters  in  a  year,  a  month,  or  even  in  a  week, 
when  measured  in  the  aggregate  is  surprisingly  large,  but  no 
given  quantity  of  this  water,  a  gallon  or  so,  carries  more  than  an 
infinitesimal  part  of  the  product.  This  water  is  usually  colorless 
and  free  from  organic  matter  because  we  have  no  accumulation  of 
decaying  organic  matter  such  as  peat,  etc.  to  contaminate  it.  Where 
the  surface  is  covered  with  soil  there  is  little  difference  between  the 
soil  and  the  rocks  on  which  the  soil  rests.  I  do  not  know  whether 
the  changes  which  take  place  in  this  soil  proceed  more  rapidly  than 
in  the  rocks  proper  or  not;  it  is  presumable  that  they  do,  but  they  are 
essentially  of  the  same  kind  and  this  is  true  throughout  the  moun¬ 
tain  region.  These  waters  suffer  little  change  so  long  as  they 
continue  to  flow  over  the  rocky  beds  which  they  have  cut  for 
themselves  in  the  flanks  of  the  mountains,  or  so  long  as  they 
move  through  the  soils  which  are  little  more  than  the  pulverized 
rock  on  which  they  lie.  This,  however,  is  no  longer  true  when 
they  issue  from  the  mountains  and  enter  the  plains. 

We  think  of  water  flowing  in  a  stream  as  being  the  same 
water  that  it  was  at  its  source.  I11  a  certain  sense  it  may  be,  but 
if  we  apply  this  to  mean  that  the  water  in  onr  streams  after  they 


IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  EFFECTS.  5 

have  issued  from  the  mountains  is  the  same  in  the  quantity  and  char¬ 
acter  of  the  salts  that  it  holds  in  solution  as  before,  we  err  and  are 
confronted  by  a  series  of  facts  that  prove  us  to  be  in  error. 
There  may  be  occasions  when  the  pure  waters  of  the  mountains 
are  carried  further  down  their  course  before  thev  suffer  changes 
than  under  normal  conditions,  but  that  they  subsequently  fall  a 
prey  to  the  general  lot  is  beyond  question. 

If  flood  conditions  prevail  and  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
stream  is  higher  than  that  of  the  water  in  the  country  through 
which  it  flows,  in  which  case  the  velocity  of  the  flow  will  also  be 
increased,  the  purer,  though  turbid  flood  waters,  may  flow  for 
miles  further  down  the  stream  without  being  perceptibly  changed 
than  is  the  case  when  the  flow  of  the  stream  is  normal.  This 
question  might  be  of  importance  and  certainly  would  be  an  inter¬ 
esting  one  to  study,  but  the  writer  has  never  had  occasion  to  go 
into  this  detail  of  the  study  of  flood  waters. 

If  we  think  of  the  water  of  a  stream  as  a  body  of  water  flow¬ 
ing  through  a  channel  whose  sides  and  bottom  have  no  influence 
upon  the  water,  just  as  though  the  water  were  flowing  onward 
through  a  flume,  we  misconceive  the  facts.  The  sides  and  bot¬ 
tom,  or  bed  of  the  stream  are  not  only  not  tight  but  they  are  in 
places  full  of  water  that  they  discharge  into  the  river.  At  others 
they  present  conditions  permitting  water  to  flow  from  the  river 
into  the  bed  and  so  disappear.  The  stream  may  lose  water  by 
evaporation  from  its  surface  and  by  leakage.  The  latter  loss  is 
often  very  considerable.  These  facts  which  are  common  subjects 
of  discussion  in  our  state  suggest  sufficient  causes  for  the  changes 
in  the  waters  of  our  streams  upon  their  issuing  from  the  mount¬ 
ains  into  the  plains.  Our  climate  is  comparatively  dry  but  our 
soils  are  not  devoid  of  water.  The  fourteen  and  one-half  inches 
of  rainfall  may  largely  run  off,  and  some  of  it  be  lost  by  evapora¬ 
tion  from  the  surface.  There  is,  however,  a  sufficient  supply 
stored  in  the  soils,  valleys,  and  the  marginal  territory  of  streams 
to  supply  enough  water  differing  wholly  in  character  from  that  of 
the  mountain  streams,  to  modify  the  composition  of  the  latter 
and  to  perceptibly  change  its  character  very  soon  after,  if  not  im¬ 
mediately  upon  its  leaving  the  mountains. 

The  mountain  masses  represent  very  old  rocks  which  have 
been  changed  into  schists  and  granites.  Lapping  upon  the  flanks 
of  these  are  younger  and  different  rocks,  some  of  the  latter  being 
made  up  of  fragments  of  the  former.  The  water  gathered  within 
the  mountains  carries  some  mineral  matter  that  dissolves  out  of 
the  rocks,  but  this  amount  is  not  great  and  its  character  is  very 
uniform  throughout  this  section.  The  amount  and  character  of 
the  mineral  matter  is  rather  a  benefit  than  a  detriment  to  the 
water,  it  not  being  sufficient  to  change  its  character  as  soft  water. 


6 


bulletin  83. 

Upon  its  entering  the  plains  it  begins  to  receive  an  increased 
amount  of  mineral  matter  and  we  soon  find  from  four  to  more 
than  seventy  times  as  much  and  the  water  passes  from  a  soft, 
mountain  water  to  a  hard,  alkali,  plains  water.  This  change  can 
be  detected  within  a  short  distance  of  the  point  where  the  streams 
leave  the  mountains' 

The  water  then  that  we  use  for  irrigation  rarely  has  the 
same  purity  that  it  possessed  in  the  mountains.  In  one  ex¬ 
periment  I  found  that  in  flowing  about  ten  miles  through  a  ditch, 
the  mineral  matter  carried  by  the  water  increased  fivefold.  This 
mineral  matter  came,  of  course,  from  the  land  adjacent  to  the 
ditch. 

In  onr  natural  waters,  those  of  our  mountains,  it  is  proper 
and  in  perfect  accord  with  what  we  would  expect,  that  they 
should  contain  corbonate  of  lime,  magnesia,  etc.  and  we  find  such 
to  be  the  fact,  but  as  soon  as  they  pass  into  the  plains  section  of  the 
stream  they  begin  to  exchange  these  for  the  sulfates  until  these 
latter  become  the  predominating  salts.  In  the  meantime  the 
three  grains  per  gallon  in  the  mountain  water  have  become  100 
grains  per  gallon  in  the  plains  water.  This  is  not  an  exaggerated 
statement,  but  one  far  within  the  limits  of  fact.  The  water  of  the 
Cache  la  Poudre  carries  in  the  mountain  sections  of  its  course  2.9 
grains  of  mineral  matter  per  gallon,  and  just  above  Greeley,  115 
grains,  the  carbonates  constitute  nearly  40  per  cent  of  the  former 
while  magnesia  sulfate,  Epsom  salts,  constitute  nearly  one-third 
of  the  latter.  Almost  the  same  statement  can  be  made  of  the 
Arkansas,  at  Canon  City,  the  river  water  carries  say  10  grains  per 
gallon,  below  Rockyford  156  grains.  The  carbonates  constitute  50 
per  cent,  of  the  former  while  Glauber  and  Epsom  salts  constitute 
40  per  cent,  of  the  latter. 

In  neither  of  these  statements  have  I  taken  any  account  of  the 
calcic  sulfate.  It  is  difficult  to  judge  how  much  of  this  change  is 
directly  attributable  to  irrigation.  Irrigation  may  exaggerate 
these  changes  but  that  they  would  take  place  in  a  large  measure 
if  there  were  no  irrigation  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  they  begin 
immediately,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  upon  the  waters  leaving  the 
mountains,  and  also  by  the  changes  in  the  water  in  ditches  above 
which  there  is  but  little  or  no  irrigated  land. 

The  cause  of  these  changes  is  the  entrance  of  water  from  the 
land  adjacent  to  the  river  course,  or  return  waters. 

In  order  to  hold  the  flood  and  other  waters  until  they  can  be 
applied  to  crops  and  be  made  beneficial  to  the  country,  large  reser¬ 
voirs  have  been  established  and  the  river  waters  conducted  into 
them  and  retained  there  for  varying  periods.  These  reservoir  sites 
are  depressions  capable  of  having  their  holding  capacity  increased 
by  embankments  thrown  up  or  built  in  the  proper  place.  They 


IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  .EFFECTS.  7 

must  be  above  the  land  to  be  irrigated  and  are  not  as  a  rule  in 
low  places,  but  they  are  natural  collecting  basins,  many  of  them 
having  been  small  lakes  before  they  were  converted  into  reser¬ 
voirs.  These  conditions  suggest  that  they  might  now  receive 
larger  quantities  of  seepage  water  which  in  some  instances  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  the  case. 

These  stored  waters  sometimes  suffer  as  great  changes  as  the 
river  water.  It  is  understood  that  the  water  stored  is  taken  from 
the  river,  much  of  it  directly  and  some  of  it,  the  seepage  water,  in¬ 
directly  in  that  this  water  has  been  taken  from  the  river,  ap¬ 
plied  in  irrigating  land  and  has  reappeared  as  seepage  water.  A 
small  portion  has  fallen  as  snow  or  rainwater. 

In  studying  the  changes  in  the  reservoir  waters  it  is  not  easy 
to  determine  just  how  much  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  several 
causes  contributing  to  them.  If  the  waters  were  found  to  be  quite 
pure,  with  an  increase  of  only  0.5  of  a  grain  per  gallon,  the  gain 
could  justly  be  attributed  to  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the 
reservoir.  This  would  be  the  exact  amount  in  the  case  of  Terry 
lake.  But  we  find  an  increase  in  this  instance  of  upwards  of  130 
grains  per  gallon  instead  of  0.5  of  a  grain  and  the  amount  of  salts 
indicated  by  this  small  amount,  0.5  grain  per  gallon,  can  be  whol¬ 
ly  neglected  without  affecting  our  final  results  in  the  least.  The 
only  rational  explanation  that  we  can  offer  for  this  increase  is  the 
seepage,  together  with  whatever  quantity  of  soluble  salts  may  be 
furnished  by  the  bed  of  the  reservoir. 

The  amount  of  salts  actually  present  in  some  of  these  reser¬ 
voirs  is  rather  surprising  to  the  layman,  and  to  others  too,  who  are 
not  cognizant  of  the  facts  in  the  case. 

In  the  instance  of  Terry  lake,  which  presents  the  most  strik¬ 
ing  results  of  the  four  reservoirs  which  I  have  studied  in  anything 
like  detail,  the  amount  of  salts  held  in  solution  was  in  round 
numbers  27,000  tons.  The  samples  on  which  this  estimate  is 
based  were  taken  just  before  they  began  to  draw  off  the  water  and 
I  think  were  as  good  as  could  be  gotten.  A  volume  of  Poudre 
river  water  equal  to  the  content  of  Terry  lake,  9,000  acre-feet, 
would  contain  about  500  tons  of  mineral  matter,  leaving  26,500 
tons  as  having  been  brought  in  by  seepage.  The  other  lakes,  res¬ 
ervoirs,  examined  gave  smaller  figures  but  indicate  the  same  gen¬ 
eral  fact. 

A  peculiar  fact  is  that  there  was  a  slight  increase  in  the  per¬ 
centage  of  potash  which,  for  reasons  that  would  take  too  much 
space  to  enter  into  in  this  place,  we  believe  to  indicate  that  much 
of  this  increase  was  due  to  the  solution  of  alkalies  by  waters  flow¬ 
ing  over  the  surface  of  seeped  ground. 

The  changes  which  took  place  in  this  instance  are  so  patent 
that  they  cannot  be  misinterpreted;  the  carbonates,  relatively 


8 


BULLETIN  83. 

abundant  in  the  residue  from  the  river  water,  have  almost  disap¬ 
peared,  and  we  have  in  their  stead  sulfates,  Glauber  and  Epsom 
salts  forming  65  per  cent,  of  the  total  mass.  All  the  reservoir 
waters  studied  show  the  same  changes,  but  Terry  lake  alone  shows 
it  in  this  extreme  degree.  Windsor  reservoir,  however,  shows  it 
in  a  very  high  degree,  only  a  little  less  than  Terry  lake. 

The  water  that  is  applied  to  the  land  then  can  be  said  to  be 
of  two  classes,  river  water  taken  for  direct  irrigation  and  such  as 
has  been  stored.  Of  late  years  measures  have  been  taken  to  util¬ 
ize  waste  and  seepage  water  wherever  available.  This  may  differ 
a  little  from  the  stored  water  but  so  far  as  my  knowledge  goes  it 
is  seldom  more  heavily  laden  with  mineral  matter  than  the  water 
of  Terry  lake  and  we  need  not  consider  it  as  making  a  separate 
class. 

The  amount  of  mineral  substances  carried  by  the  river  water 
before  it  leaves  the  mountains,  which  is  available  as  plant  food,  is 
very  small,  6.25  pounds  of  potash  per  acre-foot  and  the  amount  of 
other  salts  added  with  such  water  is  of  no  moment  either  way. 
But  the  water  taken  for  direct  irrigation  seldom  reaches  its  desti¬ 
nation  without  receiving  a  decided  addition  to  its  stock  of  mineral 
matter  and  a  considerable  increase  in  the  potassic  oxid  carried  by 
it.  As  the  question  considered  relates  to  the  land  to  which  the 
water  is  applied,  the  source  from  which  the  potash  is  obtained 
is  not  considered  but  simply  the  fact  that  it  is  contained 
in  the  water  as  applied  to  the  soil.  The  amount  of  potash  in  the 
river  water  ,as  distributed  on  the  field,  was  greater  than  we  have 
found  it  to  contain  as  mountain  water,  almost  twice  as  much,  but 
it  was  not  a  large  quantity,  only  11.6  pounds  per  acre-foot.  This 
water  as  a  fertilizer  was  not  of  much  value.  It  mav  have  been 

_  j  » 1 » 

worth  50  cents  per  acre-foot.  Neither  did  it  carry  salts  which  in 
any  reasonable  quantities  would  prove  deleterious.  The  benefit 
derived  from  the  application  of  this  water  is  from  the  application 
of  the  water  as  such  and  not  from  any  mineral  matter  held  in 
solution. 

The  value  added  to  this  water  by  the  presence  of  organic 
matter  and  any  nitrogen  contained  in  it  is  also  very  small,  in  fact 
as  good  as  nothing,  between  60  and  70  cents  per  acre-foot.  While 
we  do  not  add  any  considerable  quantity  of  directly  fertilizing 
salts  there  is  nothing  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  diminish  in 
the  least  the  good  that  it  does.  Is  the  same  the  case  with  stored 
waters?  We  can  give  only  a  tentative  answer  to  this  question. 
Our  soils  contain  soluble  salts  whose  influence  upon  our  crops  is, 
to  say  the  least,  of  doubtful  benefit,  and  to  add  more  of  the  same 
sort  would  not  seem  to  be  very  wise.  We  have  given  the  capacity 
of  Terry  lake  as  9,000  acre-feet  and  its  content  of  salts  as  27,000 
tons,  all  of  which  is  distributed  with  the  water,  or  allowing  one 


IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  EFFECTS.  9 

foot  of  water  per  acre  it  would  add  three  tons,  6,000  pounds,  of 
these  salts.  If  the  potash  contained  in  this  quantity  of  salts  were 
present  as  sulfates,  it  would  weigh  27  pounds.  •  The  remaining 
salts,  5,973  pounds,  are  either  indifferent  or  when  present  in 
large  quantities,  undesirable.  I  have  used  Terry  lake  as  an  ex¬ 
ample  in  order  to  present  the  question  which,  as  every  one  will 
see,  is  further  raised  by  the  use  of  seepage  water. 

If  these  salts  are  not  deposited  on  or  in  the  soil  the  question 
relative  to  their  influence  is  reduced  to  one  relative  to  their  im¬ 
mediate  effect  upon  the  plants. 

The  salts  present  in  Terry  and  Windsor  lakes  are  calcic, 
magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates  with  very  little  carbonate,  probably 
sodic  carbonate.  These  two  lakes  or  reservoirs  probably  represent 
the  greater  part  of  the  stored  water  used  for  irrigation  and  the 
rest  will  be  represented  by  Long  Pond  and  Warren  lake  water, 
which  carries  relatively  more  sodic  carbonate  and  less  sodic  sulfate. 

The  seepage  water  that  I  have  examined  has  varied  consider¬ 
ably,  a  result  which  was  to  be  expected,  but  the  general  composi¬ 
tion  of  the  mineral  matter  held  in  solution  by  these  waters  is  fair¬ 
ly  represented  by  the  salts  found  in  the  stored  water.  The  seep¬ 
age  water  in  sections  where  irrigation  is  not  general  and  the 
supply  of  water  not  abundant,  is  heavily  charged  with  salts,  calcic, 
magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates,  the  last  being  strongly  predominant. 
On  the  other  hand  samples  collected  under  different  conditions 
have  been  found  to  carry  smaller  amounts  of  soluble  salts  in  solu¬ 
tion  than  some  of  the  stored  waters,  and  the  salts  present  were  cal¬ 
cic  and  magnesic  sulfates  together  with  carbonate,  probably  sodic 
carbonate.  These  statements  are  sufficient  to  set  forth  the  com¬ 
position  of  these  waters  and  their  similarity  in  a  very  rough  and 
general  way. 

General  statements  are  to  be  found  of  the  effects  of  these 
salts  on  plants,  but  it  would  be  more  satisfactory  if  we  had  series 
of  experiments  giving  us,  conclusive  results  as  to  their  detrimental 
or  perhaps  beneficial  effects,  when  present  in  known  proportions. 
This  question  is  of  interest  to  us  and  may  become  more  so,  but  it 
has  not  been  of  such  general  interest  as  to  lead  to  the  making  of 
tedious  experiments  to  determine  it.  The  tolerance  of  these 
salts  by  ordinary  plants,  sodic  carbonate  excepted,  is  probably  far 
beyond  the  limit  to  which  they  are  at  all  likely  to  accumulate  in 
our  soils. 

The  samples  of  soils  which  I  have  found  to  be  richest  in 
alkali  salts  yielded  upon  extraction  a  little  less  than  4  per  cent. 
This  was  beyond  the  limit  at  which  we  successfully  cultivated 
plants  but  we  succeeded  in  soil,  the  surface  portion  of  which 
showed  one-half  this  amount  or  2.0  per  cent.,  but  taking  the  first 
four  inches  of  soil  there  was  only  1.4  per  cent.  The  salts  found  in 


IO  BULLETIN  83. 

this  case  were  calcic,  magnesic  and  sodic  sulfates  principally.  The 
distribution  of  salts  in  *the  soil  has  an  important  bearing  upon  this 
question.  These  observations  were  not  the  results  of  prearranged 
experiments  but  indicate  just  as  certainly  as  though  they  were, 
that  large  quantities  of  these  salts  may  be  present  in  the  soils, 
other  conditions  being  favorable,  without  precluding  successful 
cropping. 

If  these  figures  be  nearly  correct,  we  can  have  in  the  first  foot 
of  soil  as  much  as  25  tons,  but  probably  not  more  than  50  tons  of 
these  salts,  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  drainage 
being  good,  before  the  salts  become  decidedly  injurious.  Accept¬ 
ing  this  maximum  which  is  tentatively  given  as  approximately 
correct,  and  based  upon  a  limited  experience,  we  may  get  a  clearer 
view  of  the  importance  of  this  question.  Taking  a  water  as  rich 
in  mineral  matter  as  Terry  lake  water,  carrying  three  tons  of  salts 
in  each  acre-foot,  we  see  that  the  application  of  nine  acre-feet 
would  add  an  amount  of  salts  in  excess  of  our  lower  limit.  These 
salts  would  have  been  applied  at  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  nine 
successive  portions,  and  unless  it  were  carried  down  into  the  soil 
with  the  water,  would  already  appear  as  an  incrustation,  especial¬ 
ly  under  favorable  weather  conditions. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  soil  does,  as  it  were,  strain 
out  some  of  these  salts,  but  it  takes  a  thick  layer  to  accomplish 
this.  It  would  be  difficult  to  explain  how  this  is  done  but  the 
soil  particles  hold  on  to  these  salts  in  some  way  and  do  not 
permit  all  of  them  to  pass  through  the  soil  with  perfect  freedom. 
Indeed  it  is  not  probable  that  it  permits  any  of  them  to  pass 
through  with  perfect  freedom  but  it  retards  some  more  than  it 
does  others.  These  salts  are  not  collected  within  the  first  foot  of 
soil,  nor  within  the  second,  but  may  pass  down  several  feet  before 
they  are  stopped,  so  that,  while  there  may  be  an  addition  of  these 
salts  held  in  solution  in  the  water,  as  there  evidently  is,  the  ad¬ 
dition  is  not  necessarily  to  the  surface  soil,  though  the  water  is 
applied  there.  There  is  another  thing  that  helps  us  in  this  case. 
The  soil  selects  the  salts  which  it  retains  and  it  seems  to  permit 
the  most  dangerous  ones  to  pass  through  it  more  readily  than 
some  others.  The  ratios  of  the  salts  in  solution  in  the  water  as  it 
is  put  onto  the  ground,  while  it  is  in  the  ground,  and  as  it  flows 
out  of  the  ground,  are  not  the  same.  We  cannot  attempt  to  dis¬ 
cuss  this  subject.  The  following  statement  is  by  no  means  per¬ 
fectly  accurate  but  it  will  serve  roughly  to  show  how  the  sodic 
carbonate,  for  instance,  is  permitted  to  pass  through  the  soil  more 
readily  than  the  sulfate. 

In  an  experiment  which  we  made  we  found  that  an  acre-foot 
of  irrigation  water  contained  438  pounds  of  sodic  carbonate,  the 
water  in  the  soil  at  a  depth  of  from  two  to  four  feet  contained  543 


IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  EFFECTS.  II 

pounds  and  a  like  quantity,  an  aere-foot,  of  drain  water  contained 
895  pounds.  The  water  in  the  ground  contained  868  pounds  of 
sodic  sulfate  while  drain  water  contained  168  pounds  in  an  acre- 
foot,  Evidently  the  sodic  carbonate  has  passed  out  of  the  soil 
much  more  freely  than  the  sulfate.  If  the  sodic  carborate  were 
retained  unchanged  by  the  soil  the  result  would  be  most  unfor¬ 
tunate.  This  sodic  carbonate  is  none  other  than  “black  alkali.” 
We  will  take  an  irrigation  water,  such  as  we  found  that  of  War¬ 
ren’s  lake  to  be  in  1902,  an  excellent  irrigation  water  with  only 
26  grains  of  mineral  matter  in  each  imperial  gallon.  We  find  in 
this  88  pounds  of  sodic  carbonate  per  acre-foot,  or  the  application 
of  20  acre-feet  would  add  1 700  pounds  of  anhydrous  sodic  carbon¬ 
ate  to  each  acre  of  land.  Experiments  made  some  years  ago  led 
me  to  conclude  that  if  there  were  as  much  as  1750  pounds  of 
sodic  carbonate  per  acre,  taken  to  a  depth  of  one  foot,  it  would 
under  ordinary  conditions  kill  young  plants  such  as  beets,  etc. 
If  the  soil  retained  the  sodic  carbonate  within  a  foot  of  the  surface 
without  changing  it  in  any  way  the  result  would  be  that  the  soil 
would  be  rendered  perfectly  useless.  The  soil  fortunately  does 
not  retain  this,  the  most  dangerous  of  alkali  salts,  but  permits  its 
passage  rather  readily,  and  its  eventual  removal  by  the  drain 
water. 

These  properties  of  the  soil  fortunately  prevent  to  a  great 
measure,  the  accumulation  of  the  more  injurious  salts  added  with 
the  application  of  seepage  water,  or  such  as  have  been  stored  and 
become  more  or  less  heavily  charged  with  soluble  salts. 

The  water  used  for  direct  irrigation,  that  is,  water  taken  directly 
from  mountain  streams  does  not  carry  any  notable  quantity  of 
plant  food.  Water  that  has  been  stored  in  reservoirs,  especially 
such  as  receive  off-flow,  waste  and  drainage  waters,  may  carry  more 
potash,  but  with  it  a  very  large  amount  of  other  salts.  These  salts 
are  not  very  intense  in  their  action  on  vegetation  and  are  dissemin¬ 
ated  through  a  very  large  mass  of  soil  and  the  most  injurious  one 
of  them,  sodic  carbonate,  is  not  retained  by  the  soil.  In  other 
words,  is  rather  readily  permitted  to  pass  into  the  ground  water 
and  thence  into  the  drain  waters,  if  drains  have  been  established. 

The  changes  effected  by  the  irrigation  water  after  it  has 
entered  the  soil  and  before  it  sinks  below  the  reach  of  the  plants 
or  passes  out  of  the  soil,  present  an  interesting  subject  of  study. 
The  general  and  important  question  in  this  connection  is,  how  ef¬ 
ficient  an  agent  it  is  in  bringing  plant  food  into  an  available  form. 
Perhaps  an  equally  important  question  is,  what  part  does  it  play 
in  changing  deleterious  salts  into  less  injurious  ones  or  in  remov¬ 
ing  them  from  the  soil.  These  questions  are  much  more  easily 
suggested  than  answered.  It  is  conceded  that  food  to  be  available 
to  plants  must  be  soluble.  It,  however,  does  not  necessarily  fol- 


12 


BULLETIN  83. 

low  that  it  must  be  present  in  the  soil  in  an  ordinary  aqueous 
solution.  But  when  present  as  such  it  is  capable  of  being  taken 
up  by  the  plants.  The  most  important  mineral  substances  that, 
the  plants  need  are  potash,  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  chlorin,  sulfur 
etc.  The  one  used  in  the  largest  quantity  by  them  is  potash. 
The  total  quantity  of  this  substance  in  our  average  good  soil  is 
probably  not  far  from  40  tons  to  the  acre  taken  to  the  depth  of  one 
foot;  the  percentage  of  this  available  is  small  and  the  form  in 
which  the  available  portion  is  present  is  doubtful.  The  rest  is 
present  principally  as  a  felspar.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the 
water  attacks  this  mineral  and  I  have  shown  that  the  oat  plant 
can  obtain  potash  from  it  if  it  has  been  finely  powdered.  The 
question  whether  the  water  in  the  soil  dissolves  this  element  of 
plant  food  out  of  the  felspar  is  important.  While  we  can  argue 
that  it  must  do  so  we  want  to  know  that  it  does,  and  how  fast. 
We  can  not  always  obtain  all  the  information  that  we  desire  but 
we  have  tried  to  find  out  how  much  potash  was  present  as  a  free 
solution  in  the  soil,  or  better,  how  much  potash  was  contained  in 
this  water  after  it  had  entered  the  soil.  An  acre-foot  of  water,  as 
applied  to  the  field,  contained  almost  12  pounds  of  potash.  A  like 
amount  of  water  as  it  was  found  in  the  soil  after  irrigation  con¬ 
tained  18  pounds,  a  definite  gain  of  six  pounds  per  acre-foot  of 
water.  This  is  not  a  large  amount  of  potash  to  be  gathered  by 
this  amount  of  water  but  it  serves  to  show  positively  that  work  is 
being  done  by  this  water,  for  it  is  richer  by  six  pounds  of  potash 
than  it  was  before.  This  problem  is  not  so  simple  as  it  seems  and 
there  is  much  more  involved  in  it  than  is  here  stated.  But  the 
fact  as  here  stated  is  near  the  truth  in  spite  of  the  many  things 
that  are  left  out  of  consideration.  There  is  in  it  an  abundance  of 
chlorids  and  sulfur  as  sulfates  to  supply  the  plants  with  these  ele¬ 
ments. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  find  that  it  plays  any  direct  part  in 
supplying  the  plants  with  phosphoric  acid.  These  statements 
show  that  the  water  within  the  soil  is  an  active  agent  working 
constantly  in  behalf  of  the  plants,  but  there  is  other  work  that  it 
does,  likewise  beneficial  to  the  plant  but  less  directly  so. 

The  water  brings  potash  into  solution  within  the  soil  but 
owing  to  certain  properties  of  the  soil  particles  it  is  not  able  to 
carry  it  out  except  in  smaller  quantities.  I  have  tried  to  show 
that  the  water  draining  out  of  the  soil  carried  the  sodic  carbonate 
out  more  readily  than  it  does  the  sulfate,  and  I  will  now  add  that 
it  seems  still  more  difficult  for  it  to  carry  out  the  potash.  We 
have  stated  that  the  irrigation  water  carried  1 2  pounds  potash  per 
acre-foot  and  the  ground  water  18  pounds,  taking  the  average  of  a 
good  many  ground  waters  we  get  20  pounds  per  acre-foot.  The 
drain  waters  carry  only  about  five  pounds  per  acre  foot.  The 


IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  EFFECTS.  1 3 

water  then  leaves  the  potash  in  the  soil.  I  cannot  give  the  ratios 
between  the  water  applied,  the  water  in  the  soil  and  the  amount 
of  drainage.  It  would  be  much  more  satisfactory  if  I  could,  but 
we  will  have  to  content  ourselves  with  comparing  like  volumes  of 
water,  the  acre-foot. 

Another  question  suggests  itself.  What  are  these  waters  do¬ 
ing  for  us  in  regard  to  the  salts  that  we  do  not  want,  beside  the 
sodic  carbonate  which  we  have  seen  that  they  are  removing? 
Their  work  in  this  line  may  be  disappointing  but  still  they  are 
efficient  and  constant  friends.  We  have  seen  that  the  water  of  one  of 
our  reservoirs,  Terry  lake,  contained  three  tons  of  mineral  matter  per 
acre-foot,  and  we  find  that  an  acre-foot  of  drainage  water  which 
came  from  a  pretty  bad  piece  of  land,  carried  July  23,  1900,  2,840 
pounds,  a  little  less  than  half  as  much  as  the  stored  water  and 
verv  much  less  than  the  water  within  the  soil,  either  after  or  be- 
fore  irrigation.  It  is  evident  that  the  salts  do  not  pass  out  of  the 
soil  into  the  drain  water  as  easily  as  we  would  expect  and  yet  they 
carry  a  large  quantity  when  we  calculate  it  for  a  year. 

The  salts  that  the  drain  waters  carry  will  vary  some  with  the 
soil,  but  in  our  case  we  find  them  much  more  uniform  than  the 
salts  carried  by  the  waters  while  in  the  ground  itself.  The  salts 
that  we  find  in  these  waters  are  calcic  sulfate,  magnesic  sulfate 
and  the  next  one  in  the  order  of  the  quantity  present  is  usually 
sodic  carbonate.  We  have  observed  one  instance  in  which  the 
quantity  of  sodic  sulfate  present  was  greater  than  that  of  the  sodic 
carbonate,  but  in  this  neither  of  these  salts  were  present  in  large 
quantities.  There  was  more  sodic  sulfate  present  in  this  sample, 
and  much  less  sodic  carbonate,  than  is  usually  found  in  drain 
waters. 

The  salt  removed  in  the  largest  quantity  was  found  to  be  cal¬ 
cic  sulfate.  There  is  an  abundance  of  this  salt  in  the  soil  and 
under  our  conditions  I  imagine  that  it  is  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  it  is  removed  or  not.  The  magnesia  salts  which  came 
next  in  quantity  in  the  drain  waters  also  occurred  abundantly  in 
the  soils,  especially  in  those  parts  of  our  fields  that  were  in  the 
worst  condition.  I  do  not  know  whether  these  salts  have  any 
part  in  determining  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  or  not,  it 
is  quite  possible  that  they  have,  but  I  am  unable  to  suggest  just 
what  that  part  may  be.  The  presence  of  magnesic  salts  in  very 
large  quantities  in  certain  ground  waters,  together  with  the  fact 
that  they  are  uniformly  present,  suggest  that  the  series  of  changes 
taking  place  within  the  soil  may  end  in  the  elimination  of  mag¬ 
nesic  salts.  I  thought  for  a  time  that  we  might  be  able  to  find 
still  other  facts  to  support  this  suggestion,  perhaps  demonstrate 
that  these  salts  are  the  last  products  in  the  series,  but  I  have  not 
found  them  and  the  suggestion  seems  of  doubtful  value. 


14  BULLETIN  83. 

The  two  most  direct  services  rendered  by  the  drains  are,  first, 
the  removal  of  surplus  water;  second,  the  elimination  of  sodic 
carbonate  from  the  soil.  The  scope  of  this  bulletin  will  not  per¬ 
mit  any  further  discussion  of  these  subjects,  besides  we  are  con¬ 
vinced  that  the  facts  are  more  important  than  any  attempt  to 
explain  them  would  be. 

Repeated  examinations  have  failed  to  show  the  presence  of 
more  than  traces  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  drain  and  ground 
waters.  This  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  aqueous  extracts  of 
some  of  the  soils.  The  importance  of  this  is  that  this  very  valu¬ 
able,  and  for  our  soils  particularly  desirable  substance,  is  held 
pretty  firmly  within  the  soil,  and  though  the  other  salts  are  in¬ 
volved  in  probably  many  changes  of  solution,  this  substance  re¬ 
mains  held  by  the  soil  particles  and  is  given  up  under  the  influence 
of  the  plant  whose  needs  it  is  to  supply.  How  it  is  held,  I  do  not 
pretend  to  say,  but  we  know  that  it  must  be  retained  in  some  way, 
for  we  know  that  carbonated  waters  will  extract  it  from  the  rocks 
in  which  it  occurs.  Phosphoric  acid  occurs  in  the  soil  in  which 
there  is  both  water  and  carbonic  acid,  and  yet  the  water  within 
the  soil  and  that  which  drains  out  of  it  carry  no  more  than  traces 
of  it. 

The  exhaustion  of  the  fertility  of  our  soils  by  the  drain  waters 
proceeds  then  very  slowly,  so  far  as  the  potash  and  the  phosphoric 
acid  is  concerned.  The  former  is  removed  by  these  means  more 
rapidly  than  the  latter,  both  in  absolute  and  relative  quantities. 
An  acre  of  good  soil  taken  to  a  depth  of  one  foot  contains  about 
78,750  pounds  of  potash  and  about  9,000  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid.  The  drain  waters  contain  easily  determinable  quantities  of 
potash  and  only  traces  of  phosphoric  acid,  for  the  detection  of 
which  we  have  to  use  large  quantities  of  water  or  the  residues  rep¬ 
resenting  it.  If  we  should  take  a  larger  quantity  of  felspar  which 
occurs  in  these  soils,  grind  and  treat  it  with  water  and  carbonic 
acid,  we  could  find  upon  examining  the  water,  after  it  had  been  in 
contact  with  the  felspar  for  a  few  days,  that  it  contained  easily 
determinable  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid.  Why  then  do  the 
ground  and  drain  waters  contain  none  or  only  a  trace  of  it?  We 
answer  this  question  by  appealing  to  the  observed  property  of  the 
soil  particles  in  mass  to  retain  certain  salts,  which  we  have 
seen  illustrated  in  a  very  marked  degree  in  the  case  of  sodic  sul¬ 
fate  which  we  found  present  in  the  ground  water  of  the  soil  in 
large  quantities,  but  as  good  as  absent  or  wholly  so  in  the  drain 
waters. 

The  claim  often  presented,  that  we  add  a  significant  quantity 
of  fertilizing  ingredients  with  our  irrigation  waters,  cannot  be  se¬ 
riously  urged  for  them.  Almost  the  only  good  they  do  is  in  sup¬ 
plying  moisture  to  the  plants.  Even  such  waters  as  have  been 


IRRIGATION  WATERS  AND  THEIR  EFFECTS.  1 5 

stored  and  have  become  heavily  laden  with  salts  by  seepage  or 
solution  carry  comparatively  little  of  either  the  potash  or  nitrogen 
that  is  needed  by  onr  soils. 

Nothing  has  been  said  about  this  latter  element,  concerning 
which  it  is  customary  to  say  a  great  deal.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  neither  the  irrigation,  nor  ground,  nor  drain  waters  showed  a 
content  of  nitrogen  which  justified  any  special  notice.  There  is 
still  another  point  frequently  mentioned  in  connection  with  irri¬ 
gation  waters  which  we  will  notice  a  little  more  fully,  i.  e.,  that 
they  fertilize  the  soil  by  means  of  suspended  matter  which  they 
carry.  This  point  is  not  in  the  least  applicable  to  stored 
waters  which  remain  stored  from  one  to  twelve  months  and  some¬ 
times  still  longer,  during  which  time  they  would  deposit  their 
suspended  matter  if  they  ever  carried  any.  This  suspended  mat¬ 
ter  tends  to  silt  up  the  reservoirs  which  process  is  evidently  proceed¬ 
ing  very  slowly.  The  question  relative  to  the  value  of  the  suspended 
matter  applies  then  to  water  used  for  direct  irrigation  and  to  flood 
waters.  This  question,  too,  is  of  varying  importance  according  as 
the  streams  had  in  view  are  mountain  streams,  whose  courses  are 
through  massive  and  metamorphic  rocks,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
upper  portions  of  our  rivers,  or  whether  they  are  plains  streams, 
having  their  courses  through  sections  of  sedimentary  material 
which  is  easily  torn  loose  by  heavy  rains  and  currents.  If  the 
section  of  country  through  which  the  rivers  run  is  subject  to  visi¬ 
tations  by  torrential  rains,  the  river  waters  may  at  such  times  car¬ 
ry  very  large  amounts  of  suspended  matter.  Such  conditions  do 
not  prevail  in  this  section  of  Colorado.  We  occasionally  have 
torrential  rains  and  the  river  waters  mav  be  black  or  red  with 
mud,  according  to  the  character  of  the  country  in  which  the  rains 
fall.  But  such  conditions  are  of  short  duration.  The  period  of 
high  water  is  due  to  the  melting  of  snow  in  the  high  mountains. 
The  water  of  this  season  is,  it  is  true,  more  turbid  than  during 
times  of  low  water,  times  of  heavy  rain  or  flood  excepted.  The 
amount  of  suspended  matter  during  this  time  of  high  water  is  in¬ 
significant  in  quantity.  I  have  made  observations  to  establish 
the  amount  and  found  it  to  be  only  0.0016  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  water,  or  about  forty-four  pounds  per  acre-foot  of  water  If 
this  sediment  were  never  so  rich  it  would  amount  to  but  little  as 
a  means  of  fertilizing  our  soils.  It  is  no  more  important  from 
the  standpoint  of  its  quality  than  it  is  from  that  of  its  quantity. 
It  contains  just  about  the  same  percentage  of  potash  that  the  soil 
itself  contains  and  it  is  even  less  available  if  there  is  any  differ¬ 
ence  at  all.  The  value  of  this  suspended  matter  is  less  than  I  ex¬ 
pected  to  find  it. 

It  is  seldom  that  our  waters  carry  large  amounts  of  suspend¬ 
ed  matter  due  to  heavy  rains,  but  occasionally  thev  do.  On  an 


1 6  bulletin  83. 

occasion  when  the  Pondre  river  was  very  high  and  was  carrying 
limbs,  stumps,  trunks  of  trees,  etc.,  I  had  a  sample  of  its  water 
taken  to  determine  the  amount  and  composition  of  sediment  that 
it  would  yield.  I  found  that  it  yielded  0.213  per  cent,  of  its 
weight.  This  was  a  surprising  result  for  one  would  have  judged 
it  to  have  held  much  more  matter  suspended  in  it  than  is  here 
designated.  The  compositon  of  this  suspended  matter  was  quite 
as  much  a  matter  of  surprise,  for  except  in  moisture  and  organic 
matter  it  was  not  very  unlike  the  soil  to  which  it  would  have 
been  applied  if  used  for  irrigation. 

The  results  of  these  examinations  may  surprise  the  reader 
but  I  am  convinced  that  the  facts  are  as  these  examinations  show, 
i.  e.,  that  the  sediments  carried  by  the  waters  are  small  in  amount 
and  so  . similar  to  the  soils  in  composition  that  they  cannot  be  con¬ 
sidered  of  such  benefit  as  to  make  their  application  a  matter  to  be 
.sought  after. 

This  view  was  more  than  sustained  by  the  examination  of  a 
silt  taken  from  a  reservoir  filled  with  flood  water  from  the  Arkan¬ 
sas  river,  which  carried  less  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  nitrogen 
than  our  average  quality  of  soil  contains. 


Bulletin  84. 


October,  1903. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


An  Apricot  Blight. 


—BY — 


WENDELL  PADDOCK. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1903. 


The  flgriealtuFal  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT,  - 
Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE,  -  -  - 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW, 

Hon.  EUGENE  GRUBB, 

Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


Denver 
Fort  Collins 
Denver 
Denver 
Gypsum 
Rockyford 
Canon  City 
Carbondale 

ex-officio . 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director ,  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.M.,  Ph.  D.,  -  -  Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Agriculturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Horticulturist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

B.  G.  D.  BISHOPP,  B.  S.,  ------  Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . -----  Secretary 

A.  D.  MILLIGAN,  ------  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


PLATE  I.  Apricot  Fruit  Attacked  by  Pear  Blight.  Photographed  June  25 


An  Apricot  Blight. 

By  Wendell  Paddock. 


The  writer’s  attention  was  called  to  a  disease  of  apricots  in 
the  fall  of  1902  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Mathews,  horticultural  inspector  of 
Delta  county,  which  was  thought  by  the  growers  to  be  an  attack 
of  pear  blight.  Many  of  the  twigs  had  blighted  and  all  of  the 
fruit  on  several  of  the  trees  had  decayed.  At  the  time  of  my 
visit  it  was  too  late  in  the  season  to  see  the  disease  in  an  active 
condition,  but  microscopic  examination  of  the  dead  twigs  and  of 
the  dried  fruit  failed  to  show  any  sign  of  fungous  attack.  The 
indications  pointed  to  a  bacterial  disease  but  the  idea  that  it  was 
caused  by  the  germs  of  pear  blight  was  doubted  since  at  that 
time  there  was  no  record  of  this  disease  ever  having  attacked  the 
stone  fruits. 

The  orchard  was  visited  again  on  June  25,  1903,  when  the 
disease  was  found  in  an  active  condition.  In  one  row,  containing 
ten  Moorpark  and  ten  Royal  apricot  trees,  every  tree  was  more  or 
less  affected,  as  well  as  other  trees  in  various  parts  of  the  orchard. 

At  this  time  many  of  the  fruits  were  attacked,  the  diseased 
areas  varying  in  size  from  a  spot  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
to  irregular  areas  that  involved  three-fourths  of  the  fruit.  The 
skin  over  these  places  soon  became  nearly  black  in  color  and 
shrunken  as  the  tissues  were  consumed  till  the  outline  of  the  pit 
was  disclosed.  These  discolored  areas  were  alwavs  definitelv  out- 
lined  and  bordered  with  a  zone  of  watery  appearing  tissue  usually 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  width.  The  latter  was  green  in 
color  and  as  hard  as  the  sound  flesh.  Three  such  fruits  are  shown 
on  Plate  I. 

The  smaller  spots  where  the  disease  had  evidently  just 
started,  invariably  surrounded  a  lenticle,  thus  indicating  that  the 
disease  gained  entrance  to  the  fruit  through  these  openings. 

-  —  The  injury  to  the  twigs  may  be  described  best  by  saying, 
that  they  resembled  closely,  blighting  pear  or  apple  twigs.  (Plate 
II.)  So  far  as  noticed  only  tender  twigs  of  the  current  season’s 
growth  were  attacked.  These  were  shrivelled  and  discolored  from 
a  few  to  several  inches  of  their  length  and  small  drops  of  sticky 
fluid  were  occasionally  found  on  their  surface  and  upon  the 


Bulletin  84. 


6 

shrivelling  leaf-stems.  The  discolored  outer  bark  blended  gradu¬ 
ally  into  normal  appearing  tissue  but  the  inner  bark  was  dis¬ 
colored  for  some  distance  below  any  external  evidence  of  disease. 

Unfortunately  the  infected  orchard  is  so  far  from  the  Experi¬ 
ment  Station  that  the  progress  of  the  disease  could  not  be 
watched,  but  specimens  of  diseased  ripe  fruit  were  secured  from 
Mr.  Mathews  on  August  2.  These  were  in  all  stages  of  decay. 
Those  that  were  only  slightly  attacked  had  a  small  shrunken  area 
over  which  the  skin  was  discolored  but  little.  In  those  specimens 
where  a  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  fruit  was  involved  the  tissue  was 
much  shrunken  and  the  skin  over  these  areas  was  quite  brown. 
In  some  specimens  a  thick  juice,  swarming  with  bacteria,  oozed 
from  the  diseased  tissue  and  collected  in  a  large  drop  on  the  sur¬ 
face.  Much  watery  appearing  tissue  which  was  still  firm  sur¬ 
rounded  the  diseased  parts. 

Infection  evidently  took  place  more  readily  early  in  the  sea¬ 
son  as  there  was  much  more  diseased  fruit  at  the  time  of  my  visit 
than  there  was  when  the  later  specimens  were  secured. 

Since  the  appearance  of  Prof.  Jones’  paper*  in  which  he 
proves  that  pear  blight  may  produce  twig  blight  in  various  kinds 

of  plum  trees  it  seems  probable  that  this 
blight  and  rot  of  the  apricot  was  due  to 
the  same  organism.  The  trees  are  situ¬ 
ated  in  a  mixed  orchard  and  the  adjacent 
pear  and  apple  trees  suffered  severely 
from  an  outbreak  of  pear  blight  during 
the  season  of  1902,  and  it  was  abundant, 
though  not  as  severe,  in  1903.  Micro¬ 
scopical  examination  showed  that  the 
diseased  parts  of  both  twigs  and  fruit 
were  swarming  with  bacteria  and  that 
these  germs  were  abundant  in  the  watery 

o  J 

appearing  though  firm  flesh  of  the  fruits. 

Working  upon  this  supposition  ex- 
FiG;  i.  Apple  three  days  after  periiuents  were  undertaken  as  follows: 

inoculating  with  diseased  tis-  i. 

sue  from  an  apricot  fruit.  June  30,  12  apples  were  inoculated  by 
inserting  under  the  skin  bits  of  the  watery  tissue  taken  from  dis¬ 
eased  apricot  fruits.  These  wounds  were  covered  at  once  with 
sterile  grafting  wax.  Four  of  the  apples  were  picked  by  children 
but  at  the  end  of  twelve  davs  the  remaining-  eight  were  found  to 
have  developed  the  rot  that  is  peculiar  to  apples  attacked  by  pear 
blight.  The  disease  gradually  spread  until  the  entire  apple  was 
discolored  and  shrivelled  and  drops  of  sticky  fluid  appeared  upon 
the  surface  of  most  of  them.  (Fig.  2.) 


*Jones,  L.  R.  Studies  Upon  Plum  Blight.  Centralb.  f.  Parasitenk.  u. 
Infek.  II.  Abt.  II.  Band.  pp.  835-841. 


An  Apricot  Blight. 


7 


Nine  apple  twigs  were  inoculated  on  the  same  day  with  the 
fresh  diseased  tissue  from  apricot  fruits.  The  disease  spread  in  all 
of  these  twigs,  killing  them  from  the  tips  down  ;  in  one  instance 
ten  inches  of  the  twig  from  the  tip,  back,  was  dead.  No  differ¬ 
ence  could  be  detected  in  the  appearance  of  these  twigs  and  in 
those  that  were  known  to  have  been  killed  by  pear  blight.  Both 
leaves  and  twigs  shrivelled  and  turned  dark  colored  and  drops  of 
sticky  fluid  exuded  from  the  bark  and  from  the  leaf  stems. 


On  the  same  day,  June  30,  sevenjapple  twigs  were  inoculated 
with  fresh  diseased  tissue  taken  from  a  blighting  apple  limb. 
These  inoculations  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  the 
disease  produced  with  that  produced  with  germs  taken  from  apri¬ 
cot  fruits.  All  of  the  twigs  developed  typical  cases  of  pear  blight, 
becoming  shrivelled,  dark  colored  and  exuding  drops  of  sticky 
fluid.  The  twigs  in  this  lot  could  not  be  told  from  those  that 
had  been  killed  by  inoculating  with  diseased  tissue  from  an  apri¬ 
cot  fruit.  The  bacteria  appeared  to  be  the  same  when  examined 
with  a  microscope  and  made  the  same  growth  when  cultivated 
artifically  in  the  laboratory. 


There  was  no  blight  in  the  trees  on 
which  these  experiments  were  made  and 
to  make  sure  that  the  mechanical  injury 
of  inoculation  could  not  cause  the  twigs 
to  die  or  the  fruit  to  decay,  control  or 
check  twigs  and  apples  were  carried 
along  with  all  the  experiments.  These 
were  made  by  making  incisions  with  a 
sterile  knife  through  the  skin  of  the  apple 
or  through  the  bark  of  the  twigs;  the 
wounds  were  then  covered  with  sterilized 
grafting  wax.  No  disease  developed  in 
any  of  the  checks  and  the  injuries  soon 
healed. 

These  experiments  were  repeated  a 
number  of  times  with  cultures  of  the  bacteria  taken  from  apple 
twigs,  apricot  twigs  and  apricot  fruits.  Inoculations  were  made 
in  both  apple  twigs  and  fruit  and  the  results  were  the  same, 
namely,  a  typical  case  of  pear  blight  from  all  three  sources. 

As  there  are  no  apricot  trees  growing  on  the  College  grounds, 
Mr.  J.  S.  McClelland  kindly  offered  the  use  of  one  of  his  trees  for 
experimental  purposes.  A  number  of  inoculations  were  made  in 
the  twigs  of  this  tree  July  8.  Cultures  of  the  disease  obtained 
from  apple  twigs,  apricot  twigs  and  apricot  fruit  were  used.  The 
orchard  was  visited  on  July  20  when  it  was  found  that  blight  had 
been  produced  in  a  number  of  the  inoculated  twigs,  while  the 
check  twigs  remained  sound. 


Fig.  2.  Apple  inoculated  with 
tissue  from  apricot  twig ;  the 
latter  having  been  inoculated 
with  a  culture  of  pear  blight. 


8 


Bulletin  84. 


The  disease  was  recovered  in  pure  cultures  from  these  apri¬ 
cot  twigs  in  which  blight  had  been  artificially  produced  and 
apples  inoculated  with  this  material  developed  typical  cases  of 
pear  blight.  (Fig.  2). 

The  results  of  these  experiments  prove  that  pear  blight  may 
attack  apricot  twigs  and  fruit  and  observations  show  that  the 
disease  may  do  a  considerable  amount  of  damage.  While  this 
apricot  blight  has  not  yet  assumed  alarming  proportions,  yet 
there  is  a  possibility  of  its  becoming  a  common  disease.  It  has 
been  found  in  several  Colorado  orchards  and  an  apricot  disease 
has  been  reported  from  Utah,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  same 
cause.  Blighted  twigs  were  also  found  on  Primus  simonii  trees 
which  were  also  thought  to  be  caused  by  an  attack  of  pear  blight. 


REMEDIES. 

Since  this  disease  has  been  proven  to  be  due  to  attacks  of 
pear  blight,  the  logical  method  of  treatment  would  appear  to  be 
the  suppression  of  this  disease  in  apple  and  pear  trees.  With  pear 
and  apple  orchards  free  from  blight  there  would  probably  be  no 
apricot  blight.  There  is  little  probability  at  present,  however,  of 
ever  attaining  this  ideal  condition,  but  much  can  be  done  to  hold 
the  disease  in  check  if  all  orchardists  will  unite  in  following  the 
best  treatment  that  is  now  known.  This  consists  in  cutting  out 
all  blighted  limbs  after  the  growing  season  is  over,  as  in  late  fall 
or  any  time  during  the  winter. 

It  is  now  definitely  known  that  the  germs  of  pear  blight  live 
over  winter  in  occasional  diseased  limbs.  The  germs  in  such 
limbs  become  active  in  the  spring  with  the  growth  of  the  tree 
and  cause  a  thick  fluid  to  ooze  from  the  diseased  bark.  This  juice 
is  swarming  with  blight  germs  and  because  it  is  slightly  sweet, 
bees  and  other  insects  are  frequently  attracted  to  it.  That  bees 
do  carry  blight  germs  in  particles  of  this  sticky  juice  that  may 
accidently  stick  to  their  bodies  was  proven  by  Mr.  Waite  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture.  Then  when  visiting  flowers  in  their 
search  for  nectar  or  pollen  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  these  parti¬ 
cles  may  become  dislodged  from  the  bees’  bodies  and  fall  into  the 
nectar  in  the  blossom.  Mr.  Waite  also  proved  that  this  does 
take  place  as  he  found  pear  blight  germs  growing  in  nectar  in 
pear  flowers.  Thus  the  pear  blossoms  become  sources  of  infection 
and  the  disease  spreads  rapidly  or  “like  a  fire,”  from  which 
expression  the  term  “fire  blight”  is  derived,  as  hundreds  of  insects 
visit  flower  after  flower. 

Just  how  many  of  the  twigs  become  infected  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  explained,  but  in  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge 


PLATE  II.  Apricot  Twigs  Attacked  by  Pear  Blight, 
Photographed  June  25. 


.  i 


An  Apricot  Bright. 


11 


the  cases  of  so-called  “hold-over”  blight  in  limbs  and  twigs  must 

O  <p 

be  regarded  as  the  sole  means  of  keeping  the  disease  alive  over 
winter.  The  appearance  of  this  apricot  blight  then  should  em¬ 
phasize  the  importance  of  keeping  pear  blight  in  check.  All 
diseased  trees  whether  they  be  apple,  pear,  apricot  or  pi nm,  should 
be  looked  over  carefully  in  late  fall  or  during  the  winter  and  all 
blighted  limbs  and  twigs  removed.  When  cutting  out  diseased 
branches,  especially  during  the  growing  season,  care  should  be 
taken  to  make  the  cut  8  or  10  inches  below  any  evidence  of  dis¬ 
colored  bark. 


DETAIL  OF  EXPERIMENTS. 

Experiment  No.  /.  June  30;  inoculated  12  apples  with  dis¬ 
eased  tissue  from  apricot  fruits.  Apples  on  the  tree  and  about 
one-fourth  grown.  Inoculations  made  with  sterile  instruments 
and  diseased  tissue  taken  from  in  under  the  skin  from  the  zone  of 
watery  appearing  tissue.  The  wounds  were  covered  with  sterile 
grafting  wax  as  soon  as  the  inoculations  were  made.  Notes 
were  taken  on  the  development  of  the  disease  as  follows: 

July  7.  Inoculations  have  taken  in  four  fruits.  In  one,  disease  has 
spread  over  one-fourth  of  the  surface  and  a  characteristic  bead-like  drop  has 
formed  on  the  surface.  Four  fruits  destroyed  by  children.  The  other  four 
show  no  signs  of  disease.  July  11.  Inoculations  have  taken  in  all  of  the  apples. 

These  apples  were  eventually  entirely  consumed  by  the  disease.  Five 
check  apples  punctured  but  not  inoculated  remained  sound. 

Experiment  No.  2.  On  the  same  date,  June  30,  nine  apple 
twigs  in  the  same  tree  were  inoculated  with  diseased  tissue 
from  apricot  fruits  as  described  above.  All  wounds  were  pro¬ 
tected  with  sterile  grafting  wax. 

July  7.  Blight  appearing  on  all  of  the  twigs.  Twigs  brown  and  whither- 
ing  with  bead  like  droplets  on  surface.  July  31,  disease  has  spread  10  inches  on 
one  twig  and  eight  inches  on  another. 

Experiment  No.  j.  For  the  purpose  of  comparison  seven 
twigs  were  inoculated  June  30  with  diseased  tissue  from  a  blight¬ 
ing  apple  limb.  Bits  of  inner  bark  which  was  only  slightly  dis¬ 
colored  by  the  disease  weie  inserted  in  incisions  made  in  the  tips 
of  green  twigs. 

July  7.  Three  twigs  show  no  i  esults.  Four  are  diseased  and  show  char¬ 
acteristic  symptoms  of  pear  blight,  though  the  disease  has  not  advanced  as 
rapidly  as  it  did  in  the  twigs  that  were  inoculated  with  tissue  from  apricot 
fruits. 

July  11.  All  the  twigs  in  this  experiment  are  now  blighting  and  thick 
juice  has  formed  in  drops  on  the  surface  as  in  the  other  experiment.  The  gross 
appearance  of  the  twigs  in  the  two  lots  are  the  same  and  microscopical  exami¬ 
nation  shows  that  all  diseased  parts  in  both  experiments  are  swarming  with  bac- 


12 


Bulletin  84. 


teria  which  appear  identical.  Eight  check  twigs  punctured  at  the  tip  with  a 
sterile  knife  show  no  sign  of  disease. 

"M  Pure  cultures  of  the  bacteria  from  the  three  sources,  apricot 
fruits,  apricot  twigs  and  apple  twigs  were  secured  as  soon  as  pos¬ 
sible  with  which  further  inoculations  were  made.  Plain  neutral 
potato  agar  was  used  in  making  poured  plates  from  which  trans¬ 
fers  were  made  to  tubes  of  potato  agar,  potato  plugs  and  sugar 
beet  plugs.  Inoculations  were  made  July  7  with  the  pure  cul¬ 
tures  into  apple  fruits  and  apple  twigs  as  given  in  the  following 
tables: 

TABLE  I. 

Inoculations  of  Apples  with  Cultures  of  Bacteria  Secured  from  Diseased  Apri¬ 
cot  Twigs,  Apricot  Fruit  and  Apple  Twigs. 


No.  of 

Experiment. 

No.  of 
Apples. 

Sources  of 
Cultures. 

Date  of 
Inoculation. 

Date  of 
Examination. 

Results. 

No.  4 . 

5 

Apricot  Twigs 

July  7 

July  28 

All  discolored  and  shrivelled. 

No.  5 . 

5 

Apricot  Fruit 

July  7 

July  14 

Negative. 

No.  6  . 

6 

Apple  Twigs 

July  7 

July  28 

One  fruit  black  and  shrivelled. 

No.  7  . 

6 

Check 

July  28 

Sound. 

No.  8 . 

6 

Apricot  Fruit 

July  14 

July  28 

Five  fruits  shrivelled  and  discolored. 

Evidence  of  the  success  of  the  inoculations  became  apparent  in  some  in¬ 
stances  on  the  third  day.  (Fig.  1.)  There  being  no  development  of  disease  in 
any  of  the  apples  in  Experiment  No.  5,  further  inoculations  were  undertaken  on 
J uly  14,  as  indicated  in  Experiment  No.  8,  using  another  tube  of  the  same  culture. 
Final  notes  were  taken  on  July  28.  The  five  fruits  in  Experiment  No.  4  inoculated 
with  culture  from  apricot  twigs  all  discolored  and  shrivelled.  Experiment  No. 
5  gave  negative  results,  probably  due  to  weak  or  dead  culture  material.  No.  6, 
using  a  culture  of  known  pear  blight  taken  from  a  blighting  apple  limb,  one 
fruit  black  and  shrivelled;  the  other  five  gave  negative  results.  No.  7,  check 
apples,  all  sound.  No.  8,  inoculated  with  culture  from  apricot  fruit,  five  apples 
shrivelled  and  blackened  over  most  of  their  surface.  One  showed  no  evidence 
of  disease 


TABLE  Ft 

Inoculation  of  Apple  Twigs  with  Cultures  of  Bnctoria  Secured  from  Disused 
Apricot  Twigs,  Apricot  Fruits  and  Apple  Iwigs 


No.  of  Experiment. 

No.  of 
Twigs. 

Source  of 
Culture. 

Date  of 
Juoculation. 

jH 

o 

24-1 

CD  g 

cd  ^ 
r  - 

r~’  cz 

KN 

w 

Results. 

No.  9 . 

7 

Apricot  twigs. 

July  7 

July  29 

Five  twigs  diseased. 

No.  10 . 

7 

Apricot  fruit. 

July  7 

July  29 

All  twigs  diseased. 

No.  11 . 

5 

Apple  twigs. 

July  7 

July  29 

All  twigs  diseased. 

No.  12 . 

6 

Check. 

July  29 

Sound. 

An  Apricot  Bright.  IB 

In  Experiment  No.  9  the  disease  made  good  growth  in  three  twigs,  extend¬ 
ing  eight  inches  in  one.  The  growth  was  slight  in  two  twigs  w7hile  the  remain¬ 
ing  two  gave  negative  results. 

The  disease  made  good  growth  in  all  of  the  twigs  in  Experiment  No.  IO7 
one  of  them  being  blighted  for  18  inches  of  its  length.  All  twigs  blighted  in 
Experiment  No.  11.  One  diseased  18  inches  of  its  length  and  others  for  12 
inches.  The  twigs  used  in  this  experiment  were  younger  and  more  succulent 
than  the  others,  which  no  doubt  accounts  for  the  greater  growth.  Check  twigs 
all  sound. 

There  being  no  apricot  trees  on  the  College  grounds,  Mr.  J. 
S.  McClelland  kindly  offered  the  use  of  one  of  his  trees  for  experi¬ 
mental  purposes.  Accordingly  inoculations  were  made  in  the 
twigs  of  this  tree  as  shown  in  Table  III.  The  tree  bore  no  fruit 
this  season. 


TABLE  III. 

Inoculation  of  Apricot  Twigs  with  Cultures  of  Bacteria  Secured  from  Diseased 
Apricot  Twigs,  Apricot  Fruit  and  Apple  Twigs. 


No.  of 
Experiment. 

No.  of 
Twigs. 

Source  of 
Culture. 

Date  of 
Inoculation. 

1 

Date  of 
Examination. 

Results. 

No.  13 . 

7 

Apricot  twig. 

July  8 

August  5 

Three  blighted  ;  four,  no  results.. 

No.  14 . 

5 

Apricot  fruit. 

July  8 

August  5 

All  made  some  growth. 

No.  15 . 

7 

Apple  twig. 

July  8 

August  5 

Five  blighted;  two,  no  results. 

No.  16 . 

7 

Check. 

August  5 

Sound. 

In  Experiment  No.  13,  three  twigs  of  the  seven  were  blighted;  one  five 
inches,  one  eight  inches  and  the  third,  10  inches.  New  growTth  was  selected  for 
the  experiments  and  the  inoculations  were  made  as  near  the  tip  as  possible. 
The  four  twigs  that  gave  no  results  made  a  rapid  growth  after  inoculation,  of 
from  18  to  20  inches.  And  curiously  enough  two  of  them  were  blighted  at  their 
tips.  .This  can  be  accounted  for  by  natural  infection  from  the  inoculated  twigs 
as  four  other  twigs  were  found  on  the  tree  that  were  blighted.  None  of  the 
check  twigs  showed  any  evidence  of  blight  and  there  was  none  found  on  the 
other  twTo  trees  that  stood  within  12  feet  of  the  tree  experimented  on. 

All  of  the  twigs  in  experiment  No.  14  were  diseased;  the  blighted  areas 
varying  from  one  to  four  inches  in  length. 

Cultures  of  known  pear  blight  were  used  in  Experiment  No.  15.  Five  of 
seven  twigs  were  blighted,  two  of  them  for  eight  inches  from  the  tip  where  tho 
inoculations  were  made. 

The  disease  was  recovered  in  pure  form  from  the  inoculated 
apricot  twigs  and  apples  on  the  tree  were  inoculated  as  shown  in 
Table  IV.  Specimens  of  diseased  ripe  apricots  were  received  at 
about  the  this  time,  together  with  blighting  twigs.  Cultures 
were  made  from  both  sources  and  inoculations  were  made  as  is 
also  shown  in  table  IV. 


14 


Bulletin  84. 


TABLE  IV. 

Inoculation  Experiments  with  Cultures  of  Bacteria  from  Various  Sources- 


No.  of 
Experiment. 

No.  of 

Inoculation. 

Source  of 

Culture. 

Date  of 

Inoculation. 

Date  of 

Examination. 

i 

Results. 

No.  17 . 

6  Apples 

Apricot  twig. 

July  29. 

August  18. 

Two  fruits  diseased. 

No.  18 . 

5  Apples 

Ripe  apricot 
fruits. 

July  29. 

August  18. 

All  diseased. 

No.  19 . 

1  Apples 

Apricot  twigs  that 
had  been  inocu¬ 
lated  with  cul¬ 
tures  from  apri¬ 
cot  twigs. 

July  29. 

August  18. 

One  fruit  diseased. 

No.  20 . 

6  Apples 

Check. 

August  18. 

Sound. 

No.  21 . 

10  Apples 

Apricot  twigs  that 
had  been  inocu¬ 
lated  with  cul¬ 
tures  of  pear 
blight. 

Aug.  7. 

August  18. 

August  30. 

Three  fruits,  decaying. 

Three  more  fruits  diseasad. 

No.  22  . 

5  Apples 

Check. 

August  30. 

Sound. 

Cultures  from  apricot  twigs  produced  decay  in  two  fruits  out  of  six  in¬ 
oculated  while  all  inoculations  with  cultures  from  ripe  apricots  were  successful. 

One  out  of  four  inoculations  was  successful,  where  a  culture  from  an 
apricot  twig’,  from  McClelland’s,  that  had  been  inoculated  with  cultures  from 
apricot  twigs  were  used.  As  a  more  complete  test  was  desirable  than  was  af¬ 
forded  by  No.  19,  a  similar  experiment  was  undertaken  in  No.  21.  Ten  apples 
were  inoculated  with  diseased  tissue  taken  from  an  apricot  twig  that  had  been 
inoculated  with  a  known  culture  of  pear  blight.  Six  of  these  inoculations  were 
successful.  The  check  apples  in  every  instance  remained  sound. 


Bulletin  85. 


December,  1903 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


Cantaloupe  Seed. 


—  BY  — 


P.  K.  BLINN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 


Plate  I 


.fXPrsr,q. 


Plate  II. 


Plate  III. 


I 


Plate  IV 


CANTALOUPE  SEED. 


IMPROVEMENT  BY  SELECTION. 


By  Philo  K.  Blinn. 

The  cantaloupe  now  known  as  the  Rocky  Ford  was  origin¬ 
ally  Burpee’s  Netted  Gem,  but  under  the  favorable  conditions- 
which  prevail  in  the  arid  regions  of  Colorado,  it  has  developed 
into  a  melon  surpassing  in  quality  the  parent  stock,  and  its 
superior  merits  have  won  for  it  a  new  name  and  a  popular  repu¬ 
tation. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  cantaloupe  industry  at  Rocky  Ford, 
the  growers  relied  on  Eastern  seedsmen  for  their  supply  of  seedr 
and  to  a  certain  extent  had  satisfactory  results  until  the  growth 
of  the  industry  exceeded  the  supply  of  reliable  seed,  when  a  num¬ 
ber  of  growers  were  supplied  with  seed  which  produced  a  mixed 
lot  of  varieties,  wholly  unfit  for  market  as  Rocky  Ford  canta¬ 
loupes.  The  loss  not  only  fell  heavily  on  the  disappointed 
grower,  but  through  the  agency  of  bees  and  other  insects  carryings 
the  pollen,  the  injury  was  easily  transmitted  to  neighboring  fields- 
of  choice  melons,  producing  crosses  of  an  undesirable  nature. 

On  account  of  the  introduction  of  these  mixed  strains,  and 
the  varying  ideas  of  seed  selection,  the  Rocky  Ford  cantaloupe 
lacks  uniformity  in  many  respects  ;  a  large  percentage  of  melons 
are  unmarketable  on  account  of  size  and  form,  which  renders 
them  unfit  to  crate.  Defective  netting  and  thin,  soft  flesh  are  also 
common  imperfections.  Because  of  these  defects,  the  growers 
sustain  a  loss  that  could  largely  be  prevented  by  planting  a  better 
grade  of  seed. 

The  cantaloupe  is  a  product  of  years  of  systematic  selection, 
and  it  requires  the  same  methods  to  maintain  its  excellence  as- 
were  employed  in  its  development.  Without  care  in  selection, 
the  natural  tendency  of  all  cultivated  plants  to  vary  will  soon 
cause  a  good  strain  of  cantaloupes  to  revert  to  an  undesirable  type. 

There  is  a  marked  contrast  between  the  products  of  care¬ 
lessly  selected  and  pedigreed,  i.  e .,  carefully  selected,  melon  seed 
the  one  is  inclined  to  be  irregular  in  size  and  form,  with  the  net¬ 
ting  thin  and  often  wanting,  and  with  a  decided  tendency  to- 


Bulletin  85. 


6 

ripen  prematurely,  turning  yellow  and  soft ;  a  loss  not  uncom¬ 
monly  of  twenty  to  forty  per  cent,  in  culls,  while  choice  seed 
produces  melons  that  are  uniform  in  size  and  shape,  the  netting 
thick  and  complete,  the  marketable  stage  more  prolonged,  and 
practically  no  loss  in  culls. 

The  wide  reputation  of  the  Rocky  Ford  cantaloupe  has 
created  a  great  demand  for  Rocky  Ford  seed,  as  it  is  claimed  to 
produce  a  higher  grade  of  cantaloupes  than  seed  from  other  States, 
and  each  year  large  quantities  are  saved  to  fill  this  demand,  but 
unfortunately  for  the  industry,  the  quality  of  this  supply  is  not 
what  it  should  be  ;  it  is  principally  produced  from  the  cull  piles. 

After  frost,  at  the  close  of  the  shipping  season,  everything 
in  the  line  of  a  cantaloupe,  green  or  ripe,  large  or  small,  is  gath¬ 
ered  and  run  through  a  melon  seeder,  with  no  attempt  at  selection. 

This  seed  is  bought  by  the  jobber  and  seedsman  for  ten  to 
twenty  cents  per  pound,  and  when  it  is  on  the  market  it  cannot 
be  distinguished  from  well  selected  seed,  and  doubtless  is  sold  as 
such. 

There  would  be  nothing  to  commend  such  seed  to  any  prac¬ 
tical  grower  if  he  realized  its  source. 

As  the  seed  market  has  been  so  abused,  to  procure  good  seed 
one  must  either  save  it  himself,  or  have  seen  the  melons  from 
which  it  was  saved,  or  purchase  it  from  a  reliable  grower  before  it 
has  passed  through  several  hands. 

The  fact  that  seed  can  be  had  cheap  and  growers  are  willing 
to  plant  it,  is  an  evident  reason  for  its  existence  on  the  market, 
but  the  lack  of  information  as  to  what  constitutes  a  good  seed 
cantaloupe  may  also  be  responsible  for'  poor  seed  selection.  In 
this  bulletin  we  wish  to  show  what  a  good  melon  is  and  that  it 
pays  to  plant  and  save  good  seed. 

standard  of  perfection. 

« 

The  form  and  outward  appearance  of  a  perfect  Rocky  Ford 
cantaloupe  is  well  represented  in  the  several  plates  shown  in  this 
bulletin  ;  as  to  size,  it  requires  a  melon  slightly  over  four  inches 
in  diameter  and  about  four  and  five-eighths  inches  long  ;  it  should 
have  silver  grey  netting  that  stands  out  like  thick,  heavy  lace, 
practically  covering  the  entire  melon,  save  the  well-defined  slate 
colored  stripes  ;  these  should  run  the  whole  length  of  the  melon 
clear  cut  as  if  grooved  out  with  a  round  chisel,  and  terminating 
at  the  blossom  end  in  a  small  button,  well  shown  in  the  melon  on 
the  left  side  of  Plate  III.  The  interstices  in  the  netting  should  be 
light  olive  green,  that  turns  slightly  yellow  when  the  melon  is 
ready  for  market.  A  melon  with  a  black  skin  under  the  netting 
is  not  so  attractive  in  appearance.  The  proper  netting  is  well 
brought  out  in  Plate  I. 


Cantaloupe  Seed. 


7 


But  the  outward  appearance  is  not  the  only  basis  for  selec¬ 
tion  in  saving  seed  ;  the  inside  points  are  as  essential  to  consider 
as  any  external  quality,  and  no  one  can  determine  that  a  melon  is 
fit  for  seed  until  it  has  been  cut  open  and  the  inside  qualities  ex¬ 
amined  ;  for  this  reason  the  machine  seeder  is  of  no  use  in  select¬ 
ing  choice  seed  ;  the  melons  should  all  be  cut  and  examined  by 
hand. 

The  flesh  should  be  thick  and  firm,  of  a  smooth  texture,  and 
free  from  watery  appearance,  rich  and  melting  in  flavor.  The 
shipping  and  keeping  qualities  depend  largely  on  the  solidity  of 
the  melon,  so  the  seed  cavity  should  be  small  and  perfectly  filled 
with  seed.  The  color  of  the  flesh  near  the  rind  should  be  dark 
green,  shading  lighter  toward  the  seed  cavity,  which  should  be 
salmon  or  orange  in  color.  The  flesh  is  often  mottled  with  sal¬ 
mon,  and  not  uncommonly  the  entire  flesh  is  of  that  color.  The 
flavor  is  usually  quite  uniform,  though  it  is  sometimes  affected  by 
the  health  of  the  vines  or  other  conditions  of  growth. 

The  seed  will  bear  close  inspection,  as  it  is  sometimes 
cracked  or  sprouted,  which  renders  it  of  no  value  for  germination. 

The  first  steps  in  seed  selection  should  be  made  when  the 
melons  are  growing.  Extra  prolific  hills  should  be  marked  with 
stakes,  and  the  earliest  ripening  specimens  conforming  to  the 
above  ideal  should  be  saved  as  choice  seed,  and  planted  in  a  place 
isolated  from  other  melons,  and  the  same  care  should  be  exercised 
in  the  years  that  follow. 

The  grower  can  and  should  save  his  own  seed,  as  he  can  give 
it  more  careful  attention  than  any  commercial  seed  grower. 

A  few  growers,  realizing  the  importance  of  systematic  selec¬ 
tion,  have  made  the  proper  choice  of  seed  for  their  own  use. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  can  be  done  m  this  line,  the  plates 
shown  in  this  bulletin  represent  photographs  of  melons  developed 
after  five  years  of  careful  seed  selection.  Beginning  with  a 
melon  as  nearly  perfect  as  could  be  found,  the  old  saying  that 
u  like  produces  like  ”  has  been  exemplified  to  a  marked  degree. 
Each  year  the  number  of  perfect  melons  has  increased,  so  that 
now,  when  soil,  fertility  and  all  growing  conditions  are  favorable, 
the  over-sized  melons  are  eliminated  ;  all  melons  are  completely 
netted,  and  practically  all  are  marketable. 

Plates  II.  and  IV.  represent  an  average  product  of  the 
choicest  of  this  seed. 

Improvement  is  still  possible,  yet  the  value  of  careful  seed 
selection  has  been  so  demonstrated  that  if  melon  growers  would 
adhere  to  a  strict  selection  of  perfect,  early-ripening  melons,  not 
only  would  the  returns  from  the  melon  crop  be  increased,  but  the 
cantaloupe  would  become  a  more  staple  article  by  virtue  of  its 
improved  shipping  and  keeping  qualities. 


8 


Bulletin  85. 


VALUE  OF  CHOICE  SEED. 

Unless  one  has  a  well  developed  strain  of  seed,  it  is  not  prob¬ 
able  that  he  can  save  more  than  one  or  two  pounds  per  acre  of 
extra  selected  seed,  so  the  supply  of  choice  seed  is  limited. 

The  market  value  of  the  cantaloupe  at  the  time  the  seed  is 
saved  should  determine  the  price  of  seed.  Thus,  it  requires  about 
as  many  melons  to  produce  one  pound  of  seed  as  will  fill  a  stand¬ 
ard  crate,  and  actually  more,  because  some  melons  need  to  be  re¬ 
jected.  This  cannot  be  fnlly  determined  until  the  melon  is  cut, 
when,  if  it  proves  unfit  for  seed,  it  is  also  lost  for  market.  So  the 
price  of  seed  must  be  equal  to  or  exceed  the  price  of  a  crate  of 
melons  at  the  time  the  seed  was  saved. 

During  the  first  week  or  ten  days  of  the  shipping  season  at 
Rocky  Ford,  it  is  common  to  realize  from  two  to  six  dollars  per 
crate.  No  one  at  this  time  can  afford  to  save  seed  to  sell  at  the 
ordinary  price  per  pound.  Indeed,  few  growers  are  wise  enough 
to  save  for  their  own  use. 

At  the  average  price  of  cantaloupes  through  the  shipping 
season,  the  grower  must  realize  at  least  a  dollar  per  pound  to  war¬ 
rant  him  in  .saving  seed  for  the  market.  At  the  close  of  the  ship¬ 
ping  season,  when  melons  are  no  longer  marketable,  the  seed  is 
willingly  saved  for  what  it  will  bring.  This  is  the  source  of  a 
large  part  of  the  seed  on  the  market. 

The  difference  in  value  between  seed  saved  early  from  per¬ 
fect  melons,  of  high  market  worth,  and  that  saved  six  weeks 
later,  from  immature,  frost-bitten  melons  which  cannot  be  mar¬ 
keted,  is  not  often  appreciated  ;  yet,  if  the  higher  priced  seed 
should  yield  only  one  or  more  crates  per  acre  of  early  melons,  or 
increase  the  total  yield  by  several  crates,  which  the  extra  vitality 
and  superior  points  of  perfection  can  easily  do,  the  higher  priced 
seed  is  cheaper  at  any  price,  and  its  value  to  the  melon  industry 
cannot  be  estimated. 


Bulletin  86.  December,  1903 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


CROWN  GALL. 


—  BY  - 


WENDELL  PADDOCK. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 


■ 

THE  COLORADO  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

A  Department  of  The  State  Agricultural  College. 

For  Bulletins  address  the  Director. 


Plate  I. 


Colo.  £xpi  sm. 


CROWN  GALL. 


By  Wendell  Paddock. 

The  subject  of  crown  gall  is  one  of  vital  importance  in  Colo¬ 
rado,  since  under  our  conditions  the  organism  that  is  responsible 
for  this  disease  of  fruit  trees  and  plants,  finds  congenial  surround¬ 
ings  for  growth  and  distribution. 

The  so-called  galls  are  irregular  outgrowths  of  tissue  that 
commonly  form  around  the  crown  of  a  tree  just  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  They  also  occur  frequently  on  the  roots,  but  are 
quite  different  in  appearance  from  the  swellings  that  are  produced 
by  the  attacks  of  woolly  aphis,  which  unfortunately  are  also  very 
destructive  in  our  State. 

The  galls  increase  rapidly  in  size,  when  the  conditions  are 
favorable,  and  so  interfere  with  the  process  of  nutrition  that  the 
vigor  of  the  tree  is  greatly  impaired.  In  many  instances  the 
death  of  the  tree  is  but  a  matter  of  a  few  years.  The  point  of 
attack  being  iinderground,  the  infected  trees  are  commonly  un¬ 
noticed  until  they  begin  to  fail.  This  stage  may  be  recognized 
by  the  weak  growth  and  yellow  appearance  of  the  foliage. 

The  pictures  in  this  bulletin  give  a  good  idea  of  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  crown  gall.  Plate  I.  shows  an  extreme  case  of  the  dis¬ 
ease  as  affecting  a  six-year-old  plum  tree.  This  tree  was  un¬ 
doubtedly  attacked  in  the  nursery,  and  the  continued  growth  of 
the  gall  so  interfered  with  its  nutrition  that  it  was  able  to  make 
but  a  feeble  growth  and  was  nearly  dead  when  it  was  dug.  Plate 
II.  is  from  a  photograph  of  a  peach  tree,  showing  a  large  gall  on 
the  roots  and  a  somewhat  unusual  case  of  the  development  of 
galls  on  the  trunk  above  ground.  Plate  III.  shows  badly  diseased 
apple  trees  just  as  they  were  received  from  the  nursery. 

This  disease  first  began  to  attract  the  serious  attention  of 
Experiment  Station  workers  in  1892,  when  the  California  station 
published  a  bulletin  on  the  subject.  This  was  followed  by  a 
number  of  articles  from  different  Experiment  Stations,  but  it  was 
not  until  1900  that  any  definite  knowledge  of  the  disease  was 
gained.  During  this  year  Prof.  Tourney,  of  the  Arizona  Experi¬ 
ment  Station,  published  a  bulletin,  in  which  he  proved  that  crown 
galls  on  almond,  apricot  and  peach  trees  are  produced  by  the  irri- 


4 


Bulletin  86. 


tation  of  a  slime  mould,  one  of  the  lower  forms  of  fungi.  He 
was  able  to  produce  galls  at  will  on  young  seedlings  by  inoculat¬ 
ing  them  with  bits  of  the  galls,  also  by  planting  seedlings  in 
sterile  soil  and  then  placing  pieces  of  minced  galls  about  their 
roots.  Under  certain  conditions  minute  reproductive  bodies  are 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  galls,  which  easily  work  their  way 
through  damp  soil,  or  may  be  carried  by  irrigation  water  from 
tree  to  tree.  Particles  of  the  galls  may  also  be  carried  by  culti¬ 
vators  and  other  tools,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  the 
disease  may  spread  from  a  single  infected  tree  to  all  the  trees  in  an 
orchard. 

Indications  also  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  organism 
may  remain  alive  for  some  time  in  decayed  galls,  or  in  galls  on 
dead  trees,  or  on  diseased  trees  that  have  been  removed  from  the 
orchard. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  amount  of  damage  that  crown 
gall  is  responsible  for,  as  it  is  a  disease  that  is  commonly  over¬ 
looked,  and  then  it  is  usually  several  years  after  infection  that  the 
apparent  vigor  of  the  tree  is  affected.  Reports  from  a  number  of 
the  County  Horticultural  Inspectors,  as  well  as  personal  observa¬ 
tions,  show  that  crown  gall  is  a  common  disease  in  Colorado.  It 
is  evident,  also,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  the  effects  of  the 
disease  will  become  more  apparent  as  the  orchards  grow  older. 

Prof.  Tourney  has  the  following  to  say  about  the  amount  of 
damage  that  can  be  attributed  to  the  disease  : 

The  seriousness  of  crown  gall  in  various  and  widely  separated  portions 
of  the  country,  is  certainly  indicative  of  an  enormous  annual  loss  to  the  fruit 
industry.  In  estimating  the  amount  of  damage  done  by  crown  gall,  considera¬ 
tion  must  be  given  to  the  fact  that  it  usually  occurs  underground,  and  is  rarely 
seen  except  when  the  trees  are  taken  from  the  nursery,  or  when  excavations  are 
made  at  the  crowns.  The  majority  of  diseased  trees  live  on  year  after  year,  but 
make  less  growth  and  in  all  probability  produce  less  and  poorer  fruit  than 
healthy  trees.  It  is  not  sufficient  for  a  tree  to  simply  live.  It  must  grow  and 
ruit  abundantly  to  be  profitable.  The  total  annual  loss  from  this  disease  in 
this  country  in  all  probability  reaches  the  enormous  sum  of  from  $500,000  to 
$1,000,000,  possibly  much  more. 

Crown  gall  is  found  on  a  variety  of  plants,  including  almond, 
apple,  apricot,  blackberry,  cherry,  chestnut,  English  walnut, 
grape,  peach,  pear,  plum,  poplar  and  raspberry.  In  the  experi¬ 
ments  above  mentioned,  it  was  found  that  the  disease  could  be 
transferred  readily  from  the  almond  to  apricot  and  peach  trees, 
thus  indicating  that  the  same  organism  is  responsible  for  crown 
gall  on  these  three  hosts.  Serious  investigation  of  the  galls  on 
the  other  trees  and  plants  have  not  yet  been  undertaken,  but  it  is 
likely  that  the  disease  is  of  the  same  nature,  if  not  induced  by 
the  same  organism.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  point  may  soon 
be  established,  as  it  is  important  to  know,  for  instance,  whether 
diseased  raspberry  and  blackberry  bushes,  when  planted  in  an 
orchard,  may  not  be  the  means  of  infecting  the  trees,  or,  in  the 


Crown  Gall. 


5 


case  of  a  mixed  orchard,  the  disease  may  not  spread  from  stone 
fruits  to  apples  and  pears,  or  vice  versa. 

The  disease  does  not  seem  to  be  so  destructive  in  most  sec¬ 
tions  where  irrigation  is  not  practiced,  consequently  many  nur¬ 
serymen  give  it  no  attention,  or  are  entirely  ignorant  of  the  sub¬ 
ject.  That  crown  gall  is  abundant  in  such  nursery  districts  is 
proven  by  the  fact  that  but  few  shipments  of  nursery  stock  are 
ever  received  from  points  outside  of  the  State  that  are  entirely 
free  from  the  disease.  One  County  Horticultural  Inspector  de¬ 
stroyed  two  car-loads  of  trees  in  one  season,  largely  because  they 
were  infected  with  crown  gall.  Most  of  our  inspectors  are 
equally  rigid  in  their  examinations,  but  it  is  impossible  to  detect 
all  diseased  trees,  especially  where  the  disease  has  just  started. 

Prof.  Tourney  goes  so  far  as  to  say  : 

Every  tree  that  comes  from  an  infested  nursery  is  dangerous,  and  when 
such  trees  are  planted,  great  chances  are  taken. 

And  again : 

If  bundles  of  trees  are  received  having  a  few  with  galls  upon  them,  it  is 
not  safe  to  simply  throw  out  the  visibly  diseased  ones.  There  is  no  reason  why 
the  remainder  of  the  bundle  should  not  have  the  infection  upon  them  from  con¬ 
tact  with  diseased  trees,  and  the  whole  should  be  destroyed. 

The  following  extract  from  Bulletin  No.  191  of  the  State 
Experiment  Station  of  New  York,  may  be  taken  as  representing 
the  general  attitude  of  nurserymen  toward  the  disease  : 

We  find  crown  gall  not  uncommon  in  the  nurseries  in  western  New  York, 
but  we  know  of  no  case  where  it  has  caused  material  loss.  *  *  *  Usually  nur¬ 
serymen  discard  the  worst  affected  trees. 

So  long  as  the  disease  is  not  serious  in  their  own  locality,  the 
nurserymen  see  no  reason  why  they  should  go  to  the  expense  and 
trouble  necessary  to  eradicate  it,  consequently  the  disease  has 
spread,  gradually,  until  it  is  quite  common  in  many  of  the  nur¬ 
sery  districts. 

The  Experiment  Station  occasionally  receives  letters  from 
nurserymen  protesting  against  the  destruction  of  their  stock. 
One  firm  thought  that  fraud  was  being  practiced  when  their  trees 
were  rejected,  as  they  had  never  heard  of  this  disease.  Another 
nurseryman  sent  100  high  priced  trees  to  the  Experiment  Station 
which  were  all  condemned  by  the  Inspector.  This  gentleman 
claimed  that  the  galls,  many  of  which  were  as  large  as  one’s  fist 
(Plate  III.),  were  due  to  a  characteristic  varietal  growth,  and  not 
to  a  disease. 

The  best  remedy  for  most  plant  diseases  is  preventative  rather 
than  curative,  therefore  the  best  line  of  treatment  for  crown  gall 
would  be,  first  of  all,  to  buy  nursery  stock  from  nurseries  that  are 
known  to  be  free  from  the  disease.  And  in  this  connection  it  is  a 
pleasure  to  state  that,  so  far  as  is  now  known,  all  the  nurseries  of 
this  State  are  free  from  crown  gall. 

o 


Plate  II 


Crown  Gall. 


7 


It  will  not  do  to  try  to  remove  the  galls  before  the  tree  is 
planted,  as  it  is  likely  that  with  the  greatest  care  some  of  the 
organism  will  remain.  In  that  case  the  disease  has  been  intro¬ 
duced  into  the  orchard,  and  the  infection  of  the  healthy  trees  is 
only  a  question  of  time.  The  majority  of  trees  that  are  infected 
in  the  nursery,  when  planted  in  Colorado,  make  -an  unsatisfactory 
growth,  and  probably  but  few  of  them  ever  live  to  produce  paying- 
crops. 

The  disease  does  not  appear  to  be  so  destructive  to  older 
trees,  but  nevertheless  its  effects  are  severe.  Some  experiments 
conducted  in  Arizona  indicate  that  in  such  cases  the  disease  mav 

J 

be  held  in  check  in  a  measure.  The  mode  of  treatment  consists 
in  examining  the  trees  every  season  and  cutting  away  all  traces  of 
galls  from  about  the  crowns.  The  wounds  are  then  thoroughly 
covered  with  a  paste  made  after  the  following  formula : 

Copper  sulphate  (bluestone),  two  parts. 

Iron  sulphate  (copperas),  one  part. 

Lime  (unslaked),  three  parts. 

The  three  ingredients  are  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  then 
mixed  thoroughly,  after  which  enough  water  is  added  to  make  a 
thick  paste. 

All  diseased  wood  should  be  collected  and  burned. 

The  important  point,  then,  in  controlling  crown  gall  would 
seem  to  be  to  keep  the  disease  out  of  the  orchards,  and  in  order  to 
do  this  it  is  necessary  to  secure  nursery  stock  that  is  free  from  the 
infection.  All  possible  assistance  should  be  given  the  County 
Inspectors  in  their  inspection  of  nursery  stock.  In  counties 
where  many  trees  are  being  planted,  sufficient  assistance  should 
be  provided,  so  that  there  will  be  no  possibility  of  any  shipments 
being  overlooked.  And,  finally,  some  means  should  be  devised 
whereby  the  importance  of  inspection  can  be  impressed  on  the 
growers,  since,  in  some  instances,  they  antagonize  the  inspectors 
and  hinder  their  work.  It  is  no  doubt  true,  that  the  inspection 
of  nursery  stock  alone,  if  well  done,  pays  many  times  over  for  all 
the  expense  incurred,  even  in  those  counties  which  expend  the 
most  money  in  orchard  inspection. 


I 


Bulletins  87-90.  June,  1904. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


OF  THE 


Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


: 


THE  PLAINS  OF  COLORADO 


Bulletins  by  J.  £.  Payne. 


87. 

CATTLE  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS. 

■ 

88. 

DAIRYING  ON  THE  PLAINS. 

89. 

WHEAT  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS. 

90. 

UNIRRIGATED  ALFALFA  ON  UPLAND. 

PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1904. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  ... 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  ROUTT,  - 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD,  ' 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 

Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB, 

Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY,  )  ~ 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  ( ex- officio 


Denver 

TERM 

EXPIRES 

-  1905 

Port  Collins, 

-  1905 

Denver,  - 

-  1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum,  - 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

1909 

Canon  City, 

1911 

Carbondale, 

-  1911 

Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  P.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ....  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.f . Chemist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S., . Agriculturist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S..  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.. . Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  B.  S„  -  -  -  Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

P.  H.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rookyford 

J.  E.  PAYNE,  M.  S.,  -  -  Plains  Field  Agent,  Fort  Collins 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY. . Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY,  ....  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


INTRODUCTORY. 


By  the  DIRECTOR. 

* 


These  particular  bulletins,  as  well  as  several  already  issued, 
are  a  contribution  from  the  studies  made  by  the  Experiment  Sta¬ 
tions  on  the  Great  Plains  of  Colorado. 

When  the  agriculture  of  the  state  is  under  consideration,  at¬ 
tention  is  usually  confined  to  the  irrigated  area  of  the  state  and 
the  plains  are  not  considered.  It  has  more  commonly  been  thought 
that  the  plains  were  material  for  future  development  rather  than 
of  present  importance.  It  has,  however,  been  felt  by  the  more 
careful  observers  that  they  were  agriculturally  of  considerable  im¬ 
portance,  and  that  their  extent  is  so  large  that  the  product 
from  any  given  area  does  not  need  to  be  large  to  make  the  aggre¬ 
gate  worth  consideration.  The  plains  of  Colorado  are  limited  on 
the  West  by  the  foot-hills  of  the  mountains  and  on  the  East  they 
extend  to  the  state  line,  hence  their  extent  East  and  West  is  two 
hundred  miles,  and  North  and  South  the  whole  width  of  the  state. 
There  is  thus  an  area  of  forty  thousand  square  miles,  forming  the 
Plains  in  Colorado. 

Irrigation  is  confined  to  a  limited  region  near  the  mountains 
and  tongues  of  land  extending  along  the  Platte  and  Arkansas 
rivers.  The  area  under  irrigation  east  of  the  mountains  is  less 
than  four  thousand  square  miles.  Almost  every  foot  of  the  Plains 
is  intrinsically  as  productive  as  the  areas  under  irrigation,  provided 
it  could  be  supplied  with  water.  This  condition  has  been  so  evi¬ 
dent  that  there  have  been  many  dreams  that  the  whole  area  of  the 
Plains  would  be  irrigated  in  the  future,  not  realizing  that  such  a 
hope  is  an  impossibility  from  the  failure  of  the  water  supply, 
hence  the  Plains  must  substantially  remain  as  plains,  and  their 
development  must  recognize  the  limitations  of  climate  and  of 
water,  taking  advantage  of  every  favorable  feature,  and  based  on 

conditions  as  they  are. 

./  . 

The  settlers  who  came  with  the  expectation  of  growing  the 
same  crops  and  using  the  same  methods  as  in  a  humid  country, 
instead  of  adapting  themselves  to  the  conditions,  were  doomed  to 


PLAINS  BULLETINS 


4 

failure  and  gave  a  bad  name  to  the  Plains.  With  till ler  under¬ 
standing,  a  more  just  appreciation  of  the  capabilities  is  being  ob¬ 
tained. 

In  1893  the  Legislature  caused  a  branch  Station  to  be  started 
near  Cheyenne  Wells.  The  trials  for  the  first  few  years  were 
under  the  hope  of  finding  the  means  of  growing  the  same  crops 
grown  on  an  eastern  farm.  As  the  failures  were  many,  and  each 
from  whatever  cause  meant  the  loss  of  a  year's  work,  the  experi¬ 
ments  on  this  line  were  both  costly  and  time-consuming.  They 
resulted,  however,  in  indicating  such  crops  as  might  be  partially 
or  wholly  successful.  During  the  first  few  years,  Mr.  J.  B.  Rob¬ 
ertson  was  superintendent,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Payne, 
a  graduate  of  the  Kansas  Agricultural  College.  The  results  of  the 
first  few  years  are  published  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Experi¬ 
ment  Station  for  1900,  and  also  as  an  excerpt  in  “Results  of  Six 
Years  Trials  of  the  Plains.”  When  the  Station  was  organized,  it 
was  expected  that  the  State  would  make  appropriations  for  its 
maintenance,  but  it  did  not  and  the  expense  fell  upon  the  Hatch 
fund  from  the  General  Government.  The  Department  of  Agri¬ 
culture  has  ruled  that  this  National  appropriation  could  not  be 
used  to  maintain  a  sub-station. 

When  the  present  Director  took  charge  of  the  Experiment 
Station  it  was  evident  that  it  was  time  to  change  the  method  of 
investigation.  It  was  found  that  there  were  many  settlers  on  the 
plains  who  were  more  or  less  successful.  Mr.  Payne  was  set  free 
from  the  confining  duties  at  the  sub-station,  provided  with  suitable 
field  equipments  to  visit  the  settlements  to  learn  their  successes 
and  failures,  and  especially  to  study  the  causes,  whether  due  to 
crops,  to  local  condition  of  soil  or  rain-fall,  or  to  a  personal  ele¬ 
ment  of  a  skilful  and  persistent  leader.  A  great  part  of  the  Sum¬ 
mers  of  1901,  ’02  and  '03  were  spent  in  the  field,  mostly  between 
the  Platte  and  Arkansas  Rivers.  Some  reconnaissance  trips  were 
also  made  South  of  the  Arkansas  and  North  of  the  Platte. 

The  previous  work  of  the  farm  at  Cheyenne  Wells,  though 
unsuccessful  as  a  fanning  enterprise,  was  of  great  value  in  prepar¬ 
ing  for  this  work  on  the  plains.  It  has  already  led  to  the  publi¬ 
cation  of  Bulletin  77  on  “Unirrigated  Lands  in  Eastern  Colorado;”  to 
Press  Bulletins,  16,  17  and  18,  on  the  “Prairie  Dog  as  a  Range  Pest,” 
“Trialsof  Macaroni  Wheat,”  and  “Crops  for  Unirrigated  Lands,”  as 
well  as  to  the  present  series  of  Bulletins.  The  Station  has  kept 
closely  in  touch  with  some  of  the  Communities  and  the  active  in¬ 
dividuals  in  the  communities  as  mentioned  in  Bulletin  77.  It  has 
distributed  Macaroni  Wheat  to  many  settlers  on  the  plains  in  small 
quantities,  and  through  the  aid  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
to  a  number  in  quantities  sufficient  to  plant  several  acres  with 
good  success. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


5 

These  studies  were  made  to  get  the  facts  necessary  for  an  in¬ 
telligent  understanding.  They  show  that  the  conditions  of  the 
plains  are  changing,  and  with  the  passing  of  land  into  private  own¬ 
ership,  that  the  conditions  of  the  open  range  are  different  from 
what  they  were  a  few  years  since.  A  large  portion  still  remains 
public  land  and  is  likely  so  to  do  for  years  to  come.  In  one  re¬ 
spect  it  has  been  unfortnnate,  because  it  is  then  to  no  one’s  in¬ 
terest  to  protect  the  grasses  but  rather  to  get  as  much  return  as 
possible,  without  regard  to  the  killing  of  the  grasses  and  the  de¬ 
terioration  of  the  range  which  was  inevitable.  The  range  will  sup¬ 
port  fewer  cattle  than  it  used  to  do.  A  consideration  of  the  situa¬ 
tion  inevitably  brings  up  the  consideration  of  the  range  question 
as  an  important  public  factor.  These  introductory  statements 
can  scarcely  be  made  without  a  word  as  to  the  irrigation  of  the 
plains,  and  to  answer  the  numerous  inquiries  of  this  kind  which 
are  received.  There  are  no  running  streams  on  the  plains.  There 
are  many  dry  channels  which  contain  water  after  floods.  Some  of 
the  streams  like  the  Republican  or  Cherry  Creek  have  water  near 
their  heads  which  soon  dissapears.  The  possibilities  of  irrigation 
from  streams  are  therefore  limited.  It  takes  the  water  from  three 
to  five  acres  of  mountain  water  shed  to  irrigate  one  acre  of  land. 
If  a  corresponding  ratio  could  be  maintained  on  the  plains  through 
storage  reservoirs  and  catchment  of  floods,  20  per  cent,  would  be 
an  extreme  estimate. 

There  are  almost  no  attempts  yet  made  for  irrigation  from 
storm  waters  other  than  catching  floods  in  stream  channels  and 
conducting  them  into  reservoirs.  Some  small  attempts  have  been 
made  to  catch  water  in  plow  furrows  on  gentle  slopes.  The  result 
has  been  promising  enough  to  encourage  further  trials.  There  is 
an  increasing  tendency  to  raise  water  by  windmills.  From  all 
these  methods  small  areas  may  be  expected  to  be  developed  and 
give  a  small  percentage  of  irrigated  land,  with  the  unirrigated 
lands  used  under  range  conditions. 


Colorado  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BULLETIN  87.  JUNE,  1904. 


Cattle  Raising  on  the  Plains. 


By  J.  E.  PAYNE. 


History  in  Brief.  In  1867  a  Massachusetts  editor,  when 
traveling  from  Omaha  to  Denver  by  stage,  spoke  of  the  country 
from  Fort  Kearney  to  Denver  as  400  miles  of  uninhabitable  space. 
The  whole  country  between  a  short  distance  west  of  Omaha  to  the 
Rockies  was  considered  a  desert  by  nearly  all  hunters  and  travel¬ 
ers.  Notwithstanding  this  the  same  men  today  will  say  that  that 
country  then  supported  more  roving  buffaloes  than  the  number  of 
cattle  now  kept  on  the  same  area.  Between  i860  and  1875  the 
buffalo  were  driven  out  of  this  space  and  the  Indians  were  sub¬ 
dued  so  that  it  was  comparatively  safe  for  men  to  keep  cattle 
there.  Cautiously  at  first,  and  recklessly  afterwards,  men  went 
into  the  cattle  business,  until  in  the  eighties  the  tally  books  of 
the  various  outfits  whose  cattle  ranged  eastern  Colorado  summed 
up  nearly  half  a  million  head.  The  most  of  these  cattle  were 
owned  by  large  outfits,  supporting  high-salaried  officers  and  em¬ 
ploying  superintendents  and  foremen  to  do  the  real  work.  These 
large  companies  took  possession  of  the  open  water  along  the 
streams  and  soon  it  became  an  unwritten  law  among  them  to 
allow  each  ten  miles  of  open  water  and  the  valley  adjoining  it, 
and  from  the  stream  half  way  to  the  nearest  open  water  on  an¬ 
other  stream  or  in  another  localitv.  It  was  the  custom  then  to 

j 

allow  the  cowboys  to  run  their  own  cattle  with  those  of  the  com¬ 
pany  and  have  them  cared  for  the  same  as  if  they  belonged  to  the 
company.  The  care  consisted  usually  in  rounding  up,  counting 
what  could  be  found,  branding  the  calves,  and  selecting  animals 
to  be  sent  to  market. 

For  sometime  all  the  range  was  entirely  open  and  cattle 
whose  owners  lived  011  the  South  Platte  might  drift  to  the  Big 
Sandy,  or  possibly  as  far  as  the  Arkansas  river.  Under  this  sys¬ 
tem  it  was  impossible  to  improve  the  range  stock,  so  in  the 
eighties  the  large  companies  began  to  fence  large  pastures  and  use 
pure  bred  bulls  of  the  beef  breeds.  The  pasture  method  was  quite 


8 


BULLETIN  87. 


economical  as  the  only  hands  needed  were  enough  to  ride  the 
fences  to  see  that  they  were  kept  in  repair  and  do  a  little  extra 
work  around  the  home  ranches. 

Following  this  era  came  a  wave  of  settlement.  As  all  the 
country  was  fenced  as  cow-pastures,  the  people  had  to  settle  in  the 
pasture  claimed  by  someone.  During  this  era  of  claim-taking  the 
cow-boys  of  the  different  outfits,  after  finding  it  impossible  to  bluff 
the  settlers  out  of  the  country,  filed  in  many  cases  on  the  land 
containing  the  open  water  of  the  streams,  leaving  the  smooth  up¬ 
land  for  the  settlers  who  came  to  farm. 

This  wave  of  settlement  came  just  after  the  hard  winter  of 
1885-86  had  destroyed  fully  one-half  of  the  cattle  on  the  plains 
and  had  caused  many  owners  of  cattle  to  be  discouraged  and  ready 
to  quit  the  business.  At  the  same  time  an  order  was  issued  by 
President  Cleveland  ordering  all  men  having  public  lands  fenced 
to  take  down  their  fences.  This,  with  the  crowding  of  settlement 
and  the  losses  from  the  storms  during  1885-86,  caused  the  majority 
of  the  large  companies  to  go  out  of  business  and  be  succeeded  by 
men  with  smaller  herds. 

Haste  of  these  men  in  getting  out  of  the  cattle  business  prob¬ 
ably  helped  to  make  the  period  of  low  prices  experienced  in  1889- 
93.  During  these  years  cattle  were  considered  very  poor  property, 
still  those  who  stayed  in  the  business  found  themselves  on  the  top 
wave  of  prosperity  a  few  years  later  when  ordinary  calves  sold  for 
$15  and  $20  per  head  at  five  months  old.  But  the  old  way  of 
raising  cattle  by.  turning  them  loose  and  leaving  them  without 
further  attention  except  at  round-up  time,  had  passed.  The  day 
of  large  herds  had  also  passed  and  could  not  be  recalled.  Today 
a  man  in  eastern  Colorado  owning  as  many  as  1,000  head  of  cattle 
is  as  rare  as  was  the  man  or  company  owning  20,000  in  1885,  and 
between  the  South  Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers  individual  holdings 
of  less  than  500  are  the  rule.  The  majority  of  the  cattle  in  that 
region  are  held  in  herds  of  less  than  300.  During  the  eight  years 
I  have  been  among  the  cattle  men  011  the  Plains  the  oldtimers 
have  spoken  of  the  winter  of  1885-86  with  awe,  and  remarked  that 

another  winter  like  that  was  likelv  to  come  at  any  time,  “and 

. 

when  it  does  come  it  will  clean  us  out,”  is  the  remark  which 
usually  followed  the  statement. 

The  winter  of  1902-03  was  the  hardest  since  1885-86.  Old- 
timers  say  that  the  reason  the  losses  were  not  greater  then  was 
that  the  cattle  are  kept  closer  home  and  owners  are  able  to  get 
their  cattle  in  and  feed  them.  Some  who  attempted  to  winter 
without  feed  lost  nearly  all  they  had.  Some  fed  so  much  that  the 
cost  of  the  feed  was  more  than  the  value  of  the  cattle.  The  own¬ 
ers  of  cattle  are  now  compelled  by  public  sentiment  to  feed  so  as 
to  keep  their  stock  from  starving  and  they  did  this  in  1902-03. 


CATTLE  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS.  9 

If  they  had  not  the  losses  would  have  been  seventy-five  per  cent 
of  all  cattle  on  the  Plains  instead  of  probably  less  than  twenty 
per  cent  as  it  was. 

The  settlers  came  to  the  country  to  farm  and  settled  so 
thickly  that  they  left  no  range  for  stock.  After  the  crop  failures 
in  1893-94,  settlement  was  thinned  so  much  in  many  communities 
that  there  was  room  for  the  remaining  settlers  to  pasture  as  many 
cattle  as  they  wished.  From  that  time  settlers  began  to  gather 
herds  about  them  until  now  the  country  is  again  almost  as  much 
overstocked  by  the  small  herds  as  it  was  before  by  the  large  hold¬ 
ings.  Two  years  ago  it  began  to  look  as  though  the  grass  would 
soon  be  eaten  out,  but  the  losses  during  the  winter  of  1902-03 
probably  checked  the  increase  sufficiently  to  postpone  the  evil  day 
indefinitely.  Practically  all  settlers  are  now  cattle  owners,  and 
many  of  the  men  own  just  the  number  that  can  be  well  cared  for 
by  the  owner  and  his  family. 

Water  Supply .  In  early  days  the  water  supply  was  limited 
to  that  furnished  by  running  streams,  springs  and  storm  water 
which  collected  in  basins  on  the  prairie  during  heavy  rains. 
This,  during  dry  seasons,  limited  the  pasture  used  to  areas  within 
three  to  five  miles  of  water  holes.  This  caused  the  grass  to  be 
badly  tramped  and  eaten  out  at  times  near  the  water  while  there 
was  plenty  of  good  grass  on  the  divide.  When  settlers  came  in 
on  the  divides  they  dug  and  drilled  wells  so  that  in  a  few  years 
the  whole  country  could  be  used  the  year  round,  while  before 
wells  were  made  the  divides  far  from  the  stream  were  used  only 
occasionally  after  heavy  rains.  I  have  observed  the  Big  Sandy 
valley  and  the  adjacent  grazing  land  from  Limon  to  the  mouth  of 
the  creek.  The  upland  near  it  was  never  homesteaded  as  was  the 
upland  along  the  headwaters  of  the  Republican,  so  it  has  been 
left  practically  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  range  cattle.  During  the 
time  I  have  been  acquainted  with  this  valley,  the  grass  and  even 
the  sage  brush  have  been  kept  eaten  down  quite  closely,  especially 
in  winter,  for  one  to  three  miles  back  from  the  water.  Then  the 
grass  would  improve  from  that  point  until  it  appeared  to  be  prac¬ 
tically  untouched  over  large  areas.  Cattle  ranging  in  the  Big 
Sandy  valley  often  go  out  or  are  driven  out  to  some  water  hole  on 
the  prairie  where  the  water  has  gathered  during  a  heavy  rain  and 
remain  there  until  the  water  at  that  place  is  gone  when  they  re¬ 
turn  again  to  the  valley. 

Some  of  the  best  and  most  humane  cattle  men  claim  that 
cattle  should  never  be  compelled  to  graze  more  than  two  miles 
from  water.  If  this  be  true,  it  would  double  the  value  of  the  Big 
Sandy  range  if  wells  were  put  down  four  miles  from  the  stream 
and  about  three  miles  apart  on  either  side  of  the  open  water. 
The  Sand  Hills  are  counted  the  best  grazing  land,  but  if  they  are 


IO 


BULLETIN  87. 

grazed  too  closely  they  lose  the  sod  which  holds  the  sand  in  place 
and  again  become  moving  hills  as  those  of  Colorado  were  forty  or 
more  years  ago.  Some  of  the  sand  hill  country  is  considered  cap¬ 
able  of  carrying  forty  head  of  cattle  per  square  mile,  while  the 
best  clay  land  pasture  will  carry  only  about  twenty-five  head  per 
square  mile. 

Numbers  Today  Compared  with  Number  oj  Buffalo  and 
Number  of  Cattle  in  the  80  s.  Concerning  this  question  we  find 
no  way  of  getting  a  fair  comparison  concerning  the  number  of 
animals  living  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  at  different  periods. 
It  resolves  itself  into  a  guessing  contest  with  no  one  able  to  de¬ 
cide  who  is  the  winner,  and  one  man’s  guess  is  about  as  good 
authority  as  another’s.  Assessors’  returns  would  be  official  and 
we  believe  that  these  are  more  nearly  correct  for  1902  than  for 
1885  or  1879,  but  we  find  by  observation  that  some  assessors  find 
nine-tenths  of  the  stock  in  the  country  they  canvass  while  others 
may  not  find  more  than  half.  Arapahoe  County  comprised  the 
same  territory  in  1879  that  it  did  in  1902.  An  estimate  made  by 
stock  men  and  dealers  in  1879  credited  Arapahoe  County  with 
60,000  cattle  and  87,000  sheep,  while  assessors’  returns  for  1902 
credit  the  same  territory  with  67,000  cattle  and  85,000  sheep.  A 
few  years  later  (in  1885)  there  were  probably  more  cattle  and 
sheep  in  the  country  than  in  1879.  I  have  tried  to  get  estimates 
of  the  number  of  cattle  and  sheep  pasturing  in  the  county  in 
1885.  Have  received  estimates  from  several  old  time  cattle  men. 
These  estimates  give  the  numbers  owned  by  different  outfits. 
They  differ  so  widely  that  I  cannot  credit  any  of  them.  One 
gives  10,000  cattle  and  another  20,000  cattle  to  the  same  outfit. 
Taking  averages  of  the  estimates  it  appears  to  me  that  the  stock 
pastured  in  eastern  Colorado  in  1885  was  about  equal  to  that  kept 
on  the  some  territory  in  1902.  But  much  of  the  stock  was  then 
kept  only  a  part  of  the  year  and  then  sent  to  market.  It  is  my 
opinion,  (which  I  cannot  prove  to  be  true,  neither  can  anyone 
prove  it  to  be  untrue)  that  more  stock  is  kept  the  year  round  011 
the  Plains  of  eastern  Coloado  today  than  ever  before  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  country.  . 

As  a  cattle  range  the  territory  under  discussion  is  broken  up 
by  the  irrigated  lands  along  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers  which 
now  feed  thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep  during  winters  and  also 
by  small  dry-farming  districts  near  Wray,  Idalia  and  Colorado 
Springs.  The  adobe  land  in  the  Horse  Creek  region  and  also 
northeast  of  Hugo  and  other  places  was  for  a  long  time  a  death¬ 
trap  for  cattle  companies  which  were  managed  by  inexperienced 
men  who  tried  to  use  adobe  laud  for  winter  range.  That  varietv 
of  soil  is  now  used  only  as  summer  range,  and  cattle  are  not  put 
on  grass  there  until  the  spring  storms  are  past.  In  summer  the 


CATTLE  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS.  II 

the  grass  on  these  ranges  is  extremely  good,  but  when  the  soil  is 
soaked  with  water,  cattle  cannot  travel  far  enough  on  it  to  get 
enough  grass  to  sustain  themselves  without  gathering  great  balls 
of  mud  on  their  feet  which  wear  the  animals  out  completely. 
These  factors  change  the  conditions  so  much  that  we  cannot  com¬ 
pare  the  eastern  Colorado  of  today  with  the  eastern  Colorado  of 
1885  and  treat  it  as  a  cattle  range. 

Today  cattle  are  raised  mainly  by  what  might  better  be  call¬ 
ed  “stock-farming’'  than  cattle  raising  pure  and  simple,  that  is, 
crop  production  in  some  form  usually  goes  with  the  stock  raising. 
Comparatively  few  men  now  attempt  to  raise  cattle  entirely 
without  feed. 

Buffalo  Once  Ranging-  Over  the  Same  Territory .  The 
buffalo  was  a  range  animal — pure  and  simple.  Natural  laws 
would  govern  its  numbers.  When  the  buffaloes  became  too 
numerous  the  feed  would  be  so  scarce  that  the  extra  number 
would  starve  and  this  would  give  the  range  a  chance  to  recuper¬ 
ate.  Old-timers  have  often  told  me  that  there  were  more  buf¬ 
faloes  in  the  country  in  the  earlv  davs  than  there  are  cattle  in  the 
same  region  now.  Travelers  told  of  “traveling  all  day  through  a 
herd  of  buffalo.’'  Suppose  that  they  did  “travel  all  day  through  a 
herd  of  buffalo"  how  manv  would  it  take  to  make  the  show 

J 

spoken  of?  The  buffalo  is  preeminently  a  gregarious  animal  and 
it  might  be  more  than  one  hundred  miles  from  one  herd  to 
another.  I  have  seen  3,000  head  of  cattle  scattered  over  a  range 
three  by  five  miles,  and  at  a  little  distance  one  on  horse -back,  or 
in  a  wagon  would  consider  them  as  covering  the  country  as  far  as 
he  could  see.  Then  6,000  would  have  covered  the  space  for  the 
same  distance  on  each  side.  This  would  make  6,000  cattle  011  the 
range  for  every  five  miles.  250,000  cattle  spread  in  that  way 
would  make  the  same  show  along  the  Kansas  Pacific  Railroad 
from  the  Kansas  line  to  Denver.  Travelers  could  travel  for  days 
and  weeks  without  seeing  buffalo.  Also  the  buffalo  were  limited 
in  their  grazing:  to  within  a  reasonable  distance  from  water. 

1  his  would  compel  them  to  congregate  along  streams  just  as  the 
cattle  do  along  the  Big  Sandy  now.  If  there  were  as  many  buf- 
falo  watering  at  the  Big  Sandy  now  as  there  are  cattle  watering 
there,  it  would  excite  the  imagination  of  the  hunter  so  that  he 
would  think  he  saw  a  half  million  where  there  might  be  50,000. 

Pastures  vs.  Open  Range.  Only  a  few  have  tried  keeping 
their  cattle  in  fenced  pastures.  Those  who  have  kept  their  cattle 
in  such  a  way  find  it  more  a  question  of  water  supply  convenient 
and  sufficient  than  of  range.  Without  doubt  if  the  whole  range 
was  divided  into  numerous  small  pastures  with  plenty  of  good 
water  conveniently  located  in  each,  so  that  no  animal  had  to  walk 
more  than  one  or  two  miles  for  water,  the  country  could  support 


12 


bulletin  87. 

a  much  larger  cattle  population  than  it  does  now.  The  cattle 
could  be  moved  from  one  pasture  to  another  so  that  one  pasture 
could  recuperate  while  the  cattle  were  grazing  in  the  others. 
This  plan  when  tested  in  Abilene,  Texas,  increased  the  value  of 
the  pasture  quite  rapidly.  The  important  question  in  every  case 
is  the  water  supply.  If  only  one  square  mile  is  available,  then 
dig  the  well  in  the  middle  as  nearly  as  possible  and  fence  in  four 
pastures  and  have  watering  troughs  in  each  of  the  four  pastures 
into  which  the  tract  is  divided.  Such  a  small  holding  as  this 
would  necessarily  mean  a  dairv  in  connection  and  cows  of  the 
dual-purpose  class.  Those  having  larger  areas  under  control 
could  afford  to  raise  beef  cattle  exclusively  and  all  could  improve 
their  stock  at  their  convenience  without  interference  from  the 
scrub  stock  kept  by  neighbors.  The  expense  of  fencing  is  the 
main  argument  against  the  keeping  of  cattle  in  pastures  in  com¬ 
munities  where  the  land  is  all  in  the  hands  of  private  parties. 
But  in  a  few  years  the  amount  which  is  saved  in  wages  for 
hunting  stray  cattle  and  following  the  round-ups  will  pay  for  the 
fence.  Also  the  owners  always  know  where  the  cattle  are  and  if 
he  wants  to  sell  one  the  buyer  does  not  have  to  wait  a  week  or  so 
until  the  cattle  can  be  found.  Of  course  as  long  as  there  is  Gov¬ 
ernment  land  the  pasture  idea  cannot  be  used  fully,  but  it  can  be 
used  partially.  At  present  the  men  who  own  land  often  fence 
their  own  land  and  save  the  grass  on  it  for  winter  range  for  their 
stock,  running  their  stock  on  the  open  range  in  summer. 

The  use  of  “drift-fences’ ’  on  government  land  is  often  quite 
beneficial  to  all  who  use  the  range  partially  enclosed  by  them. 
Often  combinations  of  them  almost  enclose  large  tracts  of  pasture 
land.  These  immensely  reduce  the  labor  of  controlling  the  cattle 
and  keeping  them  on  their  own  range.  I  have  seen  3,000  head  of 
mixed  cattle  handled  by  two  riders  by  the  judicious  use  of  “drift- 
fences.” 

Range  Improvement.  Improvement  of  the  range  under 
present  conditions  may  be  classed  with  “iridescent  dreams”  of  the 
cow  man.  No  man  is  considered  a  good  business  man  who  will 
spend  his  money,  strength  and  thought  in  improving  something 
which  is  subject  to  being  taken  possession  of  by  another  as  soon 
as  it  appears  to  be  desirable  property.  For  this  reason  the  prairie 
dogs  are  allowed  to  increase  while  the  cow-boys  ruthlessly  kill 
every  hawk,  badger,  rattlesnake,  and  bullsnake  that  they  can, 
thus  leaving  the  real  enemies  of  the  range  (the  prairie  dog)  to 
increase  without  hindrance  until  they  make  their  homes  in  the 
front  yard  of  the  “home  ranch.”  Occasionally  a  prairie  dog  is 
killed  for  sport,  but  such  cases  are  comparatively  rare.  Usually 
the  range  deteriorates  so  slowly  that  its  lessened  value  is  not 
noticed  until  some  extremely  dry  summer  or  very  severe  winter. 


CATTLE  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS 


*3 

Tiie  range  cow-man  is  accustomed  to  seeing  large  numbers  of 
cattle  very  poor  and  is  not  surprised  when  several  of  the  poor 
ones  die.  He  takes  the  hide  and  philosophically  remarks  that 
“the  old  cow’s  time  has  come.’’  When  cattle  are  high  in  price 
the  range  man  buys  cattle  to  the  limit  of  his  credit  instead  of  the 
limit  of  his  pasture  and  winter  feed.  The  rule  is,  the  more  cattle 
a  man  has  the  less  winter  feed  he  gets  stored  for  them.  Then 
after  running  all  summer  on  an  overstocked  range  the  cattle  start 
into  winter  poor.  In  buying  the  cattle  it  is  likely  that  the  man 
has  bought  a  goodly  quantity  of  mange  and  contagious  abortion. 
If  to  this  combination  is  added  an  unusually  cold  winter  with 
much  snow  evenly  distributed  so  as  to  cover  what  little  grass  is 
left,  then  the  greatest  factor  in  “range  improvement’’  under  pres¬ 
ent  conditions,  thinning  out  by  death  from  starvation,  gets  to  work. 
After  the  winter  is  over  the  creditors  take  what  is  left  and  the 
range  is  allowed  a  few  years  of  comparative  rest,  while  the  same 
man  or  others  gain  the  “ nerve ’’  to  restock  it  to  its  capacity. 
Eras  of  extremely  low  prices  for  feeder  steers  work  the  same 
beneficial  results  in  range  improvement  as  in  the  above  case. 

Methods  of  range  improvement  have  been  suggested  in 
another  paragraph.  As  yet  we  have  found  no  grasses  better  than 
our  native  grasses,  so  it  seems  that  the  best  way  to  improve  is — 
rest  and  time  for  recuperation. 

Wintei'  Feeding.  Twenty-five  years  ago  a  cow  man  in  west¬ 
ern  Kansas  remarked  “If  there  was  a  hay  stack  on  my  range  which 
my  cattle  could  get  to,  I’d  burn  it  and  pay  the  owner  for  it  rather 
allow  my  cattle  to  eat  it.’’  That  kind  of  talk  has  been  very  pop¬ 
ular  among  the  cow  men  on  the  plains.  But  during  the  past  few 
years  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  feeding  during  the  winter  has 
grown  rapidly.  Chief  among  the  factors  which  have  brought 
about  this  change  of  sentiment  is  the  Humane  Society  which 
now  has  agents  who  travel  over  the  plains  looking  for  cases  of 
cruelty  to  animals.  Some  say  that  most  cattle  men  are  subject  to 
fines  if  the  strict  letter  or  spirit  of  the  law  was  enforced.  Some 
make  no  attempt  whatever  to  provide  feed  for  their  cattle,  even 
for  times  of  storms.  Some  prepare  to  feed  during  storms  and 
very  few  put  up  enough  to  feed  all  winter,  practically  none  do 
this.  Usually  six  weeks  feeding  would  exhaust  the  feed  of  the 
man  who  has  put  up  the  most  feed.  In  ordinary  winters  it 
is  only  necessary  to  feed  all  cattle  during  storms  and  the  weak 
ones  all  the  time.  The  feed  which  can  be  raised  consists  of  rough¬ 
ness  such  as  corn  fodder,  Kaffir  corn,  sorghum,  wheat,  barley  and 
rye  hay  and  millet.  I  have  found  sorghum  and  some  varieties  of 
flint  corn  to  be  the  surest  crops  tried  on  the  Plains.  These  pract¬ 
ically  never  fail  to  produce  fodder.  Many  find  spring  rye  the 
most  economical  crop  to  raise  and  some  stick  to  millet  as  best  for 


14  bulletin  87. 

their  conditions.  I  would  not  advise  anyone  to  try  to  raise  any  of 
these  crops  by  dry  fanning  on  adobe  soil,  but  on  sandy  loam  or 
the  lighter  clay  soils  these  crops  are  fairly  sure  to  pay  in  a  series 
of  years.  Sorghum  fodder  can  be  produced  at  a  cost  of  $2  per  ton 
in  a  series  of  five  years  on  sandy  loam  land.  This  will  certainly 
be  cheaper  feed  than  shipping  in  feed,  hay  and  corn. 

When  cattle  are  pastured  during  the  summer  on  adobe  land 
it  is  necessary  to  get  them  to  some  other  place  for  wintering. 
Those  who  pasture  the  adobe  soil  near  Horse  Creek  usually  take 
their  stock  to  the  Arkansas  Valley  to  feed  during  the  winter. 
Hundreds  of  cattle  are  wintered  now  in  the  little  nook  of  farming 
country  about  Wray,  Vernon  and  Idalia.  In  the  winter  of  1902-03 
many  took  their  cattle  to  that  country  to  winter  and  thus  saved  a 
large  per  cent  of  them  from  starvation.  Some  of  the  cow  men 
have  not  fed  a  cow  for  so  long  that  they  have  no  idea  how  much 
feed  an  animal  needs.  Some  men  feed  such  a  small  amount  that 
it  will  not  sustain  life,  while  others  feed  so  much  at  the  first  feed 
that  often  animals  are  foundered  and  never  recover.  Many  feed 
grain  altogether  when  they  feed  during  the  winter,  and  allow  their 
cattle  to  get  their  rough  feed  from  the  prairie.  The  way  rough¬ 
ness  is  usually  fed,  strong  cattle  will  not  rustle  for  grass  after  hav¬ 
ing  been  fed  a  small  feed  of  fodder,  but  will  if  fed  a  small  feed  of 
grain.  I  have  seen  fodder  fed  by  scattering  it  over  the  range. 
Those  who  fed  their  cattle  in  that  way  claimed  that  the  cattle 
would  eat  the  fodder  and  then  go  on  eating  grass  the  same  as  they 
would  if  they  had  happened  upon  a  few  bits  of  grass  which  grew 
taller  than  the  ordinary  grass.  This  method  can  be  used  when  a 
man  can  keep  stray  cattle  away  from  his  herd. 

It  has  been  the  experience  of  cattle  men  that  after  they  have 
begun  feeding  an  animal  the  feeding  must  be  continued  until  the 
grass  comes.  It  is  also  better  to  feed  the  weak  animals  full  feed 
instead  of  trying,  to  make  them  rustle  for  a  part  of  their  living. 
If  given  a  partial  feed  they  die  and  all  that  is  given  them  is  lost, 
while  if  well  fed  and  sheltered  they  get  through  the  winter  in 
good  shape  and  are  soon  equal  to  the  stronger  cattle  that  rustled 
all  winter. 

Skelter.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  stock 
raising.  Cattle  kept  warm  and  dry  do  not  need  as  much  feed  as 
those  exposed  to  the  rain,  snow  and  winds  of  winter.  A  cow  cov¬ 
ered  with  an  overcoat  of  frozen  snow  soon  loses  abilitv  to  eat  and 
her  owner  is  lucky  if  he  gets  even  her  hide.  If  both  food  and 
shelter  cannot  be  furnished,  shelter  should  be  chosen,  because 
cattle  in  warm  quarters,  like  a  sod-sided  shed  covered  with  a 
water-proof  roof,  will  go  out  on  the  range  after  a  three  days’  storm 
and  soon  fill  up  011  the  dry  grass,  while  without  shelter  cattle  can 
eat  very  little  during  the  storm.  Fodder  and  hav  cannot  be  fed 


CATTLE  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS.  1 5 

in  an  open  lot  during  a  wind  storm,  and  it  is  very  hard  to  feed 
grain  even  in  troughs  in  the  open  during  the  progress  of  a  storm. 
But  as  a  rule  those  who  have  110  further  preparation  for  shelter 
than  a  corral  made  of  barbed  wire  seldom  have  to  face  the  problem 
of  feeding  their  cattle  there  during  a  storm.  Usually  their  cattle 
are  scattered  over  the  range  sometimes  as  much  as  fifty  miles  from 
their  home  corrals.  Such  cattle  are  lucky  if  they  range  in  a  hilly 
country  as  they  can  then  find  some  shelter  in  the  gullies  and  be¬ 
side  bluffs  along  the  creeks.  I11  rough  country  the  snow  does  not 
usually  cover  all  the  grass  as  there  are  so  many  varieties  that  grow 
comparatively  tall  in  such  locations,  instead  of  being  limited  to  a 
few  inches  in  height  as  are  the  grasses  which  grow  on  the  level 
lands. 

Diseases.  During  the  time  of  high  prices,  cattle  were 
shipped  into  eastern  Colorado  from  many  places  and  nearly  every 
man  there  bought  cattle  to  the  limit  of  his  credit.  With  these 
cattle  were  imported  a  few  undesirable  diseases.  Diseases  like 
opthalmia  could  be  seen,  and  the  man  who  bought  cattle  affected 
with  those  could  blame  himself.  But  itch  or  mange  was  not  in 
evidence  among  the  cattle  during  the  summer  so  as  to  enable  a 
man  to  see  it  on  wild  cattle.  Neither  was  contagious  abortion 
visible  when  the  cattle  were  shipped  into  the  country.  But  the 
next  winter  after  the  cattle  came  in,  itch  developed  in  a  large  pro¬ 
portion  of  some  importations,  and  some  herds  of  fine  looking 
heifers,  which  were  sold  at  high  prices,  were  found  to  be  infected 
with  contagious  abortion  to  the  extent  of  ninety  per  cent  in  some 
cases.  The  contagion  spread  to  the  sound  cows  which  were  in 
the  herd  before  the  purchase  of  the  strange  cattle.  The  remedies 
for  these  diseases  were  simple,  but  extremely  expensive.  The 
mange  on  the  cattle  had  to  be  destroyed  by  dipping  the  cattle,  and 
the  corrals  and  all  scratching  places  disinfected.  If  these  meas¬ 
ures  were  thoroughly  carried  out  all  over  the  country,  the  mange 
would  be  stamped  out  in  a  season. 

There  are  various  remedies  suggested  for  contagious  abortion, 
but  the  most  effective  one  is  to  send  the  whole  herd  to  the 
slaughter  house  and  stock  the  range  with  calves,  or  with  cattle 
from  a  range  where  the  disease  does  not  exist.  Afterwards  when 
one  sees  a  fine-looking  lot  of  young  cows  offered  for  sale,  he  had 
better  leave  them  alone  until  he  knows  their  history  or  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  herd  from  which  they  came. 

There  is  one  neighborhood  where  I  have  never  heard  of  a 
case  of  contagious  abortion  and  practically  no  mange.  In  that 
neighborhood  no  cattle  have  been  sold  by  the  speculators.  Those 
people  started  several  yenrs  ago  with  only  a  cow  or  two  apiece  and 
have  bought  no  cattle  except  bulls  since. 


it  BULLETIN  8} 

Loco.  This  is  one  of  the  bug-bears  which  lurks  about  the 
range  country.  I  have  never  found  a  man  who  has  seen  enough 
of  the  progress  of  a  case  of  locoed  animal  to  be  able  to  give  a 
complete  history  of  a  single  case.  The  history  given  is,  UI  turned 
a  horse  out  one  time  and  did  not  see  him  for  several  weeks.  He 
then  acted  strangely.  I  saw  him  eating  the  loco  plants  and  later 
he  would  eat  nothing  else.  He  became  weak  and  emaciated  and 
finally  died.” 

I  have  seen  a  great  many  animals  that  were  said  to  be  locoed 
I  have  seen  a  few  eating  loco  plants.  I  have  also  been,  in  a  few 
cases,  unsuccessful  when  attempting  to  make  a  “locoed”  animal 
eat  the  loco  plant.  At  one  time  we  heard  of  a  man  who  had  200 
steers,  ninety-five  per  cent  of  which  were  said  to  be  locoed.  We 
spent  sometime  on  that  range  and  we  could  not  find  enough  of 
either  loco  weeds  or  brown  sage  (which  was  also  accused  of  caus¬ 
ing  the  trouble)  to  support  an  animal  more  than  a  few  days.  The 
loco  plants  growing  in  the  pasture  where  quite  a  number  (about 
fifty)  of  the  locoed  steers  were  confined,  were  mostly  untouched  by 
them.  We  saw  a  few  plants  which  had  been  partially  grazed  off. 
I  tried  to  feed  green  loco  plants  to  a  steer  which  was  confined  in  a 
shed.  He  would  not  eat  the  weed,  but  ate  corn  and  alfalfa  hav 
with  a  relish.  The  range  on  which  these  steers  were  kept  was  a 
very  poor  range.  There  was  very  little  grass  which  they  could 
get.  Later  one  steer  which  was  badly  affected  when  I  was  at  the 
range  the  first  time,  died,  and  the  bone  of  one  hind  leg  was  found 
to  be  decayed  so  that  it  broke  with  but  a  slight  pressure. 

In  every  locality  where  loco  was  said  to  be  prevalent  I  found 
the  range  to  be  very  poor.  This  scarcity  of  food  seems  to  go  with 
loco  outbreaks.  I  have  often  found  a  scarcity  of  loco  plants  as 
well  as  a  scarcity  of  edible  grass.  At  one  place  where  I  saw  loco 
plants  so  thick  that  at  a  distance  the  patch  showed  but  little  else 
except  those  plants,  the  party  using  that  range  told  me  that  his 
herd  had  never  had  a  case  of  loco. 

I  have  noticed  that  there  is  more  talk  of  loco  when  there  is 
danger  of  new  settlers  coming  in  on  the  ranges  occupied  by  old- 
time  cattle  men  than  at  any  other  time.  A  “terrible  outbreak” 
of  this  kind  occurred  just  as  the  U.  P.  Land  agents  began  to  bring 
buyers  into  the  country  four  years  ago  (in  1900).  Some  of  the 
parties  who  talked  the  most  about  loco  have  since  told  me  that 
the  U.  P.  R.  R.  was  getting  to  “thinking  too  much  of  their  land 
and  putting  too  high  a  valuation  on  it,  so  the  old  settlers  there 
wanted  to  show  the  Railroad  company  that  the  land  was  not 
worth  so  much.”  Others  told  me  that  an  animal  would  not  eat 
loco  until  it  was  almost  starved  to  death. 

Such  a  variety  of  symptoms  are  described  by  different  parties 
who  describe  locoed  animals  that  it  is  possible  that  quite  a  num- 


CATTLE  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS.  1 7 

ber  of  as  yet  unnamed  diseases  (at  least  unnamed  by  the  stock 
men)  exist  on  the  range,  and  whenever  an  animal  acts  queer  it  is 
called  “locoed.” 

The  remedy  usually  applied  is  to  take  the  animal  away  from 
the  range  upon  which  it  has  become  diseased  and  feed  it  plenty  of 
nutritious  food. 

Financial  Results  oj  Stock  Raising.  The  main  question 
at  issue  is,  “Does  stock-raising  on  the  Plains  pay?”  The  answer 
cannot  be  a  definite  “yes”  or  “no.”  The  results  of  a  venture  de¬ 
pend  upon  the  man  behind  the  business,  and  also  upon  the  condi¬ 
tions  which  he  happens  to  meet  in  the  work.  We  have  known 
some  men  who  made  money  raising  cattle  when  prices  were  low¬ 
est  and  have  met  others  who  have  broken  up  when  prices  of  cattle 
were  at  the  highest  point.  Close  attention  to  details,  an  accurate 
acquaintance  with  the  conditions  existing  upon  the  range  used 
and  good  judgment  in  buying  and  selling  are  all  among  the  factors 
which  give  success.  If  the  herd  is  small  the  cows  must  be  milked 
in  order  to  make  the  profits  sufficient  to  support  a  family.  A  man 
with  ten  cows  can  make  a  good  living  for  his  family  and  get 
ahead  financially  if  he  selects  cows  which  give  a  fair  amount  of 
rich  milk,  and  milks  and  cares  for  them  properly.  This  man  can 
raise  feed  enough  to  feed  seven  months  in  the  year  and  keep  his 
young  stock  growing  all  the  time.  He  has  but  a  small  amount 
invested,  and  therefore  his  taxes  are  light.  His  stock  stay  near 
home  and  the  expense  of  hunting  for  strays  is  small. 

The  man  who  has  one  hundred  cows  must  hire  some  work 
done  even  if  he  raises  no  feed.  He  will  be  lucky  if  wintering 
does  not  cost  him  at  least  $3  per  head  in  feed  and  losses  from 
starvation.  If  he  sells  fifty  head  of  cattle  at  $25  per  head,  his 
total  income  will  be  $1,250  per  year.  Out  of  this  he  must  pay 
all  store  bills,  feed  bills,  lumber  bills,  etc.,  and  by  the  time  he  has 
paid  all  bills  and  the  interest  on  his  investment  he  may  not  be 
ahead  of  his  poor  neighbor  who  milks  the  cows.  But  one  man 
cannot  figure  out  the  results  in  advance  for  either  himself  or  an¬ 
other  and  get  them  as  they  will  come  out  in  actual  practice. 
Taking  it  all  around  the  personal  factor  is  the  main  one  in  this, 
as  in  every  other  business  venture. 


.  4 


Colorado  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BULLETIN  88.  JUNE,  1904. 


Dairying  on  the  Plains. 


By  J.  E.  PAYNE. 


History.  During  the  days  of  mail  coaches  a  milch  cow  was 
a  curiosity  on  the  Plains  west  of  Fort  Kearney.  Probably  the  old 
hunters  occasionally  captured  a  buffalo  cow  and  amused  them¬ 
selves  trying  to  extract  enough  lacteal  fluid  to  tone  their  strong 
coffee,  but  I  doubt  that  their  efforts  were  successful,  except  as  an 
amusement.  Those  were  the  days  of  condensed  milk,  and  they 
all  found  it  easier  to  milk  the  can  than  to  can  buffalo  milk. 
Rater,  when  the  Texas  longhorns  had  taken  the  place  of  the  buf¬ 
falo,  the  cowboy  who  had  the  hardihood  to  try  milking  the  dun 
Texas  heifer  probably  extracted  as  much  fun  per  quart  of  milk 
obtained  as  did  the  hunter  who  milked  the  buffalo  “bossy.”  When 
the  large  companies  took  possession  of  the  country,  the  horde  of 
high-salaried  officers  who  occasionally  visited  the  “home  camps” 
of  the  companies,  had  to  have  more  delicate  food  than  the  jerked 
steer  and  drop  biscuits  which  prevailed  at  many  cow  camps.  So 
good  milch  cows  were  brought  in  and  kept  in  enclosures  near  the 
permanent  camp  or  home  ranches  of  the  outfits.  These  supplied 
plenty  of  milk,  cream  and  butter  and  enabled  the  cooks  to  manu¬ 
facture  dishes  fitted  for  the  palates  of  the  rulers  of  the  range.  Of 
course  the  old  hen  also  lent  her  portion  to  the  feasts.  Ranches 
fitted  in  that  way  were  exceptions  in  those  days,  but  some  of  those 
located  hundreds  of  miles  from  towns  would  be  able  to  furnish 
many  luxuries  to  the  visitor. 

When  settlement  first  came  into  eastern  Colorado  there  was  a 
good  local  demand  for  dairy  products.  A  few  settlers  brought 
cows  with  them,  many  had  worked  at  dairying  in  their  old  homes 
and  they  saw  the  opportunities  open  to  them  in  that  line  in  the 
new  country.  When  new  settlers  were  constantly  coming  into  the 
country,  times  were  good  and  poor  men  could  live  by  working  for 
those  who  had  brought  money  with  them.  But  when  the  hard 
years  of  1893  and  1894  came,  this  source  of  revenue  for  the  poor 
man  was  cut  off.  Most  of  the  men  who  had  extra  riches  left  the 


20 


BULLETIN  88. 


country,  or  ceased  making  improvements.  Then  the  poor  man 
who  had  no  cows  could  not  stay  in  the  country.  He  had  to  go 
where  he  could  work  for  somebody.  Those  who  had  a  few  cows 
and  a  flock  of  chickens  could  stay  and  many  of  them  did  stay 
where  they  were  by  taking  care  of  their  cows  and  chickens.  Many 
of  these  people  had  not  enough  property  at  that  time  to  sell  for 
enough  money  to  pay  their  little  store  bills  and  pay  their  car  fare 
to  their  old  homes.  Many  old  settlers  have  told  me  that  they 
were  “unable  to  leave  the  country  during  those  hard  times,  so 
they  stayed  and  grew  comparatively  rich.” 

In  1895  beef  cattle  increased  in  price,  and  the  increase  con¬ 
tinued  in  1896-97,  until  almost  any  calf  would  sell  for  $12  to  $20 
when  old  enough  to  wean.  With  beef  cattle  at  these  prices,  it 
became  more  profitable  to  raise  calves  than  to  milk  the  cows  and 
make  butter.  Also,  those  who  had  a  few  cows  in  1893  had  so 
many  by  1898  that  they  could  make  a  living  from  the  herd  with¬ 
out  milking  the  cows,  and  often  they  had  not  much  time  for 
doing  much  dairy  work  when  they  had  so  many  cattle  to  look 
after.  Herds  continued  to  increase  until  the  range  was  over¬ 
crowded  so  much  that  the  calf  crop  grew  lighter,  and  often  many 
of  the  cows  would  starve  to  death  during  the  winter.  A  period 
of  speculation  came  in  1901  and  1902,  when  many  of  the  settlers 
bought  cattle  to  the  limit  of  their  credit.  This  overstocked  the 
range  almost  everywhere  on  the  Plains  and  this  overstocking 
caused  immense  financial  losses.  With  many  it  again  became 
necessary  to  begin  milking  the  cows  in  order  to  get  money  to  pay 
the  interest  on  the  money  they  owed.  So  we  found  many  cows 
being  used  for  dairy  purposes  in  1903.  The  low  prices  obtained 
for  feeder  steers  compelled  the  people  to  milk  their  cows.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  early  days  attempts  to  support  creameries  were  made  at  a 
few  points,  but  these  failed  for  lack  of  patronage  when  beef  cattle 
took  the  country.  A  skimming  station  has  been  in  operation  at 
Burlington  a  few  months  at  a  time  for  several  years.  This  was 
not  in  operation  in  1903  as  it  had  been  superceded  by  hand  sepa¬ 
rators. 

During  the  past  two  years  hand  separators  have  grown  in 
favor  among  dairymen.  They  find  that  they  can  raise  better 
calves  by  giving  them  the  freshly  skimmed  milk  than  they  could 
by  feeding  skim  milk  which  had  been  to  the  skimming  station 
and  back.  Also,  by  use  of  the  hand  separator,  they  take  only  the 
cream  to  market  and  thus  avoid  handling  so  much  weight  use¬ 
lessly.  In  1903  there  were  ten  hand  separators  in  use  near  Wray, 
ten  near  Akron,  about  the  same  number  near  Burlington,  and  one 
at  Cheyenne  Wells.  I  also  heard  of  some  being  in  use  at  other 
points. 

The  cows  first  in  use  for  dairying  were  such  as  were  brought 


DAIRYING  ON  THE  PEAINS.  21 

to  the  country  by  the  settlers  or  such  as  could  be  bought  at  the 
ranches.  The  dairy  type  of  cows  had  a  chance  to  become  promi¬ 
nent  during  the  hard  times.  In  1896  there  were  some  Holstein  and 
Jersey  cross-bred  animals  in  the  country.  But  as  beef  cattle  rose 
in  price  the  dairy  types  of  cows  diminished  until  now  they  are 
hard  to  find.  Cattle  which  are  grades  of  one  of  the  beef  breeds 
are  seen  everywhere.  In  Washington  county,  Polled  Angus  and 
Galloway  grades  occupy  most  of  the  range.  In  Yuma  county  the 
honors  are  about  even  between  Shorthorns  and  Herefords.  The 
same  is  true  of  Kit  Carson  county.  In  Cheyenne  and  Lincoln 
counties  Hereford  grades  predominate,  but  the  other  three  lead¬ 
ing  beef  breeds  are  well  represented.  Then  there  are  many  Mexi¬ 
can  cattle  in  some  of  the  country  which  is  purely  a  range  country. 
Practically  all  the  cattle  on  the  plains  in  other  counties,  as  well 
as  in  the  counties  named,  are  of  the  same  character.  Nearly  all 
of  the  cows  have  been  allowed  to  run  with  their  calves  during  the 
season.  Very  few  of  them  have  been  touched  by  the  hand  of 
man,  except  at  branding  time. 

Cows  raised  and  trained  in  the  manner  described  and  which 
are  cross-breeds  of  beef-making  breeds  instead  of  dairy  breeds,  are 
not  likely  to  prove  to  be  very  profitable  dairy  stock.  After  the 
settler  has  decided  to  return  to  dairying,  it  will  require  two  or 
three  years  to  train  cows  for  the  business  so  as  to  make  it  profit¬ 
able  from  the  business-man’s  standpoint.  The  range  cows  give 
milk  during  only  about  five  months  of  the  year.  They  must  be 
trained  to  give  milk  during  ten  months.  The  cow  that  has  be¬ 
come  accustomed  to  running  with  her  calf  will  not  readily  consent 
to  adopt  a  man  to  take  the  place  of  the  calf.  If  forced  to  submit 
to  being  milked  by  a  man,  she  cannot  be  compelled  to  give  all 
her  milk.  In  order  to  get  a  herd  ready  for  dairying,  the  heifers 
must  be  broken  to  milk  and  developed  as  milch  cows.  By  choos¬ 
ing  the  best  from  large  numbers,  a  herd  may  be  obtained  which 
will  give  some  profitable  returns  the  second  year.  If  the  heifers 
pay  expenses  the  first  year,  they  will  do  well.  Some  men  milk  a 
large  number  of  cows  after  the  calves  are  weaned,  getting  a  little 
from  each  cow  for  a  short  time.  This  is  pure  gain  to  the  man 
who  does -his  own  work  as  nothing  is  fed  the  cows  and  they  are 
milked  in  order  to  keep  the  udders  from  spoiling. 

Some  milk  their  cows  during  the  summer,  or  during  the  time 
when  grass  is  good,  and  allow  them  to  go  dry  when  the  cold 
weather  begins  and  it  is  harder  for  the  cow  to  get  plenty  of  feed 
on  the  prairie.  With  the  average  range-bred  cow,  this  is  probably 
the  best  way,  because  she  will  not  respond  to  heavy  feeding  by 
giving  more  milk.  Instead  they  will  put  on  flesh  when  fed  heav¬ 
ily.  When  they  have  dairy  cows  they  can  then  find  profit  in 
feeding  costly  feeds  during  the  winter.  As  it  is  now  it  will  re- 


22 


bulletin  89. 

quire  from  one  to  five  acres  cultivated  in  sorghum  to  feed  a 
milch  cow  through  the  season  of  poor  grazing.  A  man  who  lias 
ten  cows  can  milk  them  and  raise  enough  feed  to  feed  them  and 
their  calves  through  the  winter.  The  feeds  that  he  would  be 
likely  to  raise  are  wheat  and  millet  hay,  corn  fodder  and  sorghum. 
Some  years  he  would  raise  enough  grain  to  make  a  good  ration 
for  the  cows,  and  during  some  years  he  would  have  only  rough¬ 
ness  which  he  could  profitably  use  with  some  of  the  concentrated 
feeds  which  are  on  the  market.  At  present  practically  all  the  set¬ 
tlers  use  the  forage  and  grain  which  they  can  produce  and  buy  as 
little  as  possible.  Ensilage  should  in  the  future  be  a  part  of  the 
winter  rations  of  the  milch  cow.  I  have  frequently  been  asked 
about  ensilage  by*  settlers  who  were  thinking  of  doing  winter 
dairying.  No  trouble  should  be  experienced  in  making  good  en¬ 
silage  anywhere  on  the  Plains.  In  fact  the  Australian  stockman 
makes  ensilage  by  stacking  the  green  forage  above  ground  just  as 
it  is  cut,  and  weighting  the  stacks  heavily.  I  would  not  advise 
this,  however,  because  forage  is  too  scarce  on  the  Plains  to  afford 
to  waste  the  amount  that  is  lost  by  making  ensilage  in  the  stack. 
In  mail)'  locations  it  is  easy  to  make  a  pit  near  the  bank  of  a 
creek  or  ravine  so  that  a  door  may  open  from  it  into  the  ravine. 
This  will  resemble  the  costly  silos  which  are  built  above  ground. 
On  level  ground  an  immense  cistern  will  answer  the  purpose  per¬ 
fectly.  These  underground  s,ilos  will  be  used  at  less  expense  than 
the  silos  built  above  ground,  as  the  green  fodder  does  not  have  to 
be  elevated.  It  can  be  merely  thrown  into  a  pit  and  trampled 
down  solid.  Of  course  the  pit  will  be  better  and  more  substantial 
if  the  walls  and  bottom  are  cemented.  I11  filling  the  silos  the 
green  forage  should  be  run  through  a  cutting  machine  and  the 
stalks  should  be  reduced  to  pieces  one  half  inch  to  one  inch  in 
length.  A11  ensilage  cutter  suitable  for  filling  small  silos  which 
can  be  run  either  by  a  windmill  or  by  horse  power  can  be  bought 
for  about  $40  or  $50.  By  making  the  green  feed  into  ensilage 
the  waste  caused  by  the  hay  and  fodder  being  covered  with  dust 
by  the  wind  storms,  may  be  avoided.  The  pit  silo  can  be  made 
by  the  home  labor  with  no  cash  outlay.  After  it  is  filled  it 
should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  one  and  one  half  to  two  feet  with 
hay  or  straw,  or  any  trash  which  will  keep  the  dirt  out  of  the  cut 
feed,  and  then  earth  should  be  thrown  upon  that  covering  to 
weight  it  down.  About  one  foot  of  earth  should  be  enough,  but 
the  weight  of  earth  should  be  put  on  according  to  the  depth  of 
the  ensilage  in  the  silo.  I  have  seen  one  foot  of  earth  put  upon 
eighteen  feet  of  ensilage  with  good  results. 

She1  ter.  In  nearlv  everv  locality  good  sod  is  available  for 
building  purposes.  The  adobe  soil  furnishes  the  best  sod  for  this 
purpose,  but  any  stiff  clay  soil  will  make  a  strong  wall.  Light 


DAIRYING  ON  THE  PLAINS, 


23 

sandy  loam  soils  do  not  make  good  soils  for  building.  The  wall 
may  be  built  two  feet  thick  of  sod,  then  a  good  roof  of  either  lum- 
ber  or  shingles  should  cover  the  building  which  is  to  be  the 
winter  shelter  of  the  dairy  cow.  Some  make  the  covering  of 
rough  boards  and  lay  sod  on  top  of  the  boards.  Some  thatch 
the  building  with  sorghum  or  other  rough  hay.  All  the  cover¬ 
ings  except  those  of  wood  must  be  frequently  renewed  or  they 
leak  so  badly  that  the  building  ceases  to  be  a  shelter. 

Results.  Comparatively  small  returns  from  dairying  on  the 
Plains  are  the  rule.  One  creamery  man  remarked  to  me  that  ua 
settler  could  milk  a  three-year-old  steer  out  of  a  cow  every  year.” 
That  may  be  true  but  in  order  to  do  that  the  cow  must  be.  fed, 
and  it  will  be  a  good  steady  job  for  one  man  to  milk  twenty  cows 
and  raise  feed  for  them.  If  then,  three-year-old  steers  are  worth 
$35  each,  a  man  by  hard  and  confining  work,  may  get  $700  for 
his  years  work.  This  is  a  theoretical  illustration.  Usually  one 
man  and  his  whole  family  manage  the  twenty  cows  or  less. 
Some  parties  near  Akron  report  a  return  of  five  dollars  per  cow 
during  five  months  in  1903  from  grade  Shorthorns.  This  is  a  re¬ 
port  from  only  one  season’s  work,  presumably  with  a  selected  herd 
of  cows. 

One  of  the  oldest  dairymen  in  Burlington,  a  man  who  never 
quit  the  business  since  he  came  to  the  country  fifteen  years  ago, 
milks  twenty  grade  shorthorn  cows  and  heifers  every  summer, 
He  tries  to  raise  good  calves  as  he  counts  the  calves  as  his  profit. 
His  estimate  is  that  the  average  range  cow  running  on  buffalo 
grass  and  getting  no  other  feed  will  give  about  two  dollars  worth 
of  cream  per  month  during  six  months  of  each  year.  By  milking 
enough  cows  the  settler  can  make  his  living  from  the  cream  sold, 
and  the  calves  will  be  the  gain. 

At  Wray  the  estimates  were  similar.  That  is  the  cream  will 
make  expenses  leaving  the  calves  clear  gain,  and  the  weight  of 
evidence  all  around  pointed  the  same  way.  Of  course,  the  better 
beef  animal  the  calf  is,  the  greater  the  gain,  and  the  nearer  the 
cow  approached  the  dairy  type  the  more  cream  she  would  have  to 
yield  in  order  to  make  up  to  her  owner  the  difference  between  her 
bony  calf  and  the  fine  calf  of  the  grade  shorthorn. 

We  may  safely  count  dairying,  in  a  modest  way,  a  success 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  settler  in  eastern  Colorado.  This  is 
especially  true  when  it  is  practiced  in  connection  with  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  medium  to  good  feeding  steers.  Of  course  choice 
steers  cannot  be  produced  in  connection  with  dairying  on  the 
range  without  using  so  much  feed  that  the  cost  is  likely  to  be  too 
great  for  the  returns  obtained.  If  the  dual  purpose  cow  has  a 
place  anvwhere  it  is  on  the  Plains  of  eastern  Colorado,  where  men 


BULLETIN  88. 


24 

must  milk  .  steer’s  mother  in  order  to  be  able  to  keep  the  steer 
until  old  enough  for  the  feed  lot. 

Dairying  is  a  confining  business,  but  it  is  a  business  which 
will  give  employment  at  modest  wages  to  all  who  are  able  to  get 
a  few  cows  and  settle  on  a  piece  of  government  land.  With 
dairying  the  plains  country  will  support  five  times  the  population 
it  will  support  under  the  system  of  raising  beef  alone.  All  who 
can  get  a  location  within  fifteen  miles  of  a  railroad  station  can 
sell  cream.  Those  farther  from  shipping  stations  would  better 
work  at  cheese  making  which  has  proved  very  profitable  in  many 
localities. 

The  greatest  source  of  profit  in  dairying  in  eastern  Colorado 
is  not  in  the  production  of  dollars  or  steers,  but  in  the  training  of 
the  boys  and  girls  to  habits  of  thrift  and  industry.  Where  no 
cows  are  milked  about  the  only  thing  left  for  the  children  to  do 
in  the  purely  stock-raising  sections  is  to  ride  around  the  country 
on  ponies  and  drive  cattle.  If  any  feed  is  raised  they  may-  work 
in  the  crop-raising  a  part  of  the  season,  but  the  chances  are  that 
they  will  grow  up  comparatively  idle  and  not  learn  to  do  any 
work  systematically.  But  with  cows  to  milk  and  care  for  regu¬ 
larly  and  the  calves  to  feed,  there  will  be  something  for  every 
child  to  do  who  is  strong  enough,  and  each  member  of  the  family 
may  be  helping  to  earn  something  to  provide  luxuries  as  well  as 
necessities.  Also,  the  income  from  the  sale  of  cream  will  come 
monthly,  while  if  the  sale  of  steers  is  depended  upon  the  income, 
as  a  rule,  comes  yearly. 


Colorado  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BULLETIN  89.  JUNE,  1904. 


Wheat  Raising  on  the  Plains. 


BY  J.  E.  PAYNE. 


Eastern  Colorado  was  settled  mainly  by  people  from  Kansas 
and  Nebraska.  These  people  had  raised  wheat  as  a  main  crop  in 
their  former  homes  and  as  a  matter  of  course  began  planting 
wheat  when  they  came  to  the  new  country.  The  usual  successes 
and  failures  followed.  In  1892  an  immense  crop  was  raised,  but 
1893,  1894  and  1895  were  hard  years  for  the  wheat  growers.  The 
years  following  were  not  so  bad  as  1893  and  1894.  Wheat  plant¬ 
ing  began  in  earnest  in  1888.  The  average  of  wheat  per  acre 
reported  by  a  number  of  representative  farmers  now  living  near 
Vernon  and  Idalia  for  the  eleven  years,  1888  to  1899,  inclusive,  is 
ten  bushels  per  acre.  This  includes  the  years  when  the  crop  was 
an  entire  failure,  on  account  of  drouth,  hail  or  insect  enemies. 

In  common  with  other  new  countries,  this  country  seemed 
poorly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  fall  wheat  when  it  was  first  set¬ 
tled.  Many  tried  fall  wheat,  and  sowed  it  until  they  lost  their 
seed  and  then  quit.  In  1900  there  were  only  a  few  small  fields  of 
fall  wheat  in  the  country,  but  a  series  of  comparatively  damp  au¬ 
tumns  have  encouraged  the  settlers  to  again  sow  fall  wheat,  until 
in  1903  fields  of  fall  wheat  were  seen  to  be  quite  common. 
Those  who  grow  fall  wheat  claim  to  get  one  to  two  bushels  more 
per  acre  from  it  than  they  get  from  spring  wheat,  and  the  buyers 
pay  five  cents  per  bushel  more  for  it  than  for  spring  wheat,  so 
there  is  considerable  inducement  offered  for  trying  to  raise  it. 
On  the  Idalia  divide,  about  one  half  the  wheat  seen  by  me  in 
I9°3  was  fell  wheat,  while  on  the  Vernon  divide  about  ten  per 
cent  of  the  wheat  was  fall  wheat. 

During  the  years  1902  and  1903,  a  spring  variety  of  macaroni 
wheat  has  been  introduced  into  the  country.  It  is  a  hard  wheat 
and  seems  to  be  quite  drought-resisting,  although  it  has  as  yet, 
given  only  about  the  same  yield  as  the  ordinary  spring  wheat. 
About  2500  bushels  of  this  wheat  were  grown  on  the  two  divides 
in  1903.  For  a  time  the  growers  seemed  unable  to  find  a  market 
for  their  macaroni  wheat  after  they  had  raised  it,  but  when  deal- 


26 


BULLETIN  88. 


ers  in  Kansas  City  learned  that  they  could  buy  it  by  the  car-load, 
the  growers  found  no  trouble  in  selling  all  they  did  not  need  for 
home  nse.  Local  millers  and  dealers  thought  that  they  could  not 
handle  the  wheat.  Millers  needed  special  machinery  for  getting 
all  the  flour  out  of  it  and  local  grain  dealers  were  afraid  to  handle 
it  lest  it  should  become  mixed  with  the  other  wheat  and  render 
it  unsalable.  Recently  a  miller  at  Fort  Collins  has  been  trying 
to  get  macaroni  wheat  for  sowing  above  the  ditches  where  irriga¬ 
tion  is  impossible.  He  promises  to  buy  all  that  can  be  raised  at 
the  same  price  that  ordinary  wheat  commands. 

Varieties  of  wheat  used  in  the  most  of  the  wheat-growing 
districts  are  not  usually  known.  Certain  types  of  seed  wheat 
happened  to  survive  the  drought  years,  either  successfully  resist¬ 
ing  the  drought  or  bv  having  been  kept  in  granaries  through 
these  years,  have  since  been  sown  continuously.  These  are  now 
known  as  “white  wheat”  or  “red  wheat”  sometimes  with  the 
name  of  some  settler  prefixed  to  the  type-name.  I  failed  to  trace 
the  origin  of  any  of  the  seed  used,  but  believe  that  quite  a  num¬ 
ber  of  varieties  are  grown  there,  usually  very  much  mixed  now. 
When  the  macaroni  wheats  were  introduced,  it  was  feared  that 
they  too  would  become  mixed  with  the  other  varieties  and  reduce 
the  value  of  the  common  wheat.  In  time  the  growers  of  maca- 
roni  wheat  may  fear  that  the  soft  varieties  may  become  mixed 
with  macaroni  wheat  and  reduce  its  market  value. 

Preparation  and  Seeding.  Probably  almost  every  method 
of  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  and  planting  has  been  tried  by 
someone  at  some  time  since  settlement  began.  In  some  years  suc¬ 
cess  “chased”  the  farmer  who  used  the  most  slovenly  methods, 
while  in  other  years  she  outran  and  kept  out  of  reach  of  the  man 
who  used  the  best  methods  known  in  the  art  of  farming.  This 
happened  so  often  that  some  settlers  have  contracted  the  habit 
of  putting  the  seed  into  the  ground  by  use  of  the  least  possible 
amount  of  work,  and  they  say  they  are  sure  of  a  good  crop  if  the 
rainfall  comes  right,  and  are  sure  of  a  failure  if  the  rainfall  does 
not  come  right,  no  matter  how  the  grain  is  planted. 

Following  out  this  idea,  some  have  continued  to  sow  the  seed 
broadcast,  either  with  a  broadcast  sowing  machine  which  is  at¬ 
tached  to  a  wagon  bed,  or  by  hand.  The  seed  is  sown  on  the 
ground  which  has  received  no  preparation  to  fit  it  for  a  seed-bed. 
Weeds  may  cover  the  ground,  or  it  may  be  bare.  The  seed  is 
then  covered  with  either  a  corn  cultivator  or  a  disc  harrow. 
Sometimes  the  ground  is  not  harrowed  after  the  seed  has  been 
covered,  and  sometimes  it  is  harrowed  with  a  smoothing  harrow. 

Some  good  farmers  tried  plowing  the  ground  thoroughly  be¬ 
fore  sowing  the  wheat.  But  after  a  time  so  many  failures  were 
received  by  using  this  method  that  the  best  farmers  ceas- 


WHEAT  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS.  27 

ed  to  plow  their  ground  for  wheat.  As  a  rule  the  ground 
which  is  plowed  for  wheat  is  not  worked  enough  to  make  a  good 
seed  bed  for  the  plants.  So  the  soil  dries  out  and  injures  the  crop 
when  droughty  periods  come.  With  ordinary  tools  it  is  next  to 
impossible  to  make  a  seed-bed  sufficiently  compact  for  the  wheat 
plant  after  the  soil  has  been  plowed  shortly  before  sowing.  Too 
much  air  space  is  left  in  the  soil  and  this  is  fatal  to  the  feeding 
roots  of  the  wheat  plant.  With  special  tools  for  packing  the  soil 
after  plowing  an  ideal  seed-bed  may  be  made.  But  this  requires 
so  much  work  that  one  man  could  not  seed  a  large  area  to  wheat 
as  is  the  custom  now.  It  is  possible  for  one  man  to  plant  300  or 
400  acres  to  wheat,  but  if  he  plowed  the  land  and  then  prepared 
it  properly  after  plowing,  he  would  be  able  to  plant  only  80  or 
100  acres.  In  seeding  on  plowed  land,  the  hoedrill  has  been  used. 
The  press  drill  is  superior  to  the  hoe  drill  as  a  machine  for  plant¬ 
ing  where  drought  is  so  often  a  prominent  factor  in  determining 
the  results.  The  disc  press  drill  is  also  considered  an  especially 
good  tool  for  use  in  the  dry  farming  country. 

For  a  long  time  some  farmers  claimed  that  broadcasting  the 
seed  and  then  covering  with  a  disc  harrow  or  a  cultivator  so  as  to 
thoroughly  stir  all  the  top  soil  and  put  the  grain  into  the  ground 
in  contact  with  firm  soil  was  the  proper  method  to  sow  wheat. 
Then  the  disc  seeder  was  invented.  It  did,  at  once  going  over 
the  land,  exactly  what  they  held  was  best.  With  plenty  of 
teams,  a  man  could  put  in  a  large  acreage  single-handed,  then  if 
the  crop  was  a  failure,  he  would  lose  nothing  except  the  seed  and 
his  own  labor,  while  if  the  crop  was  good,  he  could  well  afford  to 
hire  plenty  of  help  to  harvest  and  thresh  the  crop.  But  as  land 
becomes  more  valuable,  I  notice  that  more  work  is  put  on  the 
preparation  of  the  soil,  and  seed  drills  grow  in  favor. 

When  I  first  visited  the  wheat  growing  district  of  eastern 
Colorado,  many  of  the  best  farmers  told  me  that  they  had  grown 
wheat  on  the  same  ground  year  after  year,  sometimes  as  much  as 
ten  crops  in  succession,  and  the  soil  did  not  show  any  signs  of  be¬ 
ing  worth  any  less  for  wheat  growing  than  it  was  the  first  year 
wheat  was  sown  upon  the  land.  Two  years  later  all  admitted 
that  the  land  was  surely  failing  when  wheat  followed  wheat.  In 
1902,  I  noted  fields  which  demonstrated  the  difference  between 
wheat  after  wheat  and  wheat  after  corn.  In  some  cases  wheat 
following  wheat  gave  a  yield  only  five  bushels  per  acre,  while 
wheat  following  corn  in  the  same  field,  produced  fifteen  bushels 
per  acre.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  it  does  not  pay  to 
sow  wheat  after  wheat.  The  rotation  usually  practiced  is  corn 
one  year  and  wheat  the  next. 

Fall  plowing  for  spring  wheat  has  not  been  a  success.  The 
best  explanation  for  this  is  that  during  the  winter  the  soil  dries 


28 


BULLETIN  89. 

as  deep  as  it  is  plowed  and  this  through  drying  seems  to  lock  up 
the  plant  food  temporarily  so  that  the  wheat  plants  do  not  grow 
well.  Sorghum  before  wheat  is  bad  for  the  yield  of  wheat,  in 
fact  it  seems  that  any  crop  which  is  not  cultivated  thoroughly 
during  the  growing  season  is  a  poor  one  to  precede  a  wheat  crop. 
It  is  probably  true  that  if  the  corn  is  not  thoroughly  cultivated 
the  yield  of  the  wheat  crop  following  it  will  be  materially  re¬ 
duced.  One  man  has  for  a  few  years  practiced  listing  his  ground 
in  the  fall  for  the  wheat  crop  of  the  next  spring.  He  reports  an 
increased  yield  of  from  one  to  two  bushels  per  acre  by  using  this 
method,  as  compared  with  the  ordinary  method  of  preparing  the 
ground.  One  year  a  heavy  rain  came  after  a  part  of  the  ground 
was  listed.  The  next  year  that  part  of  the  listed  ground  which 
was  packed  down  by  the  rain  gave  no  better  yield  of  wheat  than 
the  ground  prepared  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Crops  Raised  Outside  the  Main  Districts.  Wherever  one 
goes  he  hears  of  the  enormous  crops  of  wheat  raised  in  1892.  At 
Akron  the  visitor  found  wheat  piled  up  everywhere  during  the 
fall  of  1892.  They  could  hardly  get  cars  enough  to  carry  it  out 
of  the  country.  Yields  of  30  to  40  bushels  to  the  acre  were  com¬ 
mon.  At  Thurman  about  the  same  yields  were  obtained.  Set¬ 
tlers  at  Cheyenne  Wells  and  Burlington  also  obtained  heavy 
yields  of  grain  that  year.  But  outside  the  Vernon  and  Idalia 
divides,  very  little  grain  has  been  produced  since.  This  may  not 
be  because  it  could  not  have  been  produced,  but  because  the 
droughty  years  following  caused  nearly  all  the  settlers  who  did 
not  favor  making  a  stock  country  of  the  region  to  become  dis¬ 
couraged  and  leave  the  country,  leaving  its  population  sufficiently 
thinned  to  permit  those  remaining  to  have  all  the  free  range  they 
could  use.  Under  these  conditions  stock-raising  was  so  profitable 
that  the  settlers  could  not  afford  to  raise  wheat. 

Soils  and  Other  Influences.  The  soils  of  the  Plains  are 
quite  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat.  This  has  been  proved 
whenever  the  rainfall  has  been  properly  distributed  during  the 
growing  season.  The  soils  near  Vernon,  Idalia  and  in  the  eastern 
one-third  of  Kit  Carson  county,  are  very  much  alike,  and  under 
similar  conditions,  would  produce  about  the  same  yields  of  wheat. 
But  the  Vernon  divide  is  protected  from  the  ravages  of  hot  winds 
by  the  groups  of  sand  hills  which  lie  011  the  northern  and  western 
sides  of  it,  each  of  these  groups  being  about  twenty  miles  across. 
The  influence  of  the  sand  hills  dwindles  rapidly  as  the  location  is 
farther  to  the  south  and  east.  The  Idalia  country  is  not  quite  so 
free  from  hot  winds  as  is  the  Vernon  country.  By  the  time  Bur¬ 
lington  is  reached  the  influence  of  the  sandhills  is  practically 
nothing,  while  at  Cheyenne  Wells,  one  could  not  possibly  know 
that  the  hot  winds  were  tempered  by  any  influence.  These  sand 


WHEAT  RAISING  ON  THE  PLAINS.  29 

hills  absorb  all  the  water  which  falls  upon  them.  They  also  re¬ 
ceive  in  addition  the  drainage  from  about  as  large  an  area  as  they 
cover  which  lies  west  of  them.  They  seem  to  cover  the  lower 
courses  of  the  streams  which  start  on  the  clay  lands  west  of  the 
sandhills.  This  moisture  influences  the  humidity  of  the  area 
which  the  hills  partially  surround,  and  while  the  rainfall  is  prac¬ 
tically  the  same  at  Wray  as  at  Cheyenne  Wells,  the  air  is  more 
humid  and  so  does  not  absorb  the  water  from  the  soil  and  from 
vegetation  so  rapidly  as  does  the  air  in  less  protected  localities. 

The  rule  seems  to  hold  good  that  the  greater*  the  percent  of 
clay  a  soil  contains  the  more  water  it  must  have  in  order  to  pro¬ 
duce  a  crop.  It  is  a  noticable  fact  that  during  dry  years  the  men 
living  on  black  sandy  land  produce  better  crops  of  all  kinds  than 
those  living  on  clay  lands,  but  where  the  rainfall  is  abundant  the 
clay  lands  will  give  larger  yields,  especially  of  wheat,  than  the 
sandv  lands. 

One  encouraging  fact  which  should  be  here  noted  is  that  the 
samples  of  macaroni  wheat  grown  in  eastern  Colorado  have  been 
pronounced  to  be  the  best  seen  which  has  been  grown  in  the 
United  States.  The  rainfall  is  never  enough  to  damage  the  qual¬ 
ity  of  macaroni  wheat.  From  present  indications  it  is  possible 
that  in  a  few  years  very  little  wheat  except  macaroni  wheat  will 
be  grown  in  eastern  Colorado,  and  it  is  also  likely  that  the  wheat¬ 
growing  districts  will  be  greatly  enlarged  by  the  use  of  this 
variety. 

Use  of  Straw .  For  a  long  time  the  wheat-raisers  had  little 
use  for  their  straw.  Sometimes  the  straw  would  accumulate  for 
several  years  if  it  was  not  burned,  but  during  the  past  four  years 
they  have  been  wintering  cattle  in  the  wheat  growing  districts 
because  the  range  has  become  so  crowded  that  there  was  no 
winter  range  in  many  localities.  This  influx  of  cattle  from  the 
pastures  surrounding  the  farming  districts  has  furnished  a  profit¬ 
able  market  for  all  the  straw  which  is  produced.  At  the  same 
time  the  feed  raised  in  the  farming  country  has  saved  the  lives  of 
thousands  of  cattle. 

Results.  The  real  results  of  a  business  are  not  conecth 
estimated  if  only  the  volume  of  the  business  is  known.  While 
the  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  will  not  average  more  than  eight 
bushels  011  the  two  divides  during  the  fifteen  years  it  has  been 
grown  there,  that  does  not  tell  of  the  profits  and  losses  sustained 
by  the  settlers.  Of  course  the  settlers  have  been  forced  to  raise 
corn  in  order  to  raise  wheat.  Then  they  raised  hogs  because  they 
raised  corn.  They  gathered  cattle  because  they  had  so  much 
rough  feed  as  a  by-product  from  the  wheat  and  corn  raising. 
This  has  changed  the  period  during  which  the  farmer  had  em¬ 
ployment  for  himself  and  family  from  90  days  during  the  year 


30  BULLETIN  89. 

which  was  necessary  in  wheat  raising  alone,  to  365  clays  which  is 
necessary  under  the  mixed  farming  of  the  present  day.  Some 
men  have  lost  all  the  property  they  brought  to  the  country,  but 
others  who  came  with  practically  nothing  are  quite  well-to-do 
now.  The  banker  at  Wray,  who  is  an  old  settler  himself  and  is 
personally  acquainted  with  almost  ever}*  man  on  the  Vernon 
divide,  especially  from  a  financial  standpoint,  told  me  that  a  large 
majority  of  the  settlers  there  are  better  off,  financially,  than  they 
were  when  thev  came  there.  The  good  dwellings  and  barns  seen 
there  seem  to  prove  the  statement. 

Magnitude  of  the  IV heat- growing  Industry  on  the  Flams . 
At  Cheyenne  Wells,  no  means  of  threshing  grain  is  available  ex¬ 
cept  a  little  tread-power  machine.  At  Burlington,  very  little 
threshing  is  done  because  no  threshing  machine  is  near  enough 
to  afford  to  come  there  for  the  work  it  can  get.  The  wheat  there 
is  used  for  feed,  usually  for  hay.  At  Yale,  several  stone  rollers 
are  in  use  at  times  when  a  crop  of  grain  is  raised.  At  Seibert, 
there  is  a  small  horse-power  thresher  which  usually  operates  near 
Tuttle,  Kirk  and  Cope.  At  Thurman  is  another  small  horse¬ 
power  which  threshes  a  few  jobs  each  season.  At  Akron  I  saw 
no  threshing  machine.  The  flail  is  the  only  weapon  in  use  there 
at  present.  But  on  the  Vernon  and  Idalia  divides,  nine  threshing 
outfits  are  in  operation  nearly  every  year.  Some  of  these  are 
large  steam-threshers  which  carry  hands  enough  to  do  all  the 
work  so  as  to  deliver  the  grain  to  the  owner’s  wagons.  Often  the 
machines  are  all  busy  from  the  middle  of  August  until  far  into 
December.  Of  course  the  machinery  in  use  for  threshing  indi¬ 
cates  the  relative  production  of  grain.  There  are  three  grain 
buyers  at  Wray,  and  besides  what  these  men  buy,  much  goes  to 
Haigler,  Nebraska,  St.  Francis,  Kansas,  and  Burlington,  Colorado. 
There  is  a  good  flouring  mill  at  Wray  and  another  at  Burlington. 

Next  to  stock  raising  under  the  range  system,  wheat  growing 
requires  fewer  days  work  in  the  year  than  any  other  farming  busi¬ 
ness,  so  wherever  wheat  can  be  successfully  grown,  farming  may 
gain  a  foothold.  Where  it  fails  habitually,  the  stock  must 
occupy  the  country. 


Colorado  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

BULLETIN  90.  JUNE,  1904. 


Unirrigated  Alfalfa  on  Upland. 


BY  J.  E.  PAYNE. 


Since  the  wave  of  settlement  flowed  into  eastern  Colorado  in 
1886,  men  in  isolated  localities  have  been  testing  alfalfa  as  a  for¬ 
age  plant  for  the  nnirrigated  lands. 

During  my  travls  I  have  had  several  small  plats  of  alfalfa 
under  observation,  usually  seeing  the  crop  one  or  more  times  dur¬ 
ing  each  year.  Near  Vernon,  Robert  Brady  had  a  field  which  he 
used  for  a  hog  pasture  for  several  years.  The  plants  kept  dying 
out  until  there  were  practically  none  left.  Another  patch  near 
Vernon  survived  as  much  as  five  years  or  more.  It  was  cut  for 
hay  a  few  times.  One  year  it  was  nearly  three  feet  high  when 
cut.  When  seen  in  1903  it  still  showed  a  thin  stand.  Another 
patch  on  the  same  farm  was  sown  in  the  spring  of  1900.  I11  1901 

it  gave  a  heavy  crop  of  hay,  but  has  not  grown  tall  enough  to  cut 
since.  Jas.  Slick  had  a  small  field  of  alfalfa  which  he  used  as  a 
hog  pasture  for  several  years.  The  grasshoppers  destroyed  what 
was  left  of  it  in  1902.  In  1902  he  sowed  five  acres,  but  the  grass¬ 
hoppers  have  kept  this  down  so  that  so  far  it  has  yielded  very 
little  forage.  Russian  thistles  also  came  in  and  occupied  the  field 
as  soon  as  the  alfalfa  plants  were  killed  out. 

Near  Logan,  Geo.  Bond  had  about  four  acres  in  alfalfa  which 
he  used  for  hog  pasture  for  several  years.  He  thought  that  it 
payed  well.  A.  C.  Brown,  who  lives  on  the  Kansas  line  about 
seven  miles  northeast  of  Lansing,  had  three  acres  in  alfalfa  when 
I  saw  the  place  in  1900.  This  patch  had  been  seeded  about  seven 
years  then.  Mr.  Brown  told  me  that  he  cut  it  twice  some  years, 
once  some  years  and  during  some  other  years  it  did  not  grow  high 
enough  to  cut  for  hav.  The  average  yearly  yield  of  hay  Mr. 
Brown  estimated  at  one  ton  per  acre. 

Near  Idalia,  John  Gillespie  sowed  eight  acres  to  alfalfa  in 
1902.  Both  1902  and  1903  were  so  droughty  in  his  neighbor¬ 
hood  that  he  has  not  yet  cut  a  hay  crop  from  it.  The  same  ex¬ 
perience  was  met  by  John  Reidesel  and  Chas.  Ingalls,  and  also  by 
some  others  who  sowed  about  the  same  time.  Near  Vona,  S.  L. 


32  bulletin  90. 

Howell  sowed  five  acres  to  alfalfa  in  1902  with  the  same  results 
as  were  obtained  in  Idalia. 

I11  1897  one  half  an  acre  of  alfalfa  was  sown  at  the  Plains 
substation  at  Cheyenne  Wells  and  a  good  stand  was  obtained. 
The  weeds  were  kept  mown  down  that  year.  I11  1898  one  half  a 
ron  was  cut  from  the  plat  at  one  cutting.  The  grasshoppers  took 
the  other  cuttings.  In  1899  the  plat  was  mown  once  for  hay, 
yielding  about  one-fourth  of  a  ton.  The  grasshoppers  killed 
many  plants  and  the  Russian  thistles  took  the  place  of  alfalfa. 
In  1899,  1900  and  1901  there  were  fewer  alfalfa  plants  left  each 
year  and  110  hay  crop  was  cut  either  of  those  years.  By  1901 
there  were  so  few  alfalfa  plants  left  that  the  land  was  planted  to 
another  crop. 

Again  in  1899  four  acres  were  seeded  to  alfalfa  May  20th. 
A  good  stand  was  obtained,  but  during  the  hot  summer  weather 
that  011  the  higher  land  died.  About  one  acre  011  low  land  which 
was  occasionally  overflowed  by  water  drained  from  the  prairie 
across  it  continued  to  grow  well.  In  1900  this  part  yielded  one 
cutting  at  the  rate  of  one  ton  per  acre.  Grasshoppers  gradually 
killed  this  patch  out  until  in  the  spring  of  1903  so  little  was  left 
that  it  was  plowed  up  and  the  ground  planted  to  other  crops. 

Planting .  The  important  factor  in  getting  a  stand  of  alfalfa 
is  getting  a  good  seed  bed  for  it.  My  experience  has  taught  me 
to  plow  the  ground  early  in  the  season  five  to  eight  inches  deep, 
harrow  until  it  is  thorougely  packed  and  then  wait  until  the 
ground  is  thoroughly  wet  before  planting  the  seed.  If  this  occurs 
before  the  middle  of  July  go  on  the  ground  with  a  light  drag  har¬ 
row  as  soon  after  the  rain  as  the  surface  appears  to  be  dry  and 
break  the  crust  thoroughly.  Then  sow  the  seed  broadcast  and 
follow  with  the  harrow.  A  good  stand  has  been  obtained  every 
time  I  have  followed  this  rule,  but  if  a  drill  is  available  the  same 
rule  should  be  followed  except  that  the  seed  should  be  drilled  in 
as  soon  as  the  ground  shows  dry  on  top.  Some  have  been  suc¬ 
cessful  with  the  hoe  drill  and  some  have  used  the  press  drill. 
One  man  seeded  his  alfalfa  with  a  lister,  taking  off  the  shares  and 
running  the  seed  in  behind  the  subsoiler  part  of  the  machine. 
The  time  to  sow  alfalfa  may  be  any  time  when  the  ground  is  in 
good  condition  between  the  10th  of  May  and  the  15th  of  July. 

Having  a  stand  of  alfalfa  the  next  question  is  how  shall  it  be 
maintained  against  its  enemies,  the  drought  and  the  grasshoppers? 
It  has  been  demonstrated  in  western  Kansas  that  thoroughly  disc¬ 
ing  the  alfalfa  field  usually  increases  the  yield  of  hay,  while  it 
also  prevents  the  deposit  of  grasshopper  eggs  in  the  field. 

Enemies.  Drought  is  one  of  the  worst  enemies  of  alfalfa 
without  irrigation,  but  this  may  be  overcome  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  cultivation  after  the  plants  are  well  established,  and 


UNIRRIGATED  ALFALFA  ON  UPLAND.  33 

thorough  preparation  of  the  ground  before  planting.  After 
leaving  the  drought  out  of  consideration,  the  next  enemy  of  im¬ 
portance  is  the  grasshopper.  These,  working  in  conjunction  with 
the  drought,  make  the  planting  of  alfalfa  a  very  discouraging 
proposition.  Grasshoppers  are  fond  of  almost  all  kinds  of  green 
food,  and  alfalfa  being  green  in  summer  when  the  native  grasses 
are  dry,  the  grass  hoppers  come  to  the  alfalfa  patches  in  countless 
millions  when  other  food  becomes  dry.  When  the  soil  is  left  un¬ 
disturbed,  they  breed  in  the  fields  and  in  such  cases  keep  the 
plants  eaten  down  throughout  the  season.  Thoroughly  stirring 
the  soil  with  a  disc  harrow  prevents  the  grasshoppers  breeding  in 
the  field  and  it  has  to  contend  with  only  the  hoppers  which  grow 
on  the  prairie.  By  using  hopper  dozers  the  number  of  grass¬ 
hoppers  may  be  kept  down  without  damaging  the  crop.  These 
machines  can  be  used  only  in  fields  where  the  plants  are  but  a 
few  inches  high.  Poisoning  by  using  arsenic  in  bran  or  other 
substance  which  is  relished  by  the  hoppers  is  often  successfully 
used.  But  the  most  profitable  method  I  have  ever  seen  employed 
is  the  poultry  remedy.  Some  people  keep  so  many  chickens  and 
turkeys  that  the  grasshoppers  are  held  in  check  by  them.  In 
August  1901,  I  visited  the  orchard  of  A.  E.  Tabor  who  lives  ten 
miles  southeast  of  Wray,  and  found  many  trees  entirely  stripped 
of  bark  and  leaves  by  the  grasshoppers.  I  visited  the  same  place 
in  1903  and  found  the  trees  and  garden  in  a  good  condition.  He 
told  me  that  the  presence  of  about  400  chickens  and  turkeys 
were  responsible  for  the  good  condition  of  the  trees,  and  also  for 
the  scarcity  of  grasshoppers  which  I  noted. 

Mr.  B.  D.  Prentice  and  Mr.  Rufus  Roberts,  both  living  near 
Raird  P.  O.,  both  gave  testimony  which  coincided  with  what  I  ob¬ 
served  at  the  home  of  Mr.  Tabor.  Dozens  of  other  cases  of  the 
same  kind  could  be  cited  showing  the  same  results.  The  main 
difficulty  in  working  the  poultry  remedy,  is  that  the  coyotes  must 
be  kept  away  or  they  destroy  the  poultry. 

Location.  There  are  many  locations  which  catch  water  in 
considerable  quantities  from  surrounding  land.  These,  if  occu¬ 
pied  by  moderately  light  clay  or  sandy  loam  soils,  are  ideal  places 
for  sowing  alfalfa  to  be  grown  without  irrigation.  I  have  seen 
places  where  from  40  to  80  acres  could  be  found  in  such  alocation. 

Conclusion.  Alfalfa  growing  without  irrigation  deserves  a 
trial  upon  a  larger  scale  than  I  have  yet  seen,  and  when  grasshop¬ 
pers  are  held  in  check  sufficiently  it  will  certainly  pay.  As  it  is, 
it  is  the  only  perennial  forage  plant  which  I  have  seen  that  I 
would  plow  up  buffalo  grass  to  test  upon  a  large  scale.  And  when 
large  fields  of  it  are  planted,  the  grasshoppers  will  not  cut  such  a 
figure  as  they  do  now  when  the  grasshoppers  from  several  square 
miles  concentrate  upon  a  few  acres. 


Bulletin  91. 


June,  1904. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


Potato  Failures. 


Jk.  SECOND  REPORT. 


BY - 


f.  m;.  i^olfs. 

,  7 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President ,  - 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  - 
Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW,  - 
Hon.  EUGENE  H  GRUBB,  - 

Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLES WORTH, 


Denver. 

Term 

Expires 

1905 

Fort  Collins. 

1905 

Denver. 

1907 

-  Denver. 

1907 

Gypsum. 

1909 

Rockyford. 

1909 

Canon  City. 

1911 

Carbondale. 

1911 

ex-officio . 


Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 


B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW. 


JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director ,  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.S.,  -  - . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  . Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . -  Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M.,  ------  Veterinarian 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Agriculturist 

F.  M.  ROLFS,  M.  S., . Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M„  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY,  ----------  Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY, . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


CONTENTS 


PART  I. 

PAGE 

Introduction _  7 

Line  of  Work;  Historical. 

Development  of  Fungus _ 8 

The  Rhizoctonia  Stage;  The  Sclerotia  State;  The  Corticium  Stage. 

Injuries _ 11 

Plant  Injuries;  Scabbing;  Rotting  of  Seed  Tubers. 

Spread  of  the  Disease _  13 

Rate  of  Growth  at  Different  Temperatures;  The  Soils;  Influence  of 
Heat  and  Moisture;  The  Seed  Potato;  Insect  Injuries;  Infected 
Plants. 

Remedial  Measures _ 14 

The  Soil;  Cultivation;  The  Runs;  Late  Planting;  Old  Stems;  The 
Seed  Potato;  Developing  a  Disease-Resistant  Variety;  Seed  Selec¬ 
tion:  Corrosive  Sublimate  and  Formalin  Treatments;  Sulphur;  Lime. 

Conclusions _  20 

PART  II. 

Experiment  I _ 21 

Garden  Land;  Formalin  Treatment;  Cull  Seed;  Spraying  with 
Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Experiment  II _  22 

Old  Potato  Land;  Formalin  and  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatments. 

Experimemt  III _ 23 

Old  Potato  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment. 

Experiment  IV _  24 

Old  Potato  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment. 

Experiment  V _  25 

Old  Potato  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment. 

Experiment  VI _  26 

Old  Farm  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  and  Formalin  Treatments; 

Cull  Seed. 

Experiment  VII _  27 

New  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  and  Formalin  Treatments;  Dou¬ 
ble  Treatments;  Light  Experiment;  Stem  End  Experiment. 

Experiment  VIII _  29 

Old  Garden  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment:  Large  Selected 
Seed:  Small  Selected  Seed;  Diseased  Seed. 


PAGE 


Experiment  IX _  30 

New  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  and  Formalin  Treatments;  Light 
Treatment;  Two  Waterings  compared  with  Three  Waterings. 

Experiment  X _  32 

New  Land;  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment;  Selected  Seed;  Cull 
Seed. 

Experiment  XI. _  32 

New  Land:  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment;  Selected  Seed. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  I  (1) — Black  felted  layer  of  hyphae.  (2)— Sclerotia.  (3) — Cor- 

ticium,  or  fruiting  layer. 

Plate  II.  Arrangement  for  catching  spores. 

Plate  III.  Hyphae,  Basidia,  Sterigmata  and  Spores  of  Corticium. 

Plate  IV.  (1) — Spores  Germinating.  (2) — Growth  of  Hyphae  in  two  days. 
(3) — Growth  in  three  days.  (4) — Growth  in  five  days. 

Plate  V.  (1) — Long  Segmented  Hyphae  from  Rhizoctonia  stage.  (2) — 
Large,  Short  Segmented  Hyphae  from  a  Sclerotia. 


. 


Description  of  Plates 


Bulletin  91 

Colorado  Experiment  Station 


PLATE  I.  (1)  Potato  plant  with  its  subterranean  parts  covered  by  a 
dark  felt-like  layer  of  the  Rhizoctcnia  stage  of  Corticium. 

(2)  A  black  scale-like  body,  or  sclerotium,  composed  of  a  mass  of  large, 
short-segmented  hyphae. 

(3)  The  white  fruiting  layer,  Corticium  vagum  B  and  C,  var.  solani 

Burt,  developing  directly  from  the  dark  Rhizoctonia  hyphae. 

» 

PLATE  II.  Manner  of  obtaining  spore  cultures  by  suspending  a  green 
potato  stem,  infected  with  Corticium  vagum,  B  and  C,  var.  solani  Burt, 
over  a  dish  containing  agar. 

PLATE  III.  Drawings  made  by  aid  of  camera  lucida,  material  taken 
from  a  green  potato  plant.  The  same  numbers  in  each  case  refer  to  the 
same  thing. 

(1)  Mature  spore  of  Corticium  vagum,  B  and  C,  var.  solani  Burt. 

(2)  Sterigmata,  short  stalks  on  which  the  spores  are  borne. 

(3)  Basidia,  short  club-like  hyphae  which  give  rise  to  the  sterigmata. 

(4)  Typical  Rhizoctcnia  hyphae. 

PLATE  IV.  Agar  plate  cultures.  Drawings  made  by  aid  of  camera 
lucida.  The  same  numbers  in  each  case  refer  to  the  same  thing. 

(1)  The  spore  germination  at  the  end  of  twelve  hours. 

(2)  Growth  of  hyphae  in  two  days. 

(3)  Development  at  the  end  of  the  third  day. 

(4)  Development  on  the  fifth  day. 

PLATE  V.  Drawings  made  by  the  aid  of  the  camera  lucida. 

(1)  Hyphae  of  Rhizoctonia  stage  taken  from  the  roots  of  a  potato  plant. 

(2)  Hyphae  from  a  spore  culture  of  Corticium  vagum,  B  and  C,  var. 
solani  Burt.  Spores  caught  in  potato  agar  and  transferred  to  potato  plugs 
on  the  fourth  day.  Drawings  made  on  the  twelfth  day.  The  Rhizoctonia 
hyphae  (No.  1)  resemble  those  developed  from  the  Corticium  spores  (No.  2) 
in  every  particular. 

(3)  The  large,  short,  segmented  hyphae  from  a  sclerotium  taken  from 
a  potato  tuber. 

(4)  Large  segmented  hyphae  from  a  spore  culture  of  Corticium  vagum, 
B  and  C,  var.  solani  Burt.  Spores  caught  in  potato,  agar  and  transferred  to 
potato  plugs  on  the  fourth  day.  Drawings  made  on  the  twelfth  day.  No 
differer.ee  can  be  observed  in  these  (Nos.  3  and  4)  hyphae. 


> 


•1 


PLATE  I. 


(1) — Black  felted  layer  of  Hyphae.  (2) — Sclerotia.  (3) — Corticiuui 

or  fruiting  layer. 


Potato  Failures 

SECOND  REPORT. 


By  F.  M.  ROLFS,  M.  S. 


PART  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Line  of  Work . — Bulletin  70  of  this  Station  gives  the  re¬ 
sults  of  our  experiments  and  study  of  Rhizoctonia  of  the  potato  for 
the  year  1901.  Work  on  this  disease  has  been  continued  during  the 
past  two  years.  The  practical  value  of  corrosive  sublimate  and 
formalin  solutions  have  been  tested,  over  120,000  pounds  of  seed 
tubers  have  been  treated  and  the  the  influence  of  the  treatment  on 
the  plants  and  crops  carefully  noticed.  Seed  selection  has  received 
considerable  attention,  and  the  influence  of  irrigation  and  cultiva¬ 
tion  on  the  development  of  the  disease  has  also  been  studied.  A 
fruiting  stage  of  the  fungus  has  been  studied  both  in  the  labora¬ 
tory  and  in  the  field. 

Historical . — This  disease  is  common  to  the  fields  of  Europe, 
and  has  been  reported  from  many  localities  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  difficult  to  find  a  lot  of  tubers  which  are  not  more  or  less  in¬ 
fected  with  it.  Its  origin  is  not  known,  however,  its  rhizoctonia 
and  sclerotia  stages  were  first  reported  by  Kuhn,  and  European 
literature  contains  a  number  of  publications  on  this  malady.  Its 
history  in  America  is  comparatively  recent,  dating  back  to  only 
1900.  To  my  knowledge  only  four*  publications  on  this  potato 
disease  have  appeared  in  this  country.  Curiously  enough  the 
fruiting  stage  of  this  fungus  has  been  overlooked,  or  at  least  never 
associated  with  the  rhizoctonia  and  sclerotia  stages,  and  some  of 
our  ablest  workers  have  supposed  it  to  be  a  sterile  fungus;  careful 
study,  however,  shows  that  it  produces  spores  abundantly. 


\  Bulletin  186  N.  Y.  Cornell  Exp.  Station. 

1  \  “  186  N.  Y.  Agr. 

2  “  70  Colo.  Agr. 

3  and  4  Bulletins  139  and  145  Ohio  Agr.  EXp.  Station. 


8 


Bulletin  91. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FUNGUS. 

The  fungus  is  truly  a  parasitic-organism,  flourishing  in  heavy, 
wet  soils;  and  our  observations  during  the  past  three  years  show 
that  it  produces  fruit  only  on  or  near  the  living  tissues  of  plants. 
Its  development  may  be  divided  into  the  following  stages: 

The  Rhizoctonia  Stage. — Two  forms  of  liyphal  growth  are 
constantly  associated  with  the  injuries  resulting  from  this  fungus 
— a  light  and  a  dark  colored.  The  light  form  usually  develops 
deeper  in  the  tissues  and  is  more  actively  parasitic  and  frequently 
produces  a  wet  rot  of  the  stem  and  old  seed  tubers,  while  the  col¬ 
ored,  or  rhizoctonia  proper  develops  more  freely  on  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  roots  and  tubers.  The  colored  form  is  also  fre¬ 
quently  found  growing  in  the  soil  some  distance  from  the  plants 
and  is  constantly  associated  with  the  fruiting  stage  of  this  fungus. 
(See  Plate  V.,  1.) 

The  Sclerotia  Stage. — The  hyphae  give  rise  to  dark  irregular¬ 
shaped  bodies  which  are  made  up  of  a  mass  of  large,  close-septate 
hyphae.'  (See  Plate  V.,  2.)  These  bodies  are  known  as  sclerotia. 
Experiments  show  that  this  stage  is  well  adapted  for  tiding  the  fun¬ 
gus  over  unfavorable  periods,  and  that  it  is  a  prominent  factor  in 
the  dissemination  of  this  disease.  The  sclerotia  resemble  closely 
particles  of  soil  and  are  frequently  mistaken  for  scales  of  dirt  ad¬ 
hering  to  the  tubers.  When  infected  tubers  are  used  for  seed  these 
Sclerotia  produce  hyphae  which  in  turn  injure  and  often  kill  the 
plants. 

The  Corticmm  Stage. — The  young  plants  developed  from  seed 
tubers,  which  are  more  or  less  covered  with  the  sclerotia  stage, 
usually  have  their  subterranean  parts  covered  with  a  network  of 
dark  hyphse.  This  dark  network  advances  with  the  growth  of  the 
plant  until  it  reaches  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  it  changes 
into  a  grayish  white  fruiting  layer,  frequently  entirely  surround¬ 
ing  the  base  of  the  green  stem  and  often  extending  up  the  stem 
for  a  distance  of  four  inches.  (See  Plate  I.,  3.)  The  tips  of  the 
outermost  hyphae  of  this  fruiting  layer  develop  into  basidae,  which 
usually  bear  from  two  to  four  stregmata  (See  Plate  III.),  but  in  a 
few  instances  six  have  been  observed.  The  spores  are  hya¬ 
line  and  usually  ovate  in  form  with  apiculate  bases;  fifty  spores 
taken  just  as  they  occurred  on  a  green  stem  gave  an  average 
measurement  of  ten  by  six  u.  But  mature  spores  after  they  had 
fallen  measured  twelve  by  eight  u,  the  largest  measuring  fifteen 
by  thirteen  u,  and  the  smallest  nine  by  six  u. 

The  hyphal  characters,  form  of  basidae,  and  structure  of  fruc- 


PLATE  II.  Arrangement  for  catching  spores. 


10 


Bulletin  91. 


tification,  show  that  it  belongs  to  the  well  known  species,  *  Cor- 
ticium  vagum  B.  &  C.,  but  its  parasitic  mode  of  life,  size  and 
shape  of  spores,  have  been  considered  of  sufficient  distinction  for  a 
new  variety  and  it  is  designated  as  Corticium  vagum  B.  &  C.  var. 
solani  Burt.  This  stage  has  been  observed  only  on  or  near  green 
potato  plants.  The  fruiting  layer  does  not  adhere  firmly  to  the 
stem  and  cracks  and  falls  off  very  easily  when  the  stem  becomes 
too  dry,  consecpiently  all  traces  of  it  usually  disappear  soon  after 
the  death  of  the  plants. 

From  225  pieces  of  stems  covered  with  the  fruiting 
layer  placed  in  agar,  203  developed  pure  cultures  of  the  Rhizoc- 
tonia ;  15  Fusarium  and  7  Altenaria.  Cultures  from  this  fruiting 
layer  have  been  carefully  watched  during  the  past  two  years  and 
they  resemble  in  every  way  the  pure  cultures  developed  from  the 
Sclerotia  and  pure  cultures  developed  from  liyphse  taken  from  a  rot¬ 
ten  tuber.  All  attempts  in  the  laboratory  to  induce  this  fungus  to 
develop  spores  on  various  culture  media,  have  failed.  However, 
if  diseased  tubers  are  planted  in  a  suitable  place  they  will  produce 
plants  on  which  the  fruiting  layer  grows  and  develops  spores 
abundantly. 

The  spores  fall  as  soon  as  they  are  mature,  consequently  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  cultures  by  the  usual  methods.  The  following 
plan  was  finally  devised,  which  has  proven  quite  satisfactory: 
A  stem  on  which  the  fruiting  layer  had  developed  was  suspended 
over  a  petri  dish  containing  agar.  The  stem  and  dish  were  then 
covered  with  a  sterile  bell  jar.  (See  Plate  II.) 

Spores  show  considerable  difference  in  their  germinating 
power,  frequently  they  germinate  within  a  few  hours  after 
they  fall  on  agar.  Each  spore  usually  pushes  out  one 
germ  tube;  occasionally,  however,  two  tubes  are  formed.  The 
tube  as  it  emerges  from  the  spore  is  constricted  and  reaches  its 
normal  size  at  from  10  to  15  mm.  from  the  spore.  The  growth 
is  comparatively  slow  during  the  first  two  days  and  septa  are  only  oc¬ 
casionally  observed.  About  the  third  day  side  branches  develop  and 
the  septa  become  more  noticeable.  By  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  the 
hypse  have  taken  on  many  of  the  Rhizoctonia  characteristics  and 
branch  freely.  Sclerotia  usually  form  on  potato  plugs  in  twelve 
days. 

Over  sixty  pure  cultures  of  Rhizoctonia  have  been  obtained 
from  the  spores  of  the  corticium  stage  and  these  cultures  resemble 
those  obtained  from  the  sclerotia  on  tubers  and  those  made  from 
seed  tubers  rotted  by  the  hyphse  of  Rhizoctonia. 


*  This  fungus  agrees  well  with  the  description  of  Hyponochus  solani, 
Prill.  &  Dell.,  but  several  specimens  of  it  were  sent  to  Dr.  E.  A.  Burt,  and  after 
carefully  examining  them  he  has  concluded  that  it  is  a  variety  of  Corticium 
vagum  B.  &  C.,  for  which  he  has  suggested  Corticium  vagum  B.  &  C.  var  .solani. 


Potato  Failures. 


11 


INJURIES. 

Plant  Injuries. — Young  plants  suffer  severely  from  its  inva¬ 
sions  and  are  often  completely  cut  off  by  it  before  they  reach  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  ground.  Its  attacks  on  the  subterranean  stems  may  bring 
about  an  abnormal  development  of  tubers,  which  is  usually  spoken 
of  as  “Little  Potatoes,”  or  the  injuries  may  be  of  such  nature  as  to 
interfere  with  the  storage  of  assimilated  food  in  the  subterranean 
branches  of  the  plant,  thus  bringing  about  an  abnormal  top  de¬ 
velopment,  and  frequently  green  tubers  form  in  the  axil  of  the 
leaves.  (See  Bulletin  70,  p.  5-7). 

In  an  experiment  with  badly  infested  seed  32  per  cent,  of  the 
plants  were  killed  before  they  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground; 
17  per  cent,  of  the  plants  that  reached  the  surface  failed  to  pro¬ 
duce  tubers,  and  only  50  per  cent,  of  the  seed  planted  produced 
plants  that  developed  tubers  large  enough  for  No.  l’s  and  many 
of  these  were  scabby.  On  July  1-1,  55  percent,  of  the  living  plants 
showed  the  corticium  stage  of  this  fungus.  Seed  selected  from 
this  lot,  but  free  from  the  sclerotia  stage,  produced  plants  of 
which  only  20  per  cent,  showed  traces  of  the  corticium  stage. 
Plants  in  an  adjoining  experiment  which  were  free  from  the  rhiz- 
octonia  and  sclerotia  stages  were  also  free  from  the  corticium 
stage. 

Scabbing  of  Tubers. — European  investigation  long  ago  at¬ 
tributed  the  pitting  or  scabbing  of  tubers  to  the  attacks  of  Rhizoc- 
tonia.  Our  experiments  and  observations  also  show  that  its 
attacks  on  growing  tubers  frequently  produce  deep  ulcers.  Most 
of  our  scab  is  due  to  the  attacks  of  this  fungus.  (See  Bulletin  70, 
p.  ii). 

Rotting  of  Seed  Tubers. — Observations  show  that  seed  tubers 
are  frequently  invaded  by  the  light  colored  hyphse  of  this  fungus, 
which  gradually  turn  the  flesh  watery  and  soft.  If  the  tubers  are 
rotted  early  in  the  season,  the  plants  are  not  only  cut  off  from 
their  food  supply  before  they  become  well  established,  but  they 
also  suffer  more  or  less  from  the  attacks  of  the  fungus.  Such 
plants  usually  do  poorly  and  frequently  die  before  the  close  of  the 
season.  Numerous  attempts  to  produce  wet  rot  by  inoculating 
healthy  tubers  with  both  the  sclerotia  and  rhizoctonia  stages 
have  failed;  however,  a  dry  rot  has  occasionally  developed. 

Five  out  of  eight  seed  tubers  infected  with  this  fungus  placed 
in  sterilized  sand  on  July  2, 1903,  and  examined  three  months  later, 
were  completely  rotted  by  a  wet  rot  produced  by  this  fungus. 
The  remaining  three  were  also  completely  rotted  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  month,  while  five  check  tubers  which  were  free  from  the 
fungus  remained  sound. 

Five  cultures  taken  from  the  different  parts  of  each  of  these 


PLATE  III.  Hy^hae,  Basidia,  Sterigmata  and  Spores  of  Corticium. 


Potato  Failures. 


13 


eight  rotten  tubers,  making  40  cultures  in  all,  produced  pure  cul¬ 
tures  of  Rhizoctonia  in  every  instance. 

SPREAD  OF  THE  DISEASE. 

Conditions  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  development  of 
this  fungus.  The  soil  and  seed  may  be  thoroughly  infected  and 
still  the  plants  escape  serious  injury;  on  the  other  hand,  mere 
traces  of  the  disease  under  favorable  conditions  may  develop  and 
cause  serious  loss. 

Rate  of  Growth  at  Different  Temperatures. — Experiments 
show  that  pure  cultures  of  this  fungus  on  potato  plugs  and  agar 
make  very  little  or  no  growth  in  seven  days,  when  kept  at  a  tem¬ 
perature  of  about  40°  F.;  a  slight  growth  at  55°  F.;  and  a  profuse 
growth  at  72°  F. 

The  Soil. — Some  fields  seem  to  be  more  favorable  to  the 
development  of  this  fungus  than  others.  A  heavy,  poorly  drained 
soil  seems  to  be  most  favorable  for  its  development.  Potatoes 
grown  on  heavy  soils  with  good  bottom  drainage  usually  suffer  less 
severely  from  this  disease  than  those  grown  on  poorly  drained 
land. 

It  is  not  known  how  long  this  fungus  will  remain  in  the  field 
when  it  once  becomes  thoroughly  established,  but  observations  of 
investigators  show  that  it  may  live  indefinitely  on  dead  organic 
matter  in  the  soil  and  on  the  roots  and  stems  of  various  plants. 

Influences  of  Heat  and  Moisture. — It  has  frequently  been 
noticed  that  the  corticium  stage  of  the  fungus  develops  freely  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  under  the  potato  plants  and  on  the  stems 
of  the  green  plants  when  the  ground  is  kept  too  wet  during  a  spell 
of  hot  weather.  This  stage  is  of  a  light  gray  color  and  might 
easily  be  mistaken  for  alkali.  However,  some  growers  are  quite 
familiar  with  it  and  know  too  well  that  its  appearance  on  the 
ground  under  the  plants  indicates  an  over  supply  of  water 
and  a  lack  of  air  circulation  at  the  base  of  the  plants,  and  are  well 
aware  that  if  conditions  are  not  improved  the  plants  will  be 
severely  injured. 

Laboratory  work  shows  that  a  high  temperature  and  plenty 
of  moisture  are  necessary  for  the  rapid  development  of  this  fungus. 
This  possibly  explains  why  extremely  hot  weather  occasionally 
severely  injures  the  plants  in  fields  which  have  been  thoroughly 
watered,  while  those  in  fields  which  have  been  sparingly  watered 
and  well  cultivated  remained  apparently  uninjured.  In  our  ex¬ 
periments,  when  diseased  plants  were  kept  comparatively  dry  and 
well  cultivated  they  did  fairly  well,  but  when  such  plants  were  over 
watered  and  the  ground  became  too  wet  and  soggy,  the  subterranean 


14 


Bulletin  91. 


parts  of  the  plants  were  severely  injured,  and  many  of  the  tops 
showed  marked  sun  scald  injuries,  which  were  followed  by  an  in¬ 
vasion  of  Altenaria  and  many  of  the  plants  died  before  the  close 
of  the  season. 

The  Seed  Potato. — The  sclerotia  on  the  seed  tubers  is  one  of 
the  principal  means  of  disseminating  this  malady.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  find  a  lot  of  tubers  entirely  free  from  them,  and 
some  of  our  leading  seed  men  send  out  seed  tubers  which  are 
thoroughly  infected.  We  have  observed  as  high  as  75  per  cent,  of 
infected  tubers  in  lots  offered  for  seed. 

In  storing  seed  careful  attention  ought  to  be  given  to  temper¬ 
ature  and  moisture  of  the  cellar.  A  comparatively  dry  cellar  at  a 
temperature  of  about  40°  F.  prevents  the  growth  of  this  fungus, 
but  infected  tubers  stored  in  a  cellar  which  is  warm  and  sufficient¬ 
ly  damp  give  rise  to  a  profuse  development  of  both  hyphae  and 
sclerotia.  A  few  diseased  tubers  in  a  lot  of  clean  ones  may  great¬ 
ly  injure  the  seed  value  of  the  entire  lot.  (See  Bulletin  70,  p.  10). 

Insect  Injuries. — Frequently  the  larvae  of  insects  make  tun¬ 
nels  of  considerable  depths  into  both  the  stems  and  young  tubers. 
The  hyphae  of  this  fungus  frequently  enter  such  wounds  and  may 
extend  the  injury. 

Infected  Plants. — -This  disease  may  be  carried  on  the  roots  and 
stems  of  the  various  cultivated  plants  and  weeds  which  grow  on 
infected  soil.  (See  Bulletin  70,  p.  4).  Infected  stems  and  roots 
often  find  their  way  into  barn  yard  manure  and  compost  heaps; 
thus  the  manure  may  become  the  source  of  general  infection  to 
clean  fields.  Infected  potato  stems  are  frequently  left  scattered  in 
the  field  after  harvest;  these  are  blown  about  by  the  wind  and 
many  of  them  finally  find  their  way  to  other  fields  and  thus  become 
the  means  of  general  infection  to  new  fields. 

REMEDIAL  MEASURES. 

The  Soil. — When  a  field  has  once  become  thoroughly  infected 
with  this  fungus,  it  is  cheaper  to  put  it  in  other  crops  for  at  least 
three  years.  Evidence  indicates  that  root  crops  should  be  avoided; 
cereals  which  are  probably  not  attacked  by  the  fungus  should  be 
sown  on  infected  ground  and  all  weeds  should  be  kept  down. 
Comparatively  dry  and  loose  soils,  especially  if  they  have  a  gravelly 
sub-soil,  are  less  favorable  for  the  development  of  the  fungus  than 
heavy  soils.  Losses  from  this  disease  are  often  lessened  by  giving 
carefnl  attention  to  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

Cultivation. — Too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  prepara¬ 
tion  of  the  soil.  Plowing  under  a  green  crop  on  infected  ground 
from  seven  to  eight  inches  deep  just  before  planting  gives  good 


PLATE  IV.  (1) — Spores  Germinating.  (2) — Growth  of  Hyphae  in  two  days 
(3) — Growth  in  three  days.  (4) — Growth  in  five  days. 


16 


Bulletin  91. 


results.  The  ground  ought  to  be  thoroughly  pulverized  before 
planting.  After  the  seed  is  planted  great  care  should  be  exercised 
to  prevent  the  soil  from  forming  a  crust.  The  potato  plant  does 
best  in  a  well  aerated  soil.  The  crust  not  only  tends  to  weaken 
the  plant  by  cutting  off  its  air  supply,  but  it  also  frequently  de¬ 
lays  the  shoots  in  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground;  and  if  such 
plants  are  infected  with  this  disease  they  suffer  severely  and  are 
frequently  killed  before  they  reach  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
(See  Bulletin  70,  p.  6).  Even  after  the  plants  are  up  and  well- 
established  the  formation  of  crust  on  the  soil  ought  to  be  carefully 
guarded  against,  since  it  seems  to  furnish  better  conditions  for  the 

O  O  7 

development  of  this  disease.  Observations  indicate  that  fields 
which  are  sparingly  watered  and  thoroughly  cultivated  suffer  less 
from  this  fungus  and  the  tubers  are  much  freer  from  scabs. 

The  Runs. — Deep  runs  are  better  than  shallow  ones,  since 
they  give  better  circulation  of  air  at  the  base  of  the  plants,  and 
they  also  enable  the  grower  to  supply  the  roots  with  an  abundance 
of  moisture,  while  the  soil  near  the  surface,  where  the  tubers  form, 
can  be  kept  comparatively  dry  and  thus  avoid  conditions  which 
favor  the  rapid  development  of  this  fungus. 

Late  Planting. — Late  planting  frequently  gives  better  results 
than  early  planting.  This  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  wet  weather 
early  in  the  spring  which  makes  the  conditions  favorable  for  the 
growth  of  the  fungus.  Later  the  weather  becomes  settled  and  the 
ground  can  be  kept  well  cultivated  and  the  moisture  of  the  soil 
is  more  easily  controlled.  A  loose,  open  soil  favors  the  growth  of 
the  potato  plant  and  seems  to  check  the  rapid  development  of  this 
disease. 

Old  Stems. — Infected  potato  and  weed  stems  are  often  left 
scattered  about  in  the  field  after  harvest,  and  these  are  blown 
about  by  the  wind  and  many  of  them  are  lodged  in  irrigating 
ditches,  where  they  usually  remain  until  the  following  summer, 
and  as  soon  as  the  fields  are  irrigated,  many  of  the  stems  are  car¬ 
ried  by  the  water  into  new  fields  and  thus  may  become  the  prin¬ 
cipal  means  of  infection.  The  burning  of  all  vines  and  weeds 
after  harvest  is  an  excellent  practice. 

The  Seed  Potato. — A  careful  study  of  seed  potatoes  shows  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  a  lot  of  seed  of  which  at  least  a  few 
are  not  more  or  less  infected  with  this  disease.  Observations  in¬ 
dicate  that  seed  tubers  are  usually  the  principal  means  of  spread¬ 
ing  this  disease.  (See  Bulletin  70,  p.  9).  Too  much  care  cannot 
be  given  to  seed  selection. 

Tubers  keep  best  in  a  dry,  well  ventilated  dugo-ut  which  is 
kept  at  about  40°  F.  Seed  tubers  ought  to  be  stored  in  compara- 


Potato  Failures. 


17 


tively  small  lots  and  kept  at  as  even  a  temperature  as  possible. 
Spreading  the  tubers  on  the  cellar  floor  where  they  are  exposed  to 
the  light  and  air  five  or  six  weeks  before  planting  is  a  good  prac¬ 
tice.  This  treatment  usually  produces  strong,  hard  sprouts  after 
planting,  which  develop  rapidly  and  are  better  able  to  resist  the 
attacks  of  fungi. 

Developing  a  Disease  Resistant  Variety. — Different  varieties 
vary  greatly  in  their  suceptibility  to  'disease  when  grown  under 
the  same  conditions.  Even  plants  of  the  same  variety  often  show 
considerable  difference  in  their  power  to  overcome  disease.  It  is 
possible  that  by  crossing  plants  which  show  marked  disease-resist¬ 
ing  power,  a  desirable  variety  might  be  originated,  and  later  be 
gradually  improved  by  constantly  selecting  seed  tubers  from  the 
plants  which  show  the  greatest  disease-resisting  power. 

Seed  Selection. — Prof.  *Bolley’s  work  on  potatoes  indicates 
that  small  tubers  from  a  vine  which  produced  mostly  large  tubers 
of  desirable  form  and  size,  have  greater  seed  value  than  large,  poorly 
shaped  tubers  from  a  strain  of  potatoes  which  habitually  produced 
small  tubers.  His  experiments  also  indicate  that  when  pieces  of 
equal  weight  from  small  and  large  tubers  of  the  same  vine  were 
planted,  there  was  not  sufficient  difference  in  the  yield  to  be  no¬ 
ticeable  under  farm  conditions,  providing  all  tubers  were  normally 
mature.  Our  experiments  and  observations  agree  quite  closely 
with  those  made  by  Prof.  Bolley,  but  it  has  been  observed  that 
elongated  and  ill  shaped  tubers  are  usually  developed  on  diseased 
vines. 

Carefully  selecting  smooth,  round  tubers  and  rejecting  all 
those  showing  any  signs  of  infection,  gave  excellent  results.  In 
selecting  tubers  for  seed,  the  disease-resisting  power  of  the  plant 
should  also  receive  careful  consideration.  Diseased  plants  are  not 
only  apt  to  produce  abnormally  developed  tubers,  but  the  tubers 
ars  also  usually  infected.  Such  seed  often  produces  weak  plants, 
which  frequently  suffer  severely  from  the  attacks  of  fungi.  Success 
or  failure  depends  much  on  the  quality  oj  seed  tubers  used. 

No  commercial  grower  can  afford  to  use  seed  without  know¬ 
ing  something  of  its  past  history.  Those  who  “import  seed”  will 
find  it  cheaper  in  the  end  to  pay  more  for  seed  and  buy  only  from 
men  who  are  known  to  give  careful  attention  to  the  quality  of 
their  seed. 

Some  of  our  most  successful  growers  have  obtained  good 
results  from  carefully  selecting  home  grown  seed  just  before  or  at 
digging  time.  This  practice  requires  some  ability  and  involves  a 
little  extra  expense.  As  stated  before,  the  size  of  the  seed  tuber 


*  N.  D.  Agr.  Exp.,  Bulletin  30. 


PLATE  V  (1) — Long  Segmented  Hyphae  from  Rhizoctonia  stage.  (2)— 
Large,  Short  Segmented  Hyphae  from  a  Sclerotia. 


Potato  Failures. 


does  not  necessarily  indicate  its  seed  value,  and  unless  the  select¬ 
ing  is  done  in  the  field,  the  test  will  usually  be  in  favor  of  the 
larger  seed,  since  No.  2’s  are  most  likely  to  have  a  poor  form  and 
come  from  vines  which  produced  mostly  small  tubers. 

Another  method  which  gives  evidence  of  considerable  practi¬ 
cal  value  is  to  set  aside  each  year  five  or  ten  acres  of  land  for  the 
growing  of  seed  potatoes.  The  soil  of  such  tract  ought  to  be  fer¬ 
tile  and  free  from  the  various  diseases  which  attack  the  potato 
plant.  The  tubers  used  in  planting  the  seed  tract  are  carefully 
selected  each  year  from  the  seed  plat  of  the  previous  year.  The 
surplus  seed  is  used  for  planting  the  general  crop  and  in  this  way 
a  strain  of  pedigree  potatoes  is  gradually  developed. 

Corrosive  Sublimate  and  Formalin  Treatments. — The  practi¬ 
cal  value  of  these  solutions  has  been  carefully  tested.  Our 
experiments  indicate  that  these  treatments  may  prevent  the  scab¬ 
bing  of  tubers  and  improve  the  appearance  of  the  crop,  but  usually 
they  cut  down  the  total  yield  per  acre  when  the  treated  seed  is 
planted  on  infected  ground.  However,  the  corrosive  sublimate 
treatment  gave  marked  gains  when  the  treated  seed  was  planted 
on  new  ground  and  the  per  centage  of  infected  tubers  in  the  crop 
was  much  lower.  Formalin  gave  less  favorable  results,  is  more 
expensive,  and  weakens  when  exposed  to  the  air;  consequently  it 
is  difficult  to  keep  the  solution  at  standard  strength  when  the  dip¬ 
ping  is  done  on  a  large  scale. 

Sulphur . — Thoroughly  covering  infected  seed  with  sulphur  at 
planting  time  apparently  had  very  little  influence  on  the  growth 
of  this  fungus.  The  plants  were  more  or  less  injured  by  the  fun¬ 
gus,  and  the  crop  of  tubers  was  thoroughly  infected  with  it. 

Lime. — Using  lime  at  the  rate  of  3,000  pounds  to  the  acre  did 
not  apparently  check  the  development  of  this  fungus.  The  plants 
did  poorly,  and  the  crop  of  tubers  was  also  thoroughly  infected 
with  the  fungus. 


CONCLUSION. 


The  corticium  or  fruiting  stage  of  this  fungus  develops  freely  on  the 
green  stems  of  the  infected  plants.  However,  it  is  evident  that  the  sclerotia 
which  are  so  common  on  the  stems  and  tubers  are  also  prominent  factors 
in  disseminating  this  disease. 

Experiments  indicate  that  treating  infected  seed  with  the  standard 
formalin  solution  usually  improves  the  appearance  of  the  crop,  but  appar¬ 
ently  weakens  the  plants  and  is  apt  to  be  the  means  of  cutting  down  the 
total  yield  of  tubers  per  acre. 

The  corrosive  sublimate  solution  improved  the  appearance  of  the  crop 
and  gave  marked  gains  when  the  treated  seed  wTas  planted  on  new  land.  A 
weak  solution,  one  ounce  to  ten  gallons  of  water,  gave  better  results  than 
the  standard  when  the  seed  was  dipped  in  sacks  and  planted  on  old  potato 
land. 

Liming  the  soil  at  the  rate  of  3,000  pounds  to  an  acre  apparently  did 
not  check  the  disease. 

Thoroughly  covering  the  seed  with  sulphur  also  gave  negative  results. 

The  burning  of  all  vines  and  weed  stems  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  har¬ 
vested  is  an  excellent  practice. 

Carefully  selecting  clean,  smooth,  round  seed  from  a  lot  of  tubers  com¬ 
paratively  free  from  disease  gave  excellent  results. 

The  shape  and  appearance  of  tubers  give  a  hint  as  to  their  seed  value, 
but  their  crop  record  and  care  of  tubers  after  they  are  harvested  are  also 
important  factors  to  be  considered  in  selecting  seed.  Cull  seed  is  a  poor 
investment  for  a  commercial  grower  at  any  price. 

Spreading  the  seed  tubers  on  a  root  house  floor,  where  they  were  dry 
and  more  or  less  exposed  to  the  air  and  light  for  five  or  six  weeks  before 
planting  gave  good  results. 

Seed  tubers  keep  best  when  stored  in  small  lots  in  comparatively  dry, 
well  aerated  cellars  which  are  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  40°  F. 

Good  seed  is  one  of  the  essential  factors  in  successful  potato  culture; 
still  various  soil  conditions  seem  to  be  fully  as  important.  This  is  especially 
true  where  the  soil  is  infected  with  this  fungus.  Observations  indicate  that 
diseased  plants  growing  in  soils  well  supplied  with  plant  food  are  usually 
more  successful  in  resisting  the  attacks  of  the  fungus  than  those  growing  in 
soils  more  or  less  deficient  in  their  chemical  composition. 

Poorly  aerated  soils  are  also  more  favorable  for  the  development  of 
this  fungus.  Soils  which  have  a  tendency  to  bake  or  form  crusts  need  fre¬ 
quent  cultivation.  This  is  especially  true  while  the  plants  are  young.  Plants 
which  are  thoroughly  cultivated  and  carefully  irrigated  are  apparently 
better  able  to  overcome  the  attacks  of  this  fungus  and  the  tubers  are  usually 
free  from  scab. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  watering.  If  the  rows  are  too 
long  the  field  ought  to  be  divided  into  sections,  so  as  to  be  able  to  apply 
the  water  more  evenly,  and  thus  prevent  part  of  the  field  from  becoming 
too  wet  and  soggy.  Apply  less  water  and  irrigate  more  frequently.  If  the 
ground  bakes  or  forms  a  crust,  cultivate  the  field  as  soon  as  it  becomes  suf¬ 
ficiently  dry.  Keep  the  soil  well  aerated  if  possible. 

Deep  runs  are  also  usually  more  desirable  than  shallow  ones,  since 
by  this  means  the  roots  can  be  supplied  with  plenty  of  moisture  and  at  the 
same  time  prevent  the  soil  where  the  tubers  are  forming  from  becoming 
too  wet,  and  they  also  furnish  a  better  circulation  of  air  at  the  base  of  the 
plants,  thus  making  the  conditions  less  favorable  for  the  development  of 
this  fungus. 


PART  II. 

DETAIL  OF  EXPERIMENTS, 

Experiment  I. — During  the  winter  of  1900,  Mr.  J.  G.  Coy  of  Fort  Collins, 
called  our  attention  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  potato  tubers  grown  on 
his  place  during  the  previous  summer,  apparently  a  mixture  of  Rose  Seed¬ 
ling  and  Queen  of  the  Valley.  Many  of  the  tubers  were  long  and  pointed,  a 
good  lot  of  what  growers  call  “run  out  seed.” 

In  the  spring  of  1901,  seed  was  carefully  selected  from  the  No.  2’s  of 
the  above  lot,  all  diseased  and  “run  out”  tubers  were  rejected,  and  the  seed 
was  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate. 

The  plants  came  up  nicely  but  most  of  them  blighted  badly  and  were 
killed  two  weeks  before  frost.  The  field  yielded  150  sacks  of  tubers  per 
acre,  and  the  tubers  were  much  better  than  those  harvested  in  1900.  Nine 
hundred  and  eighty  pounds  of  the  No.  2’s  of  this  crop  were  used  as  seed  in 
the  experiments  of  1902.  All  tubers  were  carefully  sorted  and  washed.  The 
diseased  and  badly  “run  out”  tubers  were  placed  in  the  poor  lot  and  are 
known  as  cull  seed.  There  were  254  pounds  of  poor  and  796  pounds  of  good 
seed.  All  the  culls  and  434  pounds  of  the  better  seed  were  treated  with  a 
solution  of  8  oz.  of  formalin  to  15  gallons  of  water. 

The  field  selected  for  these  experiments  is  located  on  the  river  bottom 
just  east  of  town,  the  soil  is  of  a  black  sandy  loam.  The  field  was  plowed 
in  early  spring,  and  the  seed  was  planted  on  April  25th.  The  rows  were 
placed  36  inches  apart  and  the  pieces  were  placed  at  intervals  of  about  15 
inches  in  the  row  and  4  inches  deep. 

The  plants  came  up  uniformly,  and  those  of  Plats  IV  and  VI  were 
sprayed  five  times.  The  ground  was  kept  in  almost  perfect  condition  and 
the  plants  looked  unusually  promising  until  about  July  27th,  when  the  field 
was  thoroughly  water.  From  this  time  on  the  soil  was  compact  and  soggy, 
making  the  condition  favorable  for  the  development  of  Corticium.  The  roots 
of  many  of  the  plants  were  killed.  The  leaves  and  stems  soon  showed 
marked  signs  of  sun  scald.  These  injuries  were  soon  followed  by  an  attack 
of  Altenaria,  which  resulted  in  the  complete  destruction  of  all  the  unsprayed 
plants  by  August  18th.  The  sprayed  plants  fared  a  little  better,  but  they, 
too,  were  severely  injured  and  were  all  dead  and  dry  by  August  25th.  There 
were  very  few,  if  any,  pointed  tubers  found  in  selected  seed  lots.  In  this 
experiment  a  sack  of  potatoes  is  estimated  at  100  pounds. 

Plat  I  Check — The  seed  of  this  lot  was  sorted  with  the  greatest  care. 
All  diseased  and  injured  tubers  were  rejected.  Those  which  were  long  and 
pointed,  or  showed  signs  of  “running  out”  were  also  rejected.  The  ground 
was  quite  dry  at  planting  time,  yet  the  plants  were  not  long  delayed  in 
reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  lot  gave  a  yield  of  212  sacks  per 
acre.  No  “run  out”  tubers  were  observed  in  this  plat  at  harvest  time. 

Plat  II — The  seed  in  this  experiment  was  selected  with  the  same  care 
as  that  of  the  preceding  plat.  But  it  was  treated  in  a  solution  of  formalin 
on  April  18th  and  planted  on  April  23rd.  These  plants  reached  the  surface 
of  the  ground  on  time.  This  plat  occupied  the  lowest  part  of  the  field;  con¬ 
sequently  the  subterranean  parts  of  these  plants  suffered  more  from  the  in¬ 
vasion  of  Corticium  than  those  of  the  preceding  plat.  These  plants  were  also 
the  first  to  blight.  This  plat  gave  a  return  of  185  sacks  per  acre,  making  a 
yield  of  26  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted, — a  loss  of  12%. 
No  “run  out”  tubers  were  found  in  this  plat  at  digging  time. 

Plat  III — The  culls  taken  from  the  two  preceding  lots  were  used  in  this 
plat.  It  was  treated  in  a  solution  of  formalin  on  April  18th  and  planted  on 
April  23rd.  The  plat  was  also  located  on  low  ground,  and  these  plants  were 
the  first  to  blight.  An  average  yield  of  130  sacks  per  acre  was  obtained  from 
this  plat — 18  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  tubers  planted — a  loss 
of  39%.  Many  long  and  pointed  tubers  were  taken  from  this  plat. 


22 


Bulletin  91. 


Check  Plat  IV — The  seed  of  this  lot  was  sorted  with  the  greatest  of  care. 
All  diseased  and  injured  tubers  were  rejected.  The  plants  were  sprayed  five 
times  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  This  experiment  gave  a  return  of  254  sacks 
per  acre, — a  return  of  36  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted, 
making  a  gain  of  40  sacks  per  acre  from  spraying.  No  “run  out”  tubers 
found  in  this  lot  at  harvest  time. 

Plat  V — This  seed  was  also  carefully  selected  and  treated  in  a  formalin 
solution  on  April  18th  and  planted  on  April  23rd.  The  plants  reached  the 
surface  of  the  ground  about  the  same  time  as  check  plants,  and  they  were 
sprayed  five  times  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  This  plat  was  located  on  the 
highest  part  of  the  field,  consequently  some  of  the  plants  suffered  more  or 
less  for  moisture.  This  plat  gave  a  return  of  193  sacks  per  acre, — a  return 
of  27  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  tubers  planted,  making  a  loss 
of  24%.  No  “run  out”  tubers  were  taken  from  this  crop.  Spraying  increased 
this  yield  8  sacks  per  acre. 

Plat  VI — This  seed  was  the  last  of  the  culls  taken  from  the  preceding 
lots.  It  was  treated  in  a  formalin  solution  on  April  18th  and  planted  on 
April  23rd.  The  plants  came  up  irregularly,  and  many  of  them  blighted 
early  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  were  carefully  sprayed  five  times.  This 
plat  gave  a  yield  of  161  sacks  per  acre, — a  return  of  23  pounds  of  tubers  for 
every  pound  of  seed  planted,  a  loss  of  36%.  Many  “run  out”  tubers  were 
taken  from  this  crop.  Spraying  increased  their  yield  31  sacks  per  acre. 

Results. — 1.  In  the  three  experiments  where  the  plants  were  sprayed 
five  times  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  gains  of  20%,  5%  and  25%  respectively 
were  obtained. 

2.  Dipping  clean,  sleeted  seed  in  formalin  gave  a  loss  of  12%  in  the  first 
experiment  and  23%  in  the  second. 

3.  Cull  treated  seed  compared  with  good  treated  seed  gave  a  loss  of 
55  sacks  per  acre  in  the  first  experiment  and  32  sacks  in  the  second. 


TABLE  I.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  I. 


ns  £ 

W 

d 

ddd 
c  d  0 

■4-m  rn 

C/} 

r* 

6 

s  © 

O  h 

C  r-l 

d  cn 

c  ® 

X  © 

m  g  d 

§*> 

•  rH 

o 

cd 

TJ1  P 

54-.  O 

cd 

Cm 

TREATMENT. 

S'gl 

rO 

aM 

<£> 

> 

©H  n 
ce 

£  OK 

W  ©  £ 

C/3  £  © 

H  g  S 

^  ft 

C/3  Q. 

W-H 

O 

8  ^ 
&  ft 
g 

3 

p  an 

fc  ° 

Z 

r?  fc5*-1 

PmL  o 

& 

I. 

Check _ 

152 

4605 

30.29 

212 

II. 

Dipped  in  Formalin  Solution _  __ 

217 

5725 

26.38 

12% 

185 

III. 

Cull  Seed  Dipped  in  Formalin  Solution _  ... 

64 

1185 

18.5 

39% 

130 

IV. 

Check,  Plants  Sprayed  5  Times _ 

140 

5070 

36.22 

254 

V. 

Seed  Dipped  in  Formalin  Solution,  plants  spray¬ 
ed  5  times _  _  _ 

217 

5985 

27.58 

21% 

193 

VI. 

Cull  Seed  Dipped  in  Formalin  Solution,  plants 
sprayed  5  times  _  _ _ 

190 

4380 

23.05 

36% 

161 

Experiment  II — The  experiments  given  in  this  table  were  made  by  C. 
H.  Bliss  on  old  potato  ground  in  1902.  It  represents  the  results  of  experi¬ 
ments  carefully  conducted  on  an  extensive  scale,  to  test  the  practical  value 
of  these  seed  treatments.  Great  care  was  exercised  to  have  the  soil,  water¬ 
ing  and  cultivation  as  nearly  the  same  as  possible.  A  short  rotation  of 
wheat,  alfalfa  and  potatoes  has  been  practiced  on  this  place.  The  standard 
formalin  treatment  was  used  in  the  first  three  of  these  experiments.  A  weak 
solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  fourth,  and  a  strong  solution  of  cor¬ 
rosive  sublimate  in  the  last.  All  the  treated  seed  was  dipped  in  sacks. 

Experiments  I  and  III  gave  a  loss  of  11  and  10%  respectively,  while  Ex¬ 
periment  II  gave  a  gain  of  only  3%.  The  wTeak  solution  of  corrosive  sub- 


Potato  Failures. 


23 


limate  gave  no  result  in  one  case,  while  in  the  other  it  gave  a  gain  of  16%. 
A  strong  solution,  on  the  other  hand,  gave  a  loss  of  21%. 

Results. — 1.  These  experiments  indicate  that  formalin  has  no  marked 
value  wrhen  the  treated  seed  is  planted  on  old  potato  ground. 

2.  A  weak  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  has  a  slight  value,  but  a 
strong  solution  is  injurious  when  the  treated  seed  is  planted  on  old  potato 
land. 


TABLE  II.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  II. 


m 

w 

fl 

u 

0> 

rO 

a 

H 

H 

£ 

o 

K 

«4-» 

U 

<D 

C  m 

5^ 

P  o 

>> 

O  K. 

ce  > 
CO  o 

‘wW 

3 

t£ 

5+h  in 

O  in 

£ 

HH 

« 

TREATMENT 

o 

u 

0) 

^  cS 
CO 

?  <o 

S3  . 

oi 

s 

s 

2 

Co  o 

O 

I5 

o  0 

© 

z n 

£ 

PH 

( 

Check _ 

5 

45 

9 

I. 

Pearl _ ■< 

l 

Formalin _ 

6 

48 

8 

11#  loss 

( 

Check _ 

3 

24% 

8 

II. 

Pearl _ ■< 

l 

Formalin..  _ 

4 

33 

8% 

10 

o#  gain 

( 

Check _ 

4 

40 

III. 

Pearl _ ■< 

l 

Formalin _  ..  _ 

4 

36% 

9 

10#  loss 

r 

Check _  ..  _ 

6 

40 

Rural 

>■ 

1— 1 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  weak  solution ... 

8 

62 

7% 

16#  gain 

New  Yorkers 

L 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  weak  solution _ 

4 

26% 

6% 

Neither  gain 
or  loss 

V. 

Rural 

Check _ _  _ 

4 

27 

m 

New  Yorkers  \ 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  strong  solution. __ 

4 

21% 

5% 

22#  loss 

Experiment  III — These  experiments  were  conducted  by  C.  H.  Bliss  in 
1902;  they  were  also  made  to  test  the  practical  value  of  treating  seed  when 
such  seed  is  planted  on  old  potato  ground.  Home  grown  Rural  New  Yorker 
seed  was  used  in  this  experiment.  A  short  rotation  of  potatoes,  wheat  and 
alfalfa  has  been  practiced  on  this  place.  A  fair  crop  of  alfalfa  was  plowed 
under  in  the  spring  before  planting.  The  ground  was  plowed  about  nine 
inches  deep  and  the  seed  was  planted  four  inches  deep  on  May  22.  The  cul¬ 
tivations  and  irrigations  were  the  same  in  all  the  plats.  The  runs  were 
made  about  eight  inches  deep. 

This  was  an  exceptionally  poor  season  for  this  section,  and  the  returns 
given  in  this  table  are  considerably  below  an  average  crop.  A  sack  of  tubers 
is  estimated  at  100  pounds. 

Plat  1  Check — The  seed  in  this  plat  was  rough  and  more  or  less  cov¬ 
ered  with  sclerotia  of  Corticium.  This  plat  occupied  slightly  the  best  soil. 
The  plants  all  suffered  some  from  the  attack  of  this  fungus.  Six  hundred 
pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  8,270  pounds  of  tubers.  The  tubers  were 
rough  and  of  a  poor  quality. 

Plat  II — The  seed  of  this  plat  was  the  same  as  that  used  in  check.  It 
was  treated  in  a  solution  of  one  ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  8  gallons 
of  water,  iy2  hours  on  May  15th  and  planted  on  May  22nd.  The  plants  were 
backward  from  the  start  and  never  fully  overtook  the  check  plants.  All 
plants  were  more  or  less  diseased,  and  the  quality  of  the  tubers  was  no  bet¬ 
ter  than  those  of  the  check  plat.  Six  hundred  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return 
of  6,545  pounds  of  tubers,  making  a  yield  of  about  11  pounds  of  tubers  for 
every  pound  of  seed  planted — a  loss  of  20%. 

Plat  III — All  the  seed  in  this  plat  was  free  from  sclerotia;  however, 
most  of  the  tubers  were  more  or  less  covered  with  hyphae.  The  plants 


24 


Bulletin  91. 


reached  the  surface  of  the  ground  about  the  same  time  as  those  of  the  check 
plat.  They  all  suffered  some  from  this  disease,  and  the  crop  was  of  a  poor 
quality  and  many  of  the  tubers  were  covered  with  sclerotia.  Six  hundred 
pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  7,555  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of 
seed  planted,  a  loss  of  about  8%. 

Results. — 1.  Diseased  seed  treated  with  the  standard  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate  solution  and  planted  on  old  potato  ground  gave  a  loss  of  20%. 

2.  Seed  free  from  the  sclerotia  stage,  but  more  or  less  covered  with 
the  rhizoctonia  stage,  planted  on  old  ground,  gave  a  loss  of  8%. 


TABLE  HI.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  III. 


Plat  Number 

TREATMENT 

Number  Pounds 
of  Seed  Planted 

Pounds  of  Pota¬ 
toes  Harvested 

Yield  in  Pounds 

for  every 

Pound  of  Seed 

Planted 

Per  Cent,  of  Loss 

Number  cf 

Rows  to  the 

Acre 

Check  ____ 

600 

8270 

13.75 

5 

Treated  _ 

600 

6515 

10.9 

20  % 

5 

Selected  Seed _ 

600 

7555 

12.59 

Oo 

5 

Experiment  IV — The  following  experiments  were  made  by  S.  A.  Brad- 
field  in  1902  to  test  the  value  of  treating  diseased  seed  with  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate  when  such  seed  is  planted  on  old  potato  ground.  A  short  rotation  of 
wheat,  alfalfa  and  potatoes  has  been  practiced  on  this  place  for  a  number 
of  years.  A  fair  crop  of  alfalfa  was  plowed  under  in  the  spring  before 
planting.  The  soil  in  this  field  is  of  a  black  loam,  slightly  sandy;  it  slopes 
gradually  to  the  south  and  east.  The  runs  between  the  rows  were  from 
seven  to  eight  inches  deep,  which  made  it  possible  by  carefully  watering  to 
supply  the  roots  with  plenty  of  moisture,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent 
the  soil  in  which  the  tubers  developed  from  becoming  too  wet  and  soggy. 
Second  year’s  Divide  Pearl  seed  was  used  in  these  experiments. 

Plat  I  Check — This  plat  was  located  on  lower  and  in  slightly  better  soil 
than  the  other  two  experiments.  All  the  tubers  were  more  or  less  covered 
with  sclerotia  of  Corticium.  The  seed  was  planted  about  May  18th.  Five 
hundred  and  six  pounds  of  seed  yielded  11,553  pounds  of  tubers,  giving  a  re¬ 
turn  of  23  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted.  These  tubers 
were  smaller,  and  were  more  or  less  covered  with  sclerotia.  Careful  obser¬ 
vation  also  showed  that  this  lot  also  contained  the  most  scabby  tubers. 

Plat  II — The  seed  of  this  plat  was  more  or  less  covered  with  sclerotia, 
but  they  were  treated  with  a  solution  of  one  ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate 
to  eight  gallons  of  water  for  1%  hours  nine  days  before  they  were  planted. 
These  plants  were  five  days  late  in  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A 
careful  examination  of  plants  from  various  parts  of  this  plat  showed  plainly 
that  most  of  the  plants  had  their  subterranean  parts  covered  with  the  hy- 
phae  of  this  fungus.  Six  hundred  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  11,161 
pounds  of  tubers,  making  18%  pounds  of  potatoes  for  every  pound  of  seed 
planted,  but  the  tubers  were  cleaner,  larger  and  better  in  every  way  than 
those  in  the  Check  plat. 

Plat  III — This  seed  was  taken  from  the  same  lot  of  tubers  as  those  in 
the  other  experiments.  All  tubers  having  sclerotia  on  them  were  rejected, 
but  many  of  the  tubers  were  scabby  and  all  of  them  were  more  or  less  cov¬ 
ered  with  the  hyphae.  This  experiment  occupied  the  highest  and  probably 
the  poorest  ground.  Five  hundred  and  four  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return 
of  10,574  pounds,  making  21  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted. 
A  loss  of  9%.  However,  the  tubers  were  larger  and  cleaner  than  those  of 
the  Check  plat. 


Potato  Failures. 


25 


Results. — 1.  Diseased  seed  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  gave  a  loss 
of  20%. 

2.  Seed  free  from  the  sclerotia  stage,  out  more  or  less  covered  with  the 
rhizoctonia  stage  gave  a  loss  of  9%.  The  tubers  were  larger  and  of  a  better 
quality. 

TABLE  IV.,  SHOWING  RESULT  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  IV. 


Plat  Number 

TREATMENT. 

Number  Pounds 

of  Seed  Tubers 

Planted 

Total  Number  of 

Pounds  of  Tubers 

Harvested 

Yield  in  Pounds 

for  every  Pound  of 

Seed  Tubers 

Planted 

Loss 

Yield  in  Sacks 

per  Acre 

I 

Check _ 

506 

11553 

23 

137 

II. 

Seed  Treated  with  1  oz.  Corrosive  Sublimate  to  8 
gallons  of  water.  _  . . 

600 

11161 

1814 

20$ 

111 

III. 

Washed  and  all  tubers  containing  sclerotia  rejected 

504 

10574 

21 

6$ 

126 

Experiment  V — The  experiments  in  the  following  table  were  conducted 
by  E.  R.  Bliss  in  1902.  They  were  made  on  old  potato  ground,  but  the  field  had 
been  in  alfalfa  during  the  previous  two  years,  and  a  fair  crop  of  alfalfa  was 
plowed  under  in  the  spring  before  planting.  The  seed  was  treated  with  for¬ 
malin  on  May  20  and  planted  about  May  24.  The  rows  compared  were  of 
the  same  length,  and  the  cultivation  and  irrigation  in  all  the  experiments 
were  the  same.  A  sack  of  tubers  in  these  experiments  is  estimated  at  100 
pounds. 

Lot  1,  Plat  I  Check — Sixty  pounds  to  the  row  of  Prolific  seed  from  the 
Divide  were  used  in  this  plat.  The  soil  in  this  plat  was  slightly  better  than 
that  of  the  treated  seed  plat;  otherwise  the  conditions  were  the  same;  only  a 
few  deceased  plants  were  observed  in  this  plat.  This  plat  gave  a  return  of 
26  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  a  yield  of  158  sacks  per 
acre. 

Plat  II — Sixty  pounds  to  the  row  of  Prolific  Divide  seed  were  use  in 
this  plat.  It  was  dipped  in  sacks  in  a  solution  of  eight  ounces  of 
formalin  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water  for  two  hours.  No  diseased  plants 

were  observed  in  this  plat  and  the  crop  of  tubers  was  clean  and 

smooth.  Twenty-four  pounds  of  seed  were  harvested  for  every  pound  of  seed 
planted,  making  a  return  of  144  sacks  per  acre — a  loss  of  10%. 

Lot  II.  Plat  I  Check — Fifty  pounds  to  the  row  of  Pearl  first  year’s  Wis¬ 
consin  seed  were  used  in  this  plat.  It  was  planted  May  30th.  The  soil,  cul¬ 
tivations  and  irrigations  were  as  nearly  the  same  in  these  plats  as  it  was 
possible  to  have  them.  Thirty-three  pounds  of  tubers  were  harvested  for 
every  pound  of  seed  planted — a  return  of  199  sacks  per  acre. 

Plat  II — Fifty  pounds  to  the  row  of  first  year’s  Wisconsin  Pearl 

were  planted  in  this  plat,  which  had  been  treated  in  sacks  wuth 

a  solution  of  eight  ounces  of  formalin  to  sixteen  gallons  of  water  for 
two  hours.  One  thousand  two  hundred  pounds  of  this  seed  were  planted  on 
May  24th,  and  the  remaining  2,640  pounds  on  May  26th.  No  diseased  plants 
were  observed  in  this  plat  and  the  tubers  were  clean,  smooth  and  free  from 
disease.  One  pound  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  30  pounds  of  tubers — a  yield  of 
179  sacks  per  acre,  making  a  loss  of  10%. 

Lot  III.  Plat  I  Check — Forty  pounds  to  the  row  of  second  year  Wis¬ 
consin  Pearl  seed  were  used  in  this  plat.  There  were  some  deceased 
plants  observed  in  this  plat,  but  on  the  whole  the  plants  were  strong  and 
vigorous.  One  pound  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  25  pounds  of  tubers — a  yield 
of  about  150  sacks  per  acre. 

Plat  II — Forty  pounds  to  the  row  of  second  year  Wisconsin  Pearl  seed 
were  used  in  this  lot.  It  was  treated  in  sacks  with  a  solution  of  eight  ounces 


Bulletin  91. 


26 


of  formalin  to  sixteen  gallons  of  water  for  two  hours.  Each  pound  of  seed 
gave  a  return  of  21  pounds  of  tubers,  making  a  yield  of  about  128  sacks  of 
tubers  per  acre — a  loss  of  14%%. 

Results. — 1.  Divide  Prolifiic  seed  treated  with  standard  formalin  solu¬ 
tion  gave  a  loss  of  10%. 

2.  First  year’s  Wisconsin  Pearl  seed  treated  in  standard  formalin  solu¬ 
tion  gave  a  loss  of  10%. 

3.  Second  year’s.  Wisconsin  Pearl  seed  treated  in  a  standard  formalin 
solution  gave  a  loss  of  14%. 


TABLE  V.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  V. 


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Experiment  VI — The  experiments  given  in  the  following  table  were  made 
by  the  Agricultural  Department  in  1901.  Rose  Seedling  seed  was  used  which 
had  been  stored  in  a  damp  cellar.  Many  of  the  tubers  were  more  or  less 
covered  with  Corticium  hyphae.  This  seed  was  removed  from  the  cellar 
about  June  1st,  and  placed  in  a  dry  room  until  June  12th,  which  thoroughly 
dried  all  the  tubers.  The  field  on  which  this  seed  was  planted  Jhas  been 
under  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years.  It  was  plowed  late  in  the  spring 
and  the  seed  was  planted  on  June  12th.  None  of  the  plats  were  watered, 
still  nearly  all  of  the  plants  remained  green  until  killed  by  frost. 

Plat  I  Check — These  plants  were  more  or  less  diseased,  but  most  of 
them  looked  strong  and  healthy  until  killed  by  frost.  The  fruiting  stage 
of  this  fungus  was  observed  on  many  of  the  plants.  One  hundred  and  forty 
pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  767  pounds  of  tubers,  a  yield  of  5  33-100 
pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  or  about  32  sacks  per  acre. 

Plat  II — This  seed  was  of  the  same  grade  as  the  check  lot.  It  was 
treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  one  week  before  it  was  planted.  These 
plants  were  a  little  slow  in  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  they 
soon  looked  fully  as  strong  and  vigorous  as  the  checks.  Very  few  scabby 
or  diseased  tubers  were  found  in  this  lot.  One  hundred  and  one  pounds  of 
seed  produced  539  pounds  of  tubers,  a  return  of  5  17-50  pounds  of  tubers  for 
every  pound  of  seed  planted,  making  about  32  sacks  per  acre,  no  gain  over 
check. 

Plat  III — This  seed  was  also  of  the  same  grade  as  the  check  lot,  but  it 
was  treated  with  formalin  a  week  before  it  was  planted.  The  plants  came 
up  fully  as  well  as  those  of  the  check  plat  and  apparently  were  as  strong 
and  vigorous.  One  hundred  and  five  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  466 
pounds  of  smooth  clean  tubers,  a  yield  of  4  11-25  pounds  of  tubers  for  every 
pound  of  seed  planted,  making  a  loss  of  17%.  About  27  sacks  of  tubers  to 
the  acre. 

Plat  IV — This  seed  was  carefully  selected,  rejecting  all  tubers  contain¬ 
ing  sclerotia,  but  all  of  the  seed  tubers  were  more  or  less  covered  with  the 
hyphae.  Eighty  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  475  pounds  of  tubers,  a 


27 


Potato  Failures. 


return  of  six  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted.  The 
tubers  were  all  more  or  less  covered  with  the  sclerotia,  but  were  not 
so  badly  scabbed  as  the  tubers  of  the  check  plant.  This  plat  gave  a  return 
of  36  sacks  per  acre. 

Plat  V — This  was  the  poorest  lot  of  seed,  about  30%  of  the  tubers  fail¬ 
ing  to  produce  plants  which  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  plants 
did  poorly  and  many  of  those  that  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground  died 
before  the  close  of  the  season.  Thirty-five  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of 
107  pounds  of  small,  rough  tubers, — a  yield  of  a  little  over  three  pounds  of 
tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  making  a  loss  of  42%,  a  return  of 
about  19  sacks  per  acre. 

Results. — 1.  Success  or  failure  in  potato  culture  in  this  section  of  the 
state  depends  much  upon  the  Tvater  supply. 

2.  The  corrosive  sublimate  seed  treatment  gave  no  marked  results  when 
the  treated  seed  was  plantd  on  land  which  had  been  under  cultivation  for  a 
number  of  years. 

3.  The  formalin  seed  treatment  gave  a  loss  of  17%  when  such  seed  was 
planted  on  ground  which  had  been  under  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years. 

4.  Carefully  selecting  seed,  free  from  sclerotia  stage,  gave  a  gain  of  11%. 


TABLE  VI.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  VI. 


Plat  Number  j 

TREATMENT. 

Number  Pounds  of 
Seed  Potatoes 
Planted 

Total  Number  of 
Tubers  Harvested 

Yield  in  Pounds 
for  every  Pound  of 
Seed  Tubers 
Planted 

Gain  or  Loss 

I. 

Check _ 

149 

767.30 

5.33 

II. 

Treated  with  Corrosive  Sublimate _  _ _ 

101 

539.50 

5.34 

III. 

Treated  with  Formalin _ 

105 

466.50 

4.44 

17* 

Loss 

IV. 

Seed  free  from  Sclerotia,  but  more  or  less  covered 
with  hyphae _  _ 

fO 

475.50 

5.94 

11* 

Gain 

V. 

Cull  Seed _ 

35 

107.70 

3.08 

Loss 

m 

o 

a  p 
g 

Sh 

r r*  0) 

2  Cl 
0) 

•  rH 


32 


32 

27 

36 


19 


Experiment  VII — Rose  Seedling  seed  was  used  in  this  experiment  which 
was  raised  by  the  Agricultural  Department  from  tubers  bought  on  the  mar¬ 
ket  in  the  spring  of  1901.  Many  of  the  tubers  were  covered  with  the  hyphae 
and  sclerotia  of  Corticium.  This  seed  was  planted  on  an  old  berry  plantation, 
located  on  a  knoll  sloping  toward  the  south  and  west.  The  soil  is  of  a 
sandy  loam,  and  has  been  well  cultivated  and  manured  during  the  past  five 
years.  It  was  plowed  8  inches  deep  in  early  spring  and  planted  on  May  6. 
The  rows  were  planted  40  inches  apart,  the  pieces  being  put  at  intervals  of 
about  9  inches  and  5  inches  deep. 

The  plants  of  this  experiment  were  sprayed  three  times  with  Bordeaux 
mixture.  There  was  very  little  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  plants 
in  the  various  plats  at  any  time  during  the  season.  The  water  was  low  in 
the  ditch  during  the  later  part  of  the  summer,  so  this  field  was  irrigated  but 
twice.  The  plants  on  the  higher  soil  suffered  some  from  sun  scald.  Al- 
tenaria  was  also  found  on  some  of  the  plants,  but  it  apparently  developed 
only  on  those  which  had  an  injured  root  system.  The  weight  of  a  sack  of 
tubers  is  estimated  at  100  pounds. 

Plat  I  Check — This  seed  was  stored  in  the  dugout  all  winter.  Many  of 
the  tubers  were  more  or  less  covered  with  the  sclerotia  of  Corticium.  The 
tubers  were  cut  on  May  5  and  planted  on  the  following  day.  These  plants 
did  quite  well,  but  a  number  of  diseased  plants  were  observed  in  this  plat 


28 


Bulletin  91. 


during  the  summer,  and  many  diseased  tubers  were  found  in  this  plat  at 
harvest  time.  It  gave  an  average  yield  of  147  sacks  of  tubers  per  acre. 

Plat  II — This  seed  also  contained  many  diseased  tubers,  but  it  was 
treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  one  day  before  planting.  The  plants  were 
five  days  late  in  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A  few  diseased  plants 
were  observed  in  this  plat  during  the  summer,  but  the  tubers  were  clean, 
smooth  and  free  from  both  scab  and  sclerotia.  This  plat  gave  a  return  of 
213  sacks  of  tubers  per  acre,  a  gain  of  66  sacks  per  acre. 

Plat  III — This  seed  was  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  on  December 
9th.  After  it  became  thoroughly  dry  it  was  again  sacked  and  placed  in  the 
dugout  until  May  6th,  when  it  was  cut  and  planted.  The  plants  were  a  week 
late  in  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  they  did  nicely  and  no  dis¬ 
eased  plants  were  observed  in  this  plat.  The  tubers  were  clean,  smooth  and 
free  from  both  scab  and  sclerotia.  This  plat  gave  a  return  of  160  sacks  of 
tubers  per  acre,  a  gain  of  13  sacks  per  acre  over  check. 

Plat  IV — This  seed  was  taken  from  the  dugout  on  December  9th,  and 
treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  one  hour  and  then  placed  on  the  floor  until 
thoroughly  dry,  when  it  was  sacked  and  placed  in  the  dugout  until  May  5th, 
when  it  was  again  placed  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  for  one  hour. 
It  was  cut  and  planted  on  May  6th.  The  plants  were  8  days  late  in  reaching 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  did  nicely,  however,  and  no  diseased  plants 
were  observed  in  this  plat.  The  crop  was  clean,  smooth  and  free  from 
both  scab  and  sclerotia.  This  plat  gave  a  return  of  143  sacks  of  tubers  per 
acre,  a  loss  of  4  sacks  per  acre  over  check. 

Plat  V — This  seed  was  exposed  to  the  light  23  days,  five  months  before 
planting.  It  was  then  stored  in  the  dugout  until  May  6th,  when  it  was  cut 
and  planted.  The  plants  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground  a  few  days  in 
advance  of  those  of  the  check  plat.  A  number  of  diseased  plans  were  ob¬ 
served  in  this  plat,  but  no  scab  or  sclerotia  was  observed  on  the  tubers  at 
harvest  time.  This  seed  gave  a  return  of  196  sacks  of  tubers  per  acre,  a 
gain  of  49  sacks  per  acre. 

Plat  VI — This  seed  was  stored  in  the  dugout  all  winter.  On  May  5th 
all  the  stem  ends  were  removed;  otherwise  the  seed  was  treated  like  that 
of  the  check  plat.  No  difference  was  noticed  in  the  appearance  of  the  plants 
in  these  two  plats.  Some  of  the  tubers  contained  a  few  sclerotia  at  harvest 
time.  This  plat  gave  a  return  of  153  sacks  of  tubers  per  acre,  a  gain  of  6 
sacks  per  acre. 

Results. — 1.  The  standard  corrosive  sublimate  treatment  gave  an  in¬ 
creased  yield  of  45%.  The  tubers  were  larger,  cleaner  and  better  in  every 
way. 

2.  Treating  seed  with  corrosive  sublimate  five  months  before  planting 
gave  an  increased  yield  of  9%.  The  tubers  were  also  larger,  cleaner  and 
better  than  those  of  the  check  plat. 

3.  Treating  the  seed  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  standard 
strength,  one  hour,  five  months  before  planting,  and  again  one  hour  one  day 
before  planting,  gave  a  loss  of  2%,  but  the  tubers  were  clean,  smooth  and 
free  from  disease. 

4.  Exposing  the  seed  to  the  light  23  days  five  months  before  planting 
apparently  increased  the  yield  35%. 

5.  Rejecting  the  stem  end  piece  did  not  give  marked  results. 


Potato  Failures. 


29 


TABLE  VII.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  VII. 


Plat  Number. 

TREATMENT. 

Number  Pounds  of 

Seed  Tubers 

Harvested 

Total  Number 

Pounds  of  Tubers 

Harvested 

Yield  in  Pounds 

for  every  Pound  of 

Tubers  Planted 

Gain  or  Loss 

Yield  in  Sacks 

per  Acre 

I. 

Check _  . 

111 

1809 

16.30 

147 

II. 

Treated  with  Corrosive  Sublimate  1  day  before  planting 

90 

2125 

23.61 

45$ 

Gain 

213 

III. 

Treated  with  Corrosive  Sublimate  5  months  before  planting 

109 

937 

17.77 

9$ 

Gain 

160 

IV. 

Double  Corrosive  Sublimate  Treatment  .  _  ...  _ 

112 

1783 

15.90 

2$ 

Loss 

35$ 

Gain 

143 

V. 

Seed  Exposed  to  Light  23  days,  4  months  before  planting. 

104 

2267 

21.79 

196 

VI. 

Stem  End  Rejected _  _ 

89 

1514 

17.00 

4$ 

Gain 

153 

Experiment  VIII — Rose  Seedling  seed  was  used  in  this  experiment  which 
was  from  the  No.  l’s  of  last  year’s  experiment.  It  was  planted  on  April  9th. 
The  plants  came  up  nicely  and  they  were  irrigated  twice,  still,  most  of  them 
remained  green  until  killed  by  frost.  Some  showed  marked  sun  scald  in¬ 
juries  early  in  the  season,  which  were  soon  followed  by  early  blight. 

The  field  used  in  this  experiment  had  been  under  cultivation  for  the 
past  seven  years.  The  soil  is  of  a  heavy  clayey  loam.  This  field  has  re¬ 
ceived  very  little  manure  during  the  past  five  years.  The  soil  was  too  heavy 
for  a  desirable  potato  field. 

Plat  I  Check — The  largest  tubers  from  last  year’s  check  plat  were  used 
for  seed  in  this  lot.  Most  of  the  plants  remained  green,  but  some  of  them 
had  their  subterranean  parts  badly  injured  and  developed  marked  sun  scald 
injuries.  Three  hundred  and  nine  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  1,716 
pounds  of  tubers,  or  5*4  pounds  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted. 

Plat  II — This  seed  was  selected  from  the  No.  1  of  a  lot  which  had  been 
treated  with  formalin  last  year.  They  were  treated  with  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate  on  April  30,  and  planted  on  May  9.  These  plants  reached  the  surface 
of  the  ground  about  as  soon  as  those  of  the  check  plat.  No  diseased  plants 
were  observed  in  this  plat.  Three  hundred  and  thirty-four  pounds  of  seed 
gave  a  return  of  2,616  pounds  of  clean  tubers,  a  yield  of  7.8  pounds  of  tubers 
for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  making  a  gain  of  41%  over  check. 

Plat  III — This  seed  was  selected  from  the  No.  l’s  of  last  year’s  experi¬ 
ments.  Only  clean,  round,  smooth  tubers  were  used.  All  long  and  all  flat 
tubers  were  rejected.  The  soil  of  this  plat  was  in  a  better  condition  than 
the  soil  of  the  other  plats.  No  diseased  plants  were  found  in  this  plat,  and 
the  tubers  were  fully  as  clean  and  smooth  as  those  of  the  treated  lot.  Two 
hundred  and  forty-six  pounds  of  seed  yielded  2,807  pounds  of  tubers,  a  return 
of  11  y2  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  giving  a  gain  of 
106%  over  check. 

Plat  IV — Seed  in  this  lot  was  selected  from  the  various  lots  of  last  year’s 
experiments.  Only  the  long,  smooth  tubers  were  used.  The  plants 
were  not  so  strong  and  vigorous  as  those  of  Plat  III,  but  no  diseased  plants 
were  observed  in  this  plat.  The  tubers  were  all  long,  but  only  a  few  pointed 
ones  were  found  at  harvest  time.  One  hundred  and  ninety-three  pounds  of 
seed  gave  a  return  of  1,283  pounds  of  tubers,  a  yield  of  6Y2  pounds  of  tubers 
for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  making  a  gain  of  20%  over  check. 

Plat  V — This  seed  was  selected  from  the  No.  l’s  of  the  previous  year’s 
experiments.  At  least  2*0%  of  them  had  a  few  sclerotia  of  Corticium  on  them. 
Many  diseased  plants  were  observed  in  the  plat  and  the  crop  was  rough  and 


30 


Bulletin  91. 


scabby.  Two  hundred  and  eighty-one  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  1,531 
pounds  of  tubers,  a  yield  of  5 y2  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed 
planted,  making  a  loss  of  2%. 

Plat  VI — This  seed  was  selected  from  the  culls  of  last  year’s  experi¬ 
ments.  Only  the  round  tubers  were  used.  One  hundred  and  seventy-five 
pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  982  pounds  of  tubers,  a  yield  of  5%  pounds 
of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  an  increase  of  2%  over  check. 

Results. — 1.  Treating  diseased  seed  with  corrosive  sublimate,  standard 
strength,  increased  the  yield  41%. 

2.  Carefully  selecting  perfect  shaped  tubers  gave  a  gain  of  106%  of 
smooth,  round  tubers. 

3.  Carefully  selecting  clean,  long  tubers  gave  a  gain  of  20%,  but  the 
tubers  were  all  long  and  ill  shaped. 

4.  Cull  seed  gave  a  loss  of  2%.  The  tubers  were  rough  and  scabby. 

5.  Small,  round  seed  gave  a  gain  of  2%  over  check  and  the  crop  was 
fully  as  good  in  every  way. 

TABLE  VIII.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  VIII. 


Plat  Number 

TREATMENT 

Number  Pounds  of 
Seed  Tubers 

Planted 

Total  Number  of 

Pounds  of  Tubers 

Harvested 

Yield  in  Pounds 

for  every  Pound  of 

Seed  Planted 

Gain  or  Loss 

Yield  in  Sacks 

per  Acre 

i. 

Check _  _  ...  .  ...  .  ._  ...  _ 

309 

1716 

5.55 

39 

ii. 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  1  oz.  to  8  gallons  of  water. __  _  .  . 

334 

2616 

7.83 

41$ 

Gain 

55 

hi. 

Large  Selected  Seed..  .....  _  ...  ..  ..  ._  ...  . 

246 

2807 

11.41 

106$ 

Gain 

80 

IV. 

Long  Pointed  Seed.  _  _  __  _______  ___ 

193 

1283 

6.64 

20$ 

Gain 

46 

V. 

Diseased  Seed  _  .  _  _.  ..  ...  _  _. 

281 

1531 

5.44 

2$ 

Loss 

38 

VI. 

Small  Round  Seed..  _  ...  _  _  _  _  ...  _ 

175 

.  982 

5.61 

2$ 

Gain 

39 

Experiment  IX — These  experiments  were  conducted  in  a  field  which  had 
been  planted  in  currents  during  the  previous  four  years.  It  slopes  toward 
the  west  and  the  soil  is  a  heavy  clay,  but  it  has  been  well  manured  and 
cultivated  for  a  number  of  years.  It  was  plowed  8  inches  deep  in  early 
spring  and  on  May  6th  planted  with  Rural  New  Yorker  seed.  These  tubers 
were  exceptionally  clean.  They  were  taken  from  a  lot  of  tubers  which  was 
raised  from  mountain  seed  in  1901  by  the  Agricultural  Department.  The 
rows  were  planted  40  inches  apart,  the  pieces  being  placed  at  intervals  of 
15  inches,  and  5  inches  deep.  The  plants  in  this  experiment  came  up  uni¬ 
formly,  and  were  all  sprayed  three  times  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  which 
kept  their  foliage  in  good  condition  until  killed  by  frost  on  the  night  of  Sep¬ 
tember  11th. 

The  water  was  unusually  low  in  the  ditch  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
season,  consequently  the  plants  in  all  of  these  plats  suffered  more  or  less 
from  lack  of  moisture.  All  the  plats  were  watered  twice  excepting  Plat  V, 
which  was  watered  three  times.  The  return  from  this  plat  shows  plainly 
that  if  the  field  had  been  properly  watered  the  yield  would  have  been  much 
larger.  The  plants  in  this  experiment  were  carefully  watched  during  the 
entire  season,  and  we  observed  only  a  few  diseased  plants  in  these  plats. 
The  tubers  were  clean,  smooth  and  free  from  scab. 

Plat  I  Check — The  seed  in  this  lot  was  taken  from  the  dugout  on  De¬ 
cember  9th  and  was  placed  in  water  two  hours  and  then  placed  on  the  floor 


Potato  Failures. 


31 


of  the  Horticultural  Building  until  thoroughly  dry,  when  it  was  sacked  and 
placed  in  the  dugout.  On  May  6th  it  was  cut  and  planted.  The  plants  came 
up  nicely  and  remained  strong  and  vigorous  all  the  season,  giving  an  aver¬ 
age  yield  of  142  sacks  per  acre  of  clean,  smooth  tubers. 

Plat  II — This  seed  was  treated  with  a  solution  of  one  ounce  corrosive 
sublimate  to  eight  gallons  of  water  on  December  9th.  After  the  tubers  had 
been  soaked  one  hour  they  were  placed  on  the  floor  until  dry,  when  they 
were  sacked  and  stored  in  the  dugout.  On  May  5th  they  were  again  treated 
with  corrosive  sublimate  for  one  hour  and  cut  and  planted  on  the  following 
day.  The  plants  were  a  little  later  in  reaching  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
but  six  weeks  later  they  were  fully  as  large  and  vigorous  as  those  of  the 
check  plat.  No  diseased  plants  or  tubers  were  found  in  this  plat.  This  plat 
gave  an  average  yield  of  144  sacks  per  acre  of  clean,  smooth  tubers,  a  gain 
of  2  sacks  per  acre  over  check. 

Plat  III — The  seed  in  this  plat  was  taken  from  the  dugout  on  December 
9th,  and  treated  two  hours  with  a  solution  of  eight  ounces  of  formalin  to 
sixteen  gallons  of  water.  The  tubers  were  then  placed  on  the  floor  until 
the  following  day,  when  they  were  sacked  and  placed  in  the  dugout  until 
May  6th,  when  they  were  cut  and  planted.  The  plants  reached  the  surface 
of  the  ground  on  time,  and  were  strong  and  vigorous  until  killed  by  frost. 
No  diseased  tubers  were  observed  wThen  the  crop  was  harvested.  This  plat 
gave  a  gain  of  13  sacks  per  acre,  but  this  gain  was  probably  due  to  seepage 
water  from  the  lawn  thoroughly  soaking  six  of  the  rows  on  the  night  of 
August  3rd.  These  tubers  were  unusually  good. 

Plat  IV — This  seed  was  taken  from  the  dugout  on  December  7th,  and 
placed  on  the  basement  floor  of  the  Horticultural  Hall,  where  it  was  fully 
exposed  to  the  light  On  the  30th  of  December  it  was  again  sacked  and 
placed  in  the  dugout.  On  May  6th  it  was  taken  out,  cut  and  planted.  These 
plants  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground  possibly  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
check,  but  they  showed  no  marked  gain  over  the  the  check  plants  at  any 
time.  This  plat  gave  an  average  yield  of  144  sacks  to  the  acre  of  clean, 
smooth  tubers,  a  gain  of  two  sacks  per  acre  over  check. 

Plat  V — This  seed  was  selected  and  treated  just  the  same  as  that  of  the 
check  plat,  but  the  plants  were  carefully  irrigated  three  times.  No  diseased 
plants  or  tubers  were  taken  from  this  plat.  The  plants  remained  green  and 
vigorous  until  killed  by  frost.  This  plat  gave  an  average  yield  of  197  sacks 
per  acre  of  good,  large  tubers,  a  gain  of  55  sacks  per  acre  over  .the  check. 

Results. — 1.  Dipping  clean,  healthy  seed  tubers  in  a  solution  of  cor¬ 
rosive  sublimate,  standard  strength,  for  one  hour,  five  months  before  plant¬ 
ing,  and  again  for  one  hour  just  before  planting,  apparently  had  no  influence 
on  the  seed  when  such  seed  was  planted  in  new  ground. 

2.  Clean,  healthy  seed  treated  in  a  solution  of  eight  ounces  of  formalin 
to  sixteen  gallons  of  water  for  two  hours,  five  months  before  planting,  gave 
no  marked  result  when  such  seed  was  planted  in  new  ground. 

3.  Exposing  clean,  healthy  seed  to  the  light  23  days,  five  months  before 
planting,  gave  no  marked  results. 

4.  Three  thorough  waterings  gave  38%  larger  returns  than  two  water¬ 
ings. 

TABLE  IX.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  IX. 


Plat  Number 

TREATMENT 

Number  Pounds  of 
Seed  Tubers 
Planted 

Total  Number  of 
Pounds  of  Tubers 
Harvested 

Yield  in  Pounds 
for  every  Pound  of 
Seed  Planted 

Gain 

Number  of  Sacks 
per  Acre 

I. 

Check,  irrigated  two  times  - 

64 

1298i/2 

20.29 

142 

II. 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  1  hr.,  12-9-01,  again  5-5-02,  Irrig’td.  twice 

105 

2167 

20.63 

144 

III. 

Treated  with  Formalin  2  hrs.  12-9-01.  Irrigated  2  times..  _ 

115 

2554 

22.20 

9$ 

155 

IV. 

Seed  exposed  to  light  23  days.  Irrigated  2  times  _  _ 

70 

1437 

20.52 

144 

V. 

Check,  Irrigated  3  times  _  ..  .  ..  ..  - 

33 

988 

28.11 

39$ 

197 

32 


Bulletin  91. 


Experiment  X — The  seed  in  the  following  experiment  was  taken  from 
the  Rural  New  Yorker  No.  l’s  of  last  year’s  experiments.  It  was  planted  on 
heavy,  clayey  ground  which  had  been  a  plum  orchard  for  a  number  of  years, 
but  it  had  been  well  cultivated  and  manured  during  the  previous  five  years. 
The  water  supply  in  the  ditch  gave  out  early  in  the  season  and  the  field  re¬ 
ceived  but  two  waterings. 

The  ground  was  plowed  eight  inches  deep  in  the  early  spring  and  the 
seed  was  planted  five  inches  deep.  The  plants  came  up  nicely  and  their 
foliage  remained  green  until  killed  by  frost. 

Plat  I — Check — The  tubers  of  this  lot  were  smooth  and  clean,  not  a 
scabby  or  diseased  tuber  was  observed  in  the  lot.  The  plants  were  strong 
and  healthy.  Three  hundred  and  forty-eight  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return 
of  3,042  pounds  of  clean,  round  tubers,  a  yield  of  8.7  pounds  of  tubers  for 
every  pound  of  seed  planted. 

Plat  II — The  seed  from  which  these  tubers  grew  was  treated  with  corro¬ 
sive  sublimate  and  this  seed  was  also  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate.  It 
was  an  evcellent  lot  of  seed.  The  plants  were  strong  and  vigorous  and  the 
foliage  remained  perfect  until  killed  by  frost.  Three  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  3,429  pounds  of  tubers;  9.44  pounds  of 
tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  a  gain  of  8 %%. 

Plat  III — All  the  long  and  flat  tubers  were  rejected  from  this  lot,  only 
the  clean,  round  and  perfect  shaped  tubers  were  used.  Two  hundred  and 
seventy  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  3,141  pounds  of  tubers,  a  yield  of 
11.63  pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  making  a  gain  of 
33%%  over  check. 

Plat  IV — The  tubers  in  this  lot  were  taken  from  the  No.  l’s  of  last  year’s 
crop,  but  all  of  them  were  ill-shaped  and  more  or  less  scabby.  Two  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  1,559  pounds,  a  yield  of  6.24 
pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted,  giving  a  loss  of  28%  when 
compared  with  check. 

Results. — 1.  Good,  healthy  seed  treated  with  corrosive  sublimate  and 
planted  in  new  soil  gave  a  gain  of  8%%. 

2.  Carefully  selected  seed  gave  a  gain  of  33%%. 

3.  Selecting  all  the  poorest  shaped,  scabby  and  diseased  seed  and  plant¬ 
ing  it  on  new  ground  gave  a  loss  of  28%%. 

4.  The  difference  between  best  and  poorest  seed  being  62%. 


TABLE  X.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  X. 


Plat  Number 

TREATMENT 

Number  Pounds  of 
Seed  Tubers 
Planted 

Total  Number 
Pounds  of  Tubers 
Harvested 

Yield  for  Every 
Pound  of  Seed 
Planted 

Gain  or  Loss 

Yield  in  Sacks 
per  Acre 

I. 

Check _  _  ...  _  _  ___ 

318 

3012 

8.70 

60 

II. 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  1  oz.  to  8  gals,  of  water _  _  _ 

363 

3129 

9.41 

Wc 

Gain 

66 

III. 

Good  Selected  Seed.  ...  _  _  ... _  _  . 

270 

3111 

11.63 

Gain 

81 

IV. 

Poor  Selected  Seed— Culls  .  _  ..  ..... 

250 

1559 

6.24 

28%* 

Loss 

44 

Experiment  XI — These  experiments  were  undertaken  in  1903  to  test  the 
value  of  selecting  seed  and  the  value  of  treating  inferior  seed  with  corrosive 
sublimate  solution.  An  exceptionally  badly  diseased  lot  of  Rural  New 
Yorker  seed  was  secured  for  this  test.  These  experiments  were  planted  on 
an  old  plum  orchard  containing  a  heavy,  clayey  soil,  but  it  had  been  well 
manured  and  cultivated  for  the  past  five  years.  The  soil  was  plowed  eight 
inches  deep  in  early  spring  and  the  seed  was  planted  four  inches  deep  on 
April  9th.  The  plants  did  poorly  from  the  first.  The  water  was  turned  out 
of  the  main  ditch  during  the  fore  part  of  the  season  so  the  field  was  irri- 


Potato  Failures. 


33 


gated  but  twice.  The  runs  were  only  about  four  inches  deep,  making  it  im¬ 
possible  to  supply  the  water  properly. 

Plat  I — Check — These  tubers  were  rough  and  scabby  and  all  of  them 
were  more  or  less  covered  with  the  hyphae  and  sclerotia  of  Corticium.  The 
plants  came  up  very  unevenly  and  32%  of  this  seed  failed  to  produce  plants 
which  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground,  Seventeen  per  cent,  of  those  that 
grew,  developed  small  worthless  tubers.  Only  57%  of  the  seed  planted 
produced  plants  which  developed  large  tubers,  and  these  were  scabby  and 
of  a  poor  quality.  On  July  24th  the  plants  in  this  plat  were  carefully  exam¬ 
ined  and  it  was  observed  that  55%  of  the  plants  had  their  main  stems  cov¬ 
ered  with  the  fruitage  stage  of  this  fungus.  Three  hundred  and  twenty-five 
pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  1,240  pounds  of  tubers.  A  yield  of  3% 
pounds  of  tubers  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted.  A  return  of  23  sacks  to 
the  acre. 

Plat  II — This  seed,  like  that  used  in  the  Check  plat,  was  scabby  and 
more  or  less  covered  with  the  hyphae  and  sclerotia.  It  was  treated  with 
corrosive  sublimate,  standard  strength,  seven  days  before  it  was  planted. 
These  plants  were  about  eight  days  later  than  those  of  the  Check  plat  and 
they  also  came  up  very  unevenly.  Twenty-six  per  cent,  of  the  seed  failed 
to  produce  plants  which  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Ten  per  cent, 
of  those  that  grew  failed  to  develop  large  tubers.  Only  67%  of  the  seed 
planted  developed  salable  tubers.  They  were  clean  and  quite  free  from 
scab.  Fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  plants  in  this  lot  showed  traces  of  the  fruit¬ 
ing  stage.  Two  hundred  pounds  of  seed  gave  a  return  of  1,080  pounds  of 
tubers.  A  return  of  5%  pounds  of  seed  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted. 
Giving  a  gain  of  41%  over  Check,  or  about  32  sacks  to  the  acre. 

Plat  III — This  seed  was  carfeully  selected.  All  tubers  containing  sclero¬ 
tia  were  rejected.  However,  many  of  these  were  rough  and  scabby,  and 
all  of  them  were  more  or  less  covered  with  the  hyphae.  These  plants  also 
name  up  very  unevenly.  Seventeen  per  cent,  of  the  seed  planted  failed  to 
produce  plants  which  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Twenty-eight  per 
cent,  of  those  that  reached  the  surface  failed  to  develop  normal  tubers. 
Seventy  per  cent,  of  this  seed  produced  plants  which  developed  fair-sized 
tubers.  These  tubers  were  rough  and  more  or  less  covered  with  both  hy¬ 
phae  and  sclerotia.  Twenty  per  cent,  of  the  plants  showed  traces  of  the 
fruiting  stage.  One  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds  of  seed  produced  497  pounds 
of  tubers.  A  return  of  4  8-25  pounds  for  every  pound  of  seed  planted. 
The  yield  being  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Check. 

Results. — 1.  Diseased  tubers  are  frequently  prominent  factors  in  pro¬ 
ducing  crop  failures. 

2.  The  fruiting  stage  of  this  fungus  apparently  develops  more  freely 
on  plants  grown  from  tubers  containing  many  sclerotia. 

3.  Carefully  selecting  seed  free  from  sclerotia,  but  more  or  less  covered 
with  the  hyphae  of  this  fungus  did  not  check  its  injuries  to  any  marked  ex¬ 
tent,  but  the  fruiting  stage  of  the  fungus  developed  less  freely  on  the  plants 
from  the  selected  seed. 

4.  The  standard  corrosive  sublimate  treatment  apparently  checks  the 
development  of  this  disease  when  the  treated  seed  is  planted  in  new  soil. 


<D 

£ 

cj 

r— I 

C8 


I. 


TABLE  XI.,  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENT  NO.  XI. 


TREATMENT 

Number  Pounds 
of  Seed  Tubers 
Planted 

Total  Number 
Pounds  of  Tubers 
Harvested 

Yield  for  Every 
Pound  of  Seed 
Planted 

Gain 

Check  .  _ 

325 

1240 

3.81 

Treated,  Corrosive  Sublimate  1  oz.  to  8  gals,  of  water,  1>£  hrs. 

2C0 

1080 

5.40 

41$ 

Selected  free  from  Sclerotia - -  -  - 

115 

497 

4.32 

13$ 

o 

cti  ® 

•  i— i 


T3  ® 


23 

32 

26 


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■ 


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■ 


■  |  -ft- 


JEm  I  .  . 


Bulletin  92  October,  1904 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


Large  Potato  Vines  and 
No  Potatoes 


it* 


BY 


•  •  • 


WENDELL  PADDOCK 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado 
1904 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President . 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS . 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS . 

Mrs.  ELIZA  E.  ROUTT . 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD . .  .  . . 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW . 

Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB . 

Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


Term  Expires 

....  Denver. 

1905 

Fort  Collins. 

1905 

.  .  .  .Denver. 

1907 

.  .  .  .Denver. 

1907 

.  .  .  .  Gypsum. 

1909 

.  .  Rockyford. 

1909 

.Canon  City. 

191 1 

.  Carbondale. 

191 1 

>  ex- officio. 

EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  INI  CHARGE 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF 

L.  G  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director . Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D . Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S . Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S . Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M . Veterinarian 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S . Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S . Assistant  Agriculturist 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR . Assistant  Horticulturist 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  M.  S . Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  M.  S . Assistant  Chemist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S . Assistant  Entomologist 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S . Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley, 

Rockyeord. 


OFFICERS 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY . Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


*  Large  Potato  Vines  and  No  Potatoes 


By  Wendell  Paddock. 

This  bulletin  contains  a  condensed  account  of  our  work  with 
potato  diseases,  the  most  of  which  has  appeared  in  Bulletins  70  and 
91  of  this  station,  and  its  purpose  is  to  supply  information  to  the 
increasing  number  of  correspondents  who  are  becoming  interested 
in  potato  growing.  It  is  addressed  primarily  to  those  farmers  who 
live  outside  of  the  successful  potato-growing  sections,  but  the  best 
potato  soils  are  by  no  means  free  from  the  troubles  that  are  de¬ 
scribed  below.  By  having  a  correct  understanding  of  certain  pe¬ 
culiar  conditions  of  the  potato  plant,  which  have  been  ascribed  to 
various  causes,  such  as  water,  alkali,  altitude,  etc.,  it  is  possible  that 
the  most  successful  grower  can  modify  his  system  of  culture  to 
advantage. 

Most  farmers  who  have  tried  to  grow  potatoes  in  this  state  and 
failed,  or  who^  have  been  only  partially  successful,  will  be  familiar 
with  the  following  conditions : 

Good  vines  with  no  tubers  or  a  cluster  of  small,  worthless  tu¬ 
bers  ;  in  many  instances,  even  in  the  best  potato  soil,  the  plants  fail 
to  come  up,  or  weak  plants  are  produced,  which  die  before  the  pota¬ 
toes  are  mature,  thus  resulting  in  a  poor  stand;  potato  blight,  or 
the  dying  of  a  portion  or  all  of  the  vines ;  russeted  and  scabby  pota¬ 
toes  ;  blight  and  scab  also  seen  in  the  best  potato  districts ;  and  finally, 
collar  rot  or  black  ring  of  the  vine,  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Experiments  have  proven  that  any  and  all  of  these  conditions 
can  be  produced  by  the  action  of  a  certain  plant  disease,  and  obser¬ 
vations  in  many  parts  of  the  state  show  that  this  fungus  is  abundant, 
and  is  undoubtedly  responsible  for  most  of  the  lack  of  success  in 
potato  growing. 

Nature  of  the  Disease.  This  fungus  ( Corticium  vagum  B.  &  C. 
var.  Solani ,  Burt.)  appears  to  grow  naturally  in  this  state,  as  it  is 
found  in  the  remote  and  newer  parts,  and  it  also  attacks  a  number  of 
plants  other  than  the  potato,  both  cultivated  and  wild.  After  the 
soil  has  become  infected  the  fungus  persists  for  a  long  time.- 

If  the  fungus  is  not  already  present,  the  soil  will  soon  become 
infected  after  potatoes  have  been  grown.  This  is  true  for  the  rea- 

*Bulletins  70  and  91,  by  F.  M.  Rolfs,  being  technical  in  character,  have 
not  been  sent  to  the  general  mailing  list..  Copies  will,  however,  be  sent  on 

request. 


PLATE 


son  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  sack  of  potatoes  free  from  all  traces 
of  the  disease.  It  lives  over  winter  in  the  cracks  of  rough  and  rus- 
seted  potatoes  and  in  the  ulcers  of  scab,  and  also  in  what  appears  to 
be  patches  of  dirt  which  stick  closely  to  the  surface  of  the  potato. 
By  looking  closely  at  these  dirt-like  appearing  objects,  which  are 
well  shown  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  I.,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  not  com¬ 
posed  of  ordinary  soil.  In  fact,  they  are  made  up  of  the  closely  in¬ 
terwoven  root-like  organs  of  the  fungus. 

This  tiny  plant  also  produces  an  abundance  of  seed-like  bodies 
or  spores  which  help  to  spread  it.  They  are  borne  only  on  green 
potato  vines  and  just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Here  a  thin, 
delicate  layer  is  formed  that  looks  like  a  slight  deposit  of  alkali,  and 
the  spores  are  borne  on  the  tips  of  the  threads  of  which  it  is  com¬ 
posed. 

A  Poor  Stand  of  Potatoes.  When  diseased  potatoes  are  used 
for  see^l,  or  when  clean  potatoes  are  planted  in  infected  soil,  the 
fungus  starts  into  growth  with  the  young  potato  plant.  The  tender 
shoots  are  often  attacked,  with  the  result  shown  in  Plate  II.  On  the 
right  are  two  shoots,  which  were  rotted  off  by  the  fungus  before 
they  reached  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  illustrates  how  a  poor 
stand  of  potatoes  is  often  brought  about.  The  other  two  were  badly 
injured  and  might  have  become  mature  plants,  but  affected  with  the 
familiar  collar  rot  or  black  ring. 

Vines  and  no  Tubers.  The  most  damage  is  done,  however,  by 
cutting  off  the  tuber  stems,  and  this  portion  of  the  potato  plant  is 
especially  liable  to  attack.  These  stems  are  often  cut  off  as  fast  as 
they  grow  out,  thus  leaving  no  place  on  which  tubers  may  form. 
But  in  some  instances  a  cluster  of  small  or  “Little  Potatoes’'  form 
around  the  main  stem,  seemingly  the  result  of  girdling  by  the 
fungus. 

Potato  Scab.  The  potato  tubers  are  often  made  rough  and 
scabby  by  the  growth  of  the  disease  on  their  surfaces.  (Plate  I., 
Fig.  3.)  All  gradations  of  these  injuries  may  be  found,  from  a 
rough  or  russeted  appearance  to  deep  scabs  or  ulcers  that  greatly 
injure  the  appearance  of  the  potato.  Singularly  enough,  scab  is 
more  common  in  the  best  potato  soil  than  it  is  in  localities  where 
the  crop  is  precarious.  Sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  when  first  brought 
under  cultivation,  often  give  a  large  per  cent,  of  scabby  potatoes, 
but  after  one  or  more  crops  of  alfalfa  have  been  plowed  under,  this 
tendency  is  partially  corrected. 

Potato  Blight.  Potato  blight,  or  the  dying  of  the  leaves  and 
vines  before  the  crop  is  mature,  is  commonly  thought  to  be  entirely 
due  to  diseases  which  attack  the  top  of  the  potato  plant.  We  have 
not  found  it  so  in  Colorado.  Spraying  experiments  with  Bordeaux 

5 


6 


mixture  did  not  materially  lessen  the  blight,  and  the  microscopic 
plants  which  cause  these  leaf  diseases  are  not  commonly  found  asso¬ 
ciated  with  this  trouble.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  premature 
dying  of  the  potato  vines  is  usually  an  evidence  that  the  underground 
parts  have  been  severely  injured  by  the  fungus  in  question. 

Running  Out.  The  running  out  of  potatoes,  as  it  is  called  when 
the  tubers  become  pointed  or  much  elongated,  appears  also  to  be  as¬ 
sociated  with  the  attacks  of  this  fungus.  But  just  what  the  relation 
is  between  the  two  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

Treating  the  Seed.  At  first  thought  it  would  appear  to  be  a 
simple  matter  to  combat  this  disease  by  treating  the  seed  with  for¬ 
malin  or  corrosive  sublimate.  In  fact,  some  of  our  experiments  with 
treated  seed  have  shown  decided  gains,  but  others  have  given  a  loss. 
The  results  of  this  season  are  again  negative,  so  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
seed  treatment  can  be  made  to  pav.  This  is  true  for  the  reason  that 
most  Colorado  soils  are  thoroughly  infected  with  the  fungus  and 
the  treatment  usually  delays  the  sprouting  of  the  seed  and  conse¬ 
quently  injures  the  plant  so  that  it  does  not  yield  as  well  as  un¬ 
treated  seed. 

Seed  Selection.  Better  results  have  been  secured  bv  selecting 
smooth,  round  seed  that  was  entirely  free  from  disease.  Such  pota¬ 
toes  are  not  only  free  from  disease,  but  the  chances  are  that  they 
were  grown  on  vines  that  were  not  seriously  affected  by  the  fungus 
as  run  out  potatoes  usually  occur  on  diseased  vines.  We  would  ex¬ 
pect  such  seed  to  show  a  certain  degree  of  resistance  to  the  disease. 

Disease-Resistant  Varieties.  The  only  prospect  that  we  now 
have  of  ever  overcoming  this  disease  beyond  what  can  be  done  by 
improved  methods  of  culture,  is  to  select  seed  from  the  healthiest 
plants  that  produce  good  shaped  tubers,  and  thus  gradually  breed 
up  a  resistant  strain.  Last  year  over  80  varieties  of  potatoes  were 
grown  in  the  College  garden  in  soil  that  was  known  to  be  badly  dis¬ 
eased.  Only  20  kinds  out  of  this  number  were  saved  for  further 
testing;  the  rest  produced  only  a  few  small,  misshapen  tubers,  and 
many  of  the  vines  bore  none  at  all.  This  year  the  list  has  been  still 
further  cut  down,  though  a  few  varieties  yielded  well.  These  were 
all  dug  by  hand,  and  the  hills  that  produced  the  best  tubers  have 
been  saved  for  further  testing.  We  hope  in  time  to  build  up  a  strain 
of  potatoes  that  will  resist  the  attacks  of  this  fungus  by  selecting 
from  individual  hills  that  are  the  least  attacked  by  disease. 

Not  many  potato  growers  can  afford  the  time  to  follow  up  ex¬ 
periments  of  this  kind,  but  a  less  rigid  method  of  selection  could  be 
practiced  by  all.  The  following  is  quoted  from  Bulletin  91,  of  this 
Station :  /  ,  ']! 

“Another  method  which  gives  evidence  of  considerable  practical  value 
is  to  set  aside  each  year  five  or  ten  acres  of  land  for  the  growing  of  seed 


potatoes.  The  soil  of  such  tract  ought  to  be  fertile  and  free  from  the  various 
diseases  which  attack  the  potato  plant.  The  tubers  used  in  planting  the 
seed  tract  are  carefully  selected  each  year  from  the  seed  plat  of  the  prev¬ 
ious  year.  The  surplus  seed  is  used  for  planting  the  gneral  crop,  and  in 
this  way  a  stain  of  pedigree  potatoes  is  gradually  developed.” 

Culture.  The  best  potato  soil  is  a  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  which 
contains  an  abundance  of  vegetable  matter,  and  which  is  well  under¬ 
drained.  In  the  Greeley  district  the  soil  will  average  about  four  feet 
deep.  Below  this  is  an  immense  layer  of  gravel,  which  insures  per¬ 
fect  drainage.  Vegetable  matter  is  secured  by  plowing  under  alfalfa 
sod.  Alfalfa  is  grown  two  years,  then  turned  under  in  the  spring 
and  planted  to  potatoes.  Two  crops  of  potatoes  are  grown  in  suc¬ 
cession,  then  wheat  is  sown  and  the  land  again  seeded  to  alfalfa, 
thus  making  a  five-year  rotation.  The  second  crop  of  potatoes,  how¬ 
ever,  is  rarely  as  good  as  the  first,  probably  because  of  the  increase 
of  the  fungus  in  the  soil,  and  in  most  localities  but  one  crop  of  po¬ 
tatoes  should  enter  into  the  rotation  system. 

A  heavy  alkaline  soil,  that  has  poor  underdrainage,  furnishes 
an  ideal  condition  for  the  growth  of  this  plant  disease,  and  it  is  in 
such  soils  that  potato  failures  are  most  frequent.  But  poor  under¬ 
drainage  in  any  soil  is  conducive  to  its  growth.  It  will  be  seen,  then, 
that  cultivation  and  irrigation  must  be  important  factors  in  controll¬ 
ing  the  disease.  Most  people  who  attempt  to  grow  potatoes  make 
the  mistake  of  using  more  water  than  is  necessary  for  the  best 
growth  of  the  plants.  The  rows  should  be  comparatively  short,  so 
that  part  of  the  ground  will  not  need  to  be  over-watered.  The  seed 
should  be  planted  about  four  inches  deep  in  rows  38  to  40  inches 
apart.  The  furrows  should  be  about  five  inches  deep  for  the  first 
irrigation,  and  with  subsequent  irrigations  they  should  be  increased 
in  depth.  The  idea  is  to  make  the  furrows  deep  enough  to  supply 
sufficient  moisture  to  the  roots  without  saturating  the  upper  portion 
of  the  ridge  where  the  tubers  form.  Cultivation  should  follow  as 
soon  after  as  the  ground  is  in  condition  to  work.  The  condition  of 
the  soil  and  plants  should  always  govern  the  amount  and  the  fre¬ 
quency  that  water  is  applied. 

After  all  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  culture,  seed  selection 
and  a  long  rotation  of  crops,  the  vines  and  weeds  should  be  collected 
and  burned  each  season  after  the  potatoes  have  been  dug.  This  will 
destroy  a  great  deal  of  the  fungus  that  would  infect  other  fields,  as 
the  vines  are  scattered  by  various  means. 


8 


Bulletin  93  December,  1904 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado 


Colorado  Havs  and  Fodders. 

/ 

ALFALFA— TIMOTHY— NATIVE  HAY— CORN 
FODDER— SORGHUM— SALT  BUSH. 


DIGESTION  EXPERIMENTS 

1 

—  by- 


william  P.  HEADDEN 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1904. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President ,  - 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  - 
Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  JB.  U.  DYE,  -  -  - 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW,  - 
Hon.  EUGENE  H  GRUBB,  - 
Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


ex-officio . 


Denver. 
Fort  Collins. 
Denver. 
-  Denver. 

Gypsum. 
Rockyford. 
Canon  City. 
Carbondale. 


Term 

Expires 

1905 

1905 

1907 

1907 

1909 

1909 

1911 

1911 


Executive  committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director ,  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M .  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  - . Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . -  Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M.,  ------  Veterinarian 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  M.  S., . -  Assistant  Chemist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Agriculturist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR,  B.  S., . Assistant  Horticulturist 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 


officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . -  Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY, . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


DIGESTION  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  SOME  COLORADO 

HAYS  AND  FODDERS. 


BY  WM.  P.  HEADDEN. 


Some  years  ago,  while  making  a  study  of  the  alfalfa  plant 
and  again  on  extending  the  work  to  a  study  of  alfalfa  and  some 
other  hays,  I  was  surprised  at  the  scarcity  of  data  upon  the  diges¬ 
tibility  of  the  various  hays  that  I  was  endeavoring  to  study. 
The  results  of  the  experiments  that  I  succeeded  in  finding  were 
not  only  few  in  number  but  not  concordant.  Further,  they  were 
made  with  hays  which  could  scarcely  be  compared  with  those  that 
I  was  studying  and  under  different  conditions  from  those  which 
obtain  here. 

It  is  accepted  as  a  fact  among  us,  whether  justly  so  or  not,  that 
alfalfa  or  lucerne  hay  as  grown  and  made  in  this  state  is  scarcely 
excelled  by  any  other  hay  for  the  purposes  of  milk-producing  and 
fattening,  for  which  it  is  used  in  large  quantities.  It  is  also  prob¬ 
ably  true  that  the  alfalfa  grows  as  well  under  our  conditions  and 
makes  as  good  a  quality  of  hay  as  in  any  other  locality  in  this 
country  and  perhaps  in  the  world.  It  is  for  such  reasons  that  it 
seemed  to  me  desirable  to  make  some  experiments  to  determine 
anew  the  digestion  coefficients  of  alfalfa  hay  produced  here.  It  is 
true  that  these  had  been  previously  determined  by  my  immediate 
predecessor,  Dr.  O’Brine,  using  steers  to  experiment  with,  but 
I  wished  to  extend  the  experiments  to  include  some  other  fodders. 

I  deemed  it  desirable  that  still  others  should  be  added,  because  the 
accumulated  data  on  this  subject  is  neither  extensive  nor  concord¬ 
ant.  I  therefore  present  the  results  of  some  experiments  on 
the  digestibility  of  some  Colorado  grown  fodders,  using  sheep  as 
our  experimental  animals.* 

In  Bulletin  No.  39,  I  tried  to  set  forth  some  of  the  differences 
between  hays  made  from  leguminous  plants  and  the  grasses.  I  • 
have  this  problem  in  view  in  these  experiments  also,  but  rather 
incidentally,  the  principal  purpose  of  this  bulletin  being  to  give 
the  results  of  our  attempts  to  determine  the  digestion  coefficients 


*1  wish  to  acknowledge  the  patient,  faithful,  cheerful,  and  interested  ser¬ 
vice  rendered  by  my  assistants  in  the  prosecution  of  this  work.  Some  of  my 
results  being  unusually  low  led  to  frequent  repetitions  as  a  matter  of  precau¬ 
tion.  Some  of  the  work  too  has  been  disagreeable,  but  my  assistants  have  at  all 
times  done  it  willingly.  It  is  with  pleasure  that  I  make  this  acknowledgment. 


4 


Bulletin  93. 


of  some  of  our  fodders,  either  because  of  their  present  importance 
or  because  of  their  possible  interest  to  stockmen  and  feeders. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  some  of  the  more  salient  differ¬ 
ences  between  the  leguminous  hays  and  those  made  from  grasses. 
The  leguminous  hays  contain  a  larger  portion  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol  by  about  10  per  cent  than  the  native  hay,  the  amount 
of  hemicellulose,  cellulose  like  constituents  reacting  with  phlorog- 
lucin,  is  much  larger  in  the  leguminous  hays  than  in  the  native 
hays.  These  two  facts  may  account  for  the  greater  sensitiveness 
that  the  leguminous  hays  show  to  the  effects  of  moisture.  I  have 
seen  alfalfa  badly  discolored  by  a  heavy  dew.  These  facts,  too, 
may  indicate  even  greater  differences  than  we  at  present  realize. 
The  extractive  as  well  as  the  nitrogenous  substance  are  probably 
quite  different,  which  is  also  certainly  true  among  the  grasses  as 
well. 

The  leguminous  hays  are  as  a  class  sensitive  to  the  action  of 
water  and  inclined  to  heat  readily.  Under  our  Colorado  condi¬ 
tions  the  action  of  water  is  often  wholly  avoided  and  the  hay  has 
a  bright  green  color  and  a  marked  pleasant  odor.  One  would  ex¬ 
pect  such  hay  to  be  more  uniform  in  quality  and  superior  to  that 
made  in  states  where  it  is  difficult  to  cut  and  cure  the  hay  with¬ 
out  its  being’more  or  less  damaged  by  rains  or  heavy  dews. 

I  do  not  know  to  what  extent  the  quality  of  the  hay  affects 
its  digestion  coefficients,  but  alfalfa  hay  is  certainly  sensitive  to 
the  action  of  even  a  slight  amount  of  moisture  in  the  form  of  rain 
or  dew.  I  have  but  little  data  conveying  any  idea  of  how  sensi¬ 
tive  it  is  or  of  the  character  of  the  changes  produced  in  it.  I  have 
had  opportunity  to  study  but  one  sample  in  any  detail;  in 
this  case  I  do  not  know  what  percentage  of  the  original  hay  was 
washed  out,  the  hay  did  not  heat;  it  was  simply  cut  at  one  of 
those  inopportune  periods  when  it  rains  every  few  hours  even  in 
Colorado.  The  total  rainfall  during  this  wet  period  was  1.76 
inches.  The  hay  which  escaped  the  rain  contained  26.46  percent 
crude  fibre;  that  which  was  exposed  to  it  contained  38.83  percent, 
the  former  contained  18.71  per  cent  protein  the  latter  11.01.  The 
nitrogen  free  extract,  which  includes  the  liemicelluloses  was  re¬ 
duced  about  five  per  cent.  These  statements  and  figures  may 
serve  both  to  justify  and  explain  my  statement  that  legume  hay, 
especially  alfalfa,  is  very  sensitive  to  the  action  of  moisture  and 
fermentation.  In  the  case  of  brennheu,  the  fermentation  seems 
to  make  it  more  palatable  to  cattle.  I  have  never  heard  of  this 
effect  having  been  produced  in  the  case  of  hays  made  from  grasses, 
this,  however,  may  be  the  case,  but  I  have  not  met  with  any  state¬ 
ment  to  this  effect.  The  large  portion  of  the  legume  hays  soluble 
in  water  and  easily  fermentable  accounts  for  their  rapid  deteriora¬ 
tion  when  exposed  to  excessive  moisture  and  heat.  The  amount 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


5 


dissolved  by  alcohol  and  cold  water  from  alfalfa  hay  is  about  36 
per  cent,  while  the  same  inenstmua  dissolve  only  27  per  cent  from 
native  hay  and  28  from  timothy. 

In  the  case  of  native  hay,  the  results  will  doubtlessly  vary 
with  the  different  amounts  of  the  various  grasses  which  make  up 
the  hay.  A  hay  consisting  of  blue  stem  principally  will  differ 
from  one  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  grasses,  and  probably  still  more 
from  one  consisting  largely  of  sedges.  This  consideration  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of  when  any  statement  concerning  a  native  hay 
is  made,  for  the  statement  may  be  based  upon  results  obtained  in 
experiments  with  a  hay  very  different  from  the  one  the  reader  may 
have  in  mind.  The  mixture  of  grasses  represented  by  the  term 
native  hay,  is  indicated  by  the  sample  used  in  Bulletin  39,  in 
which  we  find  the  following:  Andropogon  scoparius ,  Car  ex  mar- 
cida ,  Elymus  canadensis ,  Panicum  mrgatu?n ,  Sporobolns  as- 
perijolius ,  Sporobohis  cryptandrus ,  Poa  tennuifolio ,  Andro¬ 
pogon  furcatus ,  Chrysopogen  avenacrus ,  Calamovilja  long- 
ifolio ,  Agropyron  tenerum ,  and  Bouteloua  oligostachya.  This 
mixture  represented  an  excellent  sample  of  this  class  of  hay,  but 
results  obtained  with  it  can  only  in  a  measure  be  applied  to 
another  hay  representing  a  different  mixture  of  grasses,  i.  e.,  to  one 
consisting  almost  wholly  of  blue  stem,  Agropyron  tenerum ,  or 
rushes  and  sedges. 

I  recognize  the  necessity  of  having  a  representative  sample  of 
hay,  even  when  the  hay  is  composed  exclusively  of  one  plant, 
which  is  the  case  in  the  alfalfa  hay,  and  for  this  reason  alone  I 
make  the  following  statements: 

The  sample  of  alfalfa  hay  used  was  furnished  by  the  Farm 
Department.  The  practice  is,  when  possible,  to  cut  the  alfalfa 
before  it  is  more  than  in  half  bloom,  and  this  hay  was  probably 
cut  when  the  alfalfa  was  in  this  condition,  but  the  analysis  agrees 
better  with  the  composition  of  a  hay  cut  at  a  later  period,  i.  e., 
when  in  full  bloom  or  even  past  this  stage.  The  hay  was  not 
first  class  hay. 

The  results  obtained  with  this  sample  were  so  exceptional, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  ether  extract  or  fat,  that  the  analytical 
work  was  repeated  in  the  case  of  the  hay  and  the  feces  of  sheep 
No.  3.  The  principal  weakness  in  my  data  lies  in  the  sample  of 
hay  itself,  which  is  quite  normal  in  its  composition  except  in  re¬ 
gard  to  the  amount  of  ether  extract  or  so  called  fat  that  it  con¬ 
tains,  of  which  there  is  even  a  little  less  than  I  have  heretofore 
found  in  the  stems  or  in  hay  made  from  plants  in  full  seed.  The 
protein,  13.12  per  cent,  is  a  shade  low,  and  the  crude  fibre  41.05 
per  cent,  a  trifle  high  for  really  good  alfalfa  hay,  but  they  are 
not  abnormal  enough  to  justify  their  rejection.  The  ether  extract, 
however,  being  less  than  one  half  the  amount  usually  found  in 


Bulletin  93. 


6 

average  samples  of  alfalfa  hay  is  open  to  serious  doubt.  The 
feces  voided  by  sheep  feeding  on  this  hay  are,  on  the  other  hand 
quite  as  j^ricli  in  ether  extract  as  those  of  sheep  which  had  been 
feeding  on  much  better  hay. 

The  case  presents  itself  to  me  in  the  following  light,  as  it 
will  probably  present  itself  to  others,  i.  e.,  if  the  feces  of  two  sets 
of  sheep  feeding  on  the  same  kind  of  hay  show  practically  the 
same  amount  of  the  ether  extract,  we  ought  to  find  a  correspond¬ 
ing  agreement  in  the  amount  of  ether  extract  in  the  respective 
hays,  provided  the  digestive  processes  have  acted  upon  them  in 
the  same  manner  and  degree.  But  we  do  not  find  this  to  be  the 
case,  and  I  view  the  discrepancy  as  of  such  importance  that  I  con¬ 
sider  it  my  duty  to  reject  this  series  of  experiments  with  alfalfa 
hay  or  to  give  the  results  obtained  and  a  fuller  account  of  the 
study  made  in  onr  endeavor  to  find  the  error,  or  some  explanation 
for  the  results  obtained.  I  shall  give  the  series  with  all  results  as 
found  and  then  an  account  of  the  work  done. 

The  digestion  coefficient  for  the  ether  extract  seems  to  be  the 
only  one  concerning  which  any  serious  question  can  be  raised.  The 
coefficient  obtained  being  negative  cannot  be  used,  but  it  seems  to 
me  that  there  must  be  some  facts  indicated  by  this  result,  for, 
though  the  agreement  of  the  coefficients  found  is  very  poor,  they 
agree  in  their  general  purport,  i.  e.,  they  are  all  three  negative. 
The  hay  seems  to  have  undergone  some  change  which  lessened 
the  amount  of  ether  extract  in  the  hay,  but  in  passing  through 
the  digestive  processes  it  appears  to  have  been  rendered  soluble 
again.  This  can  scarcely  be  the  case.  The  excess  is  more  likely 
due  to  ether  soluble  substances  in  the  feces  which  are  not  fur¬ 
nished  by  the  undigested  portions  of  the  hay. 

The  sheep  used  in  the  first  four  series  of  experiments  were 
wethers  between  three  and  four  years  old. 

The  fodders  used  were  corn  fodder,  native  hay,  timothy 
hay  and  alfalfa  hay. 

The  animals  were  fed  for  a  period  of  twelve  days  and  the 
feces  collected  during  the  last  five  days. 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders.  7 

CORN  FODDER. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  3. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  5395.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre.* 

Extract. 

7-02  1 1. 1 1 

1.36 

8.66 

32.37 

39-48 

Fodder  Constituents  Fed,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5016.27  599-38 

73-37 

467.20 

1746.36 

2129.95 

**Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  606.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.71  24.18 

1.28. 

8.36 

31-25 

28.28 

Fodder 

Constituents  Contained  in 

1  the  Orts,  in  G 

rams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

565.34  146.53 

7.76 

50.66 

189.37 

171.38 

Fodder  Constituents 

Consumed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

73-37 

467.20 

1746.36 

2129.95 

Less  orts.  . . . 

.  565-34  146.53 

7.76 

50.66 

189.37 

171-38 

Consumed  .  .  . 

. •••4450.93  442.85 

65.61 

416.54 

1556.99 

1958.57 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces 

weighed  1965.5  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

7- 11  13-73 

1.86 

10.89 

24.22 

42.20 

Fodder  Constituents 

Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1825.75  269.86 

36.56 

2x4.04 

478.04 

829.34 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  . 

. 4450.93  442.85 

65.61 

416.55 

1556.99 

1958.57 

Voided  . . 

36.56 

214.04 

478.04 

829.34 

Digested  .... 

29.05 

202.51 

1078.95 

1 129.23 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  . 

.  58. 9S  39. 0« 

44.28 

48.02 

09.30 

57.00 

*Fibre  is 

used 

throughout  these  tables  for  crude  fibre, 

and  extract  for  nitrogen  free 

extract. 

**Orts  is  the  portion  left  by  the  animal. 


CORN  FODDER. 
Fodder  Fed — Sheep  No. 


5. 


Weight 

of  fodder  received  in  five 

days,  5395 

.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

7.02 

11. 1 1 

1.36  8.66 

32.37 

39-48 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5016.27 

599-38 

73-37  467-20 

1746.36 

2129.95 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  453.5  grams. 

' 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

7.02 

23.07 

1.56  8.70 

30.47 

29.18 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained 

in  the  Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

421.65 

104.62 

7-07  39-45 

138.18 

132.33 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed,  in  Grams, 

1 

Fed  . 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

599*38 

73-37  467.20 

1746.36 

2129.95 

Less  orts 

104.62 

7.07  39.45 

138.18 

132.33 

Consumed  . 

494.76 

66.30  427-75 

1608.18 

1997.62 

8 


Bulletin  98. 


Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1978.5  grams. 


Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

7.76  14-43 

1.83 

1 1.66 

24.19 

40.13 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1825.00  285.50 

36.20 

230.69 

478.59 

793-97 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. 4594-62  494-76 

66.30 

427-i75 

1608. 18 

1997.62 

Voided 

36.20 

230.69 

478.59 

793-97 

Digested 

‘30.10 

197.07 

1x29.59 

1203.65 

Co-efficients 

or 

percentages 

digested 

.  60.28  42.29 

45.40 

46.07 

70.24 

60.25 

CORN  FODDER. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No. 

10. 

Weight 

of 

fodder 

received  in  five  days,  5395 

.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

7.02  1 1 . 1 1 

1-36 

8.66 

32.37 

39-48 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5016.27  599-38 

73-37 

467.20 

1746.36 

2129.95 

Orts,  air 

dried,  weighed  500.50  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-33  18.89 

1.40 

10.03 

30.00 

34-35 

Fodder 

Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.-  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

473.82  94.55 

7.01 

50.21 

150.12 

167.96 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams, 

1 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

. 5010.27  599-38 

73-37 

467.20 

1746.36 

2129.95 

Less  orts  . 

. _473*8_2  _  94-55 

7.01 

50.21 

150.12 

167.96 

Consumed 

. 4542.45  504-83 

66.36 

416.99 

1596.24 

1961.99 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  2115.50  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.43  12.63 

1.63 

10.36 

27.1 1 

41.82 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1979.36  267.19 

34-48 

219. 1 1 

573-57 

884.85 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Drv  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. 4542.45  504-83 

66.36 

416.99 

1596.24 

1961.99 

Voided  .  .  .  . 

. I979-36  267.19 

_ 3448 

219. 1 1 

573-57 

884.85 

Digested 

. 2563.09  237.64 

31-88 

197.88 

1022.67 

1077.14 

Co-efficients 

or 

•  percentages 

digested 

. 

.  56.43  47.0S 

4S.04 

47.46 

64.07 

54.90 

Average 

Coefficients,  as  Given  by  the  Three 

Sheep. 

Dry 

Crude 

N.  Free 

Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Sheep  No. 

1 , 

. 56.43  47.0S 

48.04 

47.46 

64.07 

54.90 

Sheep  No. 

2 . 

. 60.28  42.20 

45.40 

46.07 

70.24 

60.25 

Sheep  No. 

3  ■ 

44.28 

48.62 

69.30 

57.66 

Average  .  . 

45.01 

47.38 

67.87 

57.60 

The  corn  fodder  used  was  a  dent  corn,  sown  broadcast  and 
cut  quite  immature;  some  of  the  plants  were  in  silk,  but  no  corn 
was  formed  on  the  ears.  The  fodder  was  about  eight  months  old 
when  fed. 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders.  9 

NATIVE  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  2. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  5380.0  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.23  7.33 

2.05 

7-36 

35-78 

41.70 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5044.88  394-35 

1 10.29 

394-32 

1924.10 

2243.22 

Orts,  air 

dried,  weighed  429.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-85  8.77 

1.70 

7.21 

38.17 

38.29 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

403-91  37-62 

7.29 

30.93 

163.72 

164.21 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

. 5044-88  394-35 

1 10.29 

394-32 

1924.10 

2243.22 

Less  orts  .  . 

.  403-91  37-62 

7.29 

30-93 

163.72 

164.21 

Consumed  .  . 

. 4640.97  356.73 

103.00 

363-39 

1760.38 

2079.01 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  1832.5  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.06  10.16 

2.68 

7. 11 

.  35-93 

39-o6 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

• 

1721.50  186.12 

49.11 

130.21 

658.47 

7I5-7I 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. 4640.57  356.73 

103.00 

363-39 

1760.38 

2079.01 

Voided  . 

. 1721.50  186.12 

49.11 

130.21 

658.47 

7IS-7I 

Digested  .  .  . 

53*89 

233.18 

1101.91 

1363-30 

Co-efficients  or  percentages 

digested  . 

.  62.91  47. N2 

52.32 

<>7.47 

62.59 

(>0.0  4 

NATIVE  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  5. 


Weight 

of  fodder  received  in  five 

days,  5380. 

.0  grains. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 

Moisture. 

Ash.  * 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.23 

7-33 

2.05 

7- 36 

35-78 

41.70 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5044.88 

394-35 

1 10.29 

394-32 

1924.10 

2243.22 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  553.5  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.30 

8-34 

t-53 

6.98 

38.31 

38.54 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained 

1  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

518.63 

46.16 

8.47 

38.63 

212.02 

213-35 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

■ 

Fed  . 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

. 5044-88 

394-35 

1 1 0.29 

394-32 

1924.10 

2243.22 

Less  orts  . 

.  518.63 

46. 16 

8-47 

38.63 

212.02 

213-35 

Consumed 

. 4526.25 

348.19 

101.82 

355-69 

x  702.08 

2029.87 

a 


10 


Bulletin  93. 


Feces. 


Air  dried  feces  weighed  1968.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.58 

10.46 

2.74 

7.68 

32.43 

40.14 

Fodder 

Constituents  Voided 

• 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1838.59 

205.82 

53-92 

151.12 

638.23 

789.91 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. 4526.25 

348.19 

101.82 

355-69 

1 702.08 

2029.87 

Voided  . 

. 1838.59 

205.82 

53-92 

151.12 

638.23 

789.91 

Digested  . 

142.37 

47-90 

204.57 

1063.85 

1239.96 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  50.38 

40.89 

47.14 

57.51 

62.50 

61.08 

NATIVE  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  10. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  5380.0  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.23 

7-33 

2.05 

7-36 

35-78 

41.70 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5044.88 

394*35 

1 10.29 

394-32 

1924.10 

2243.22 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  433.5  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.09 

6.44 

0.96 

5-37 

36.98 

44.16 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained 

in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

407.10 

27.91 

4.16 

23.27 

160.31 

I9I-43 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

1 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed 

. 5044*88 

394-35 

no. 29 

394-32 

1924. 10 

2243.22 

Less 

orts 

.  407.10 

27.91 

4.16 

23.27 

160.31 

I9I-43 

Consumed 

. 4637-78 

366.44 

106.13 

371-05 

1763.79 

2051.79 

Feces. 


Air  dried  feces  weighed  2130.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.48 

10.14 

2.90 

7-37 

33-97 

39-14 

Fodder 

Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1991.96 

215.91 

61.77 

156.91 

723-52 

833-61 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  . 

. 4637-78 

366.44 

106.13 

371-05 

1763.79 

2051.79 

Voided  .  .  .  . 

215.91 

61.77 

156.91 

723-52 

833-61 

Digested  .  . 

. 2645.82 

150.53 

44*36 

214.14 

1040.27 

1218.  t8 

Co-efficients 

or 

percentages 

digested 

.  57.05 

41.24 

41.80 

57.71 

58.9S 

59.37 

The  Average  Coefficients 

found  for 

Native  Hay 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Sheep  No. 

2.  . 

.  62.91 

47.S2 

52.53 

67.47 

62.59 

65.57 

Sheep  No. 

5. 

.  59.38 

40.89 

47.14 

57.51 

62.50 

61.08 

Sheep  No.  10.  . 

.  57.05 

41.24 

41.80 

57.71 

58.98 

59.37 

Average .  .  .  . 

.  59.78 

43.32 

47.09 

60.90 

61.36 

62.01 

Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


11 


Jordan  and  Hall  give  a  bine  joint  under  meadow  grasses.  I 
do  not  know  whether  this  is  our  blue  joint  or  not,  but  for  this  they 
give  the  following  coefficients: 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 


Maximum  .  68.6  48.7  52.3  70.2  72.4  68.6 

Minimum  .  39.9  10.  o  37.0  56.5  36.5  43.2 

Average  .  54.3  29.4  44.7  63.4  54.5  55-9 


This  blue  joint  is  probably  Calcimagrostis  canadensis , 
while  our  blue  stem  is  Agropyron  tenerum.  I  know  of  no  data 
on  this  subject  applicable  to  our  native  hay,  unless  the  compari¬ 
son  be  made  under  the  very  broad  head  of  meadow  hay,  which  is, 
perhaps,  a  little  too  broad. 

The  native  hay  used  in  this  experiment  was  purchased  in  the 
market  as  “upland  hay.”  It  was  said  to  have  been  cut  on  the 
farm  of  Mr.  Gilkison  and  was  composed  largely  of  blue  joint 
Agropyru  7n  ten  eru  m . 

I  do  not  think  that  the  coefficients  of  digestion  of  this  class 
of  hay  have  been  determined,  at  least  I  can  find  none. 

Such  hay  is  cut  from  the  bottom  lands  along  the  water  courses, 
or  where  water  courses  have  been  and  the  supply  of  moisture 
is  both  greater  and  more  constant  than  in  the  higher  ground.  It 
can  scarcely  be  compared  with  Eastern  meadow  hay,  though  such 
a  comparison  would,  in  a  measure,  be  justified. 

t 

TIMOTHY  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  3. 


Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.58  7.21 

i-43 

7-45 

40.71 

36.52 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5166.19  398.77 

79.08 

4ii-9i 

2251.31 

2019.18 

Orts,  air 

dried,  weighed  000  grams. 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  . 

. 5166.19  398.77 

79.08 

4ii-9i 

2251.38 

2019.18 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  2349.50  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.07  11. 10 

2.49 

7-45 

41.85 

32.04 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

2230.35  260.71 

58.51 

175-03 

983.22 

752.71 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  . 

. 5166.19  398.77 

79.08 

4H-9I 

2251.38 

2019.18 

Voided  . 

58.51 

175-03 

983.22 

752.71 

Digested  .  .  .  . 

. 2935.84  138.06 

20.57 

236.88 

1268.16 

1266.47 

Co-efficients  or 

■  percentages 

digested  . 

26.01 

57.51 

56.33 

62.72 

12 


Bulletin  93. 


TIMOTHY  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  4. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  5530.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

6.58  7.21 

i-43 

7-45 

40.71 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

5166.19  398.77 

79.08 

411.91 

2251.3 1 

Orts,  air 

dried,  weighed  000  grams. 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Consumed 

79.08 

411.91 

2251.31 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  2275.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

6.46  10.31 

2.23 

7.48 

42.00 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

2091.19  235.42 

50.73 

170. 11 

955-41 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Consumed  .  . 

. 5166.19  398.77 

79-08 

4II-9I 

2251.31 

Voided  . 

. 2091.19  235.42 

50.73 

170. 11 

955-41 

Digested 

. 3075.00  161.35 

28.35 

241.80 

1295.97 

Co-efficients  or  percentages 

digested 

.  59.512  312.94 

35.85 

58.70 

57.56 

TIMOTHY 

HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No. 

8. 

Weight  0 

f  fodder  received  in  five  days,  5530.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  1 

Fodder. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

6.58  7.21 

i-43 

7-45 

40.71 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

5166.19  398.77 

79.08 

4II-9I 

2251.38 

Orts,  air 

dried,  weighed  65.0  grams.* 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Analysis 

incomplete. 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

13-91 

1.30 

8.82 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

■ 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Fed  . 

. 5166.19  398.77 

79.08 

411.91 

2257.38 

Less  orts  .  . 

.  13. 91 

1.30 

8.82 

Consumed 

. 5166.19  384.86 

77.78 

403.09 

2251.38 

Feces, 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  2567.5  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

6.98  9.77 

2.06 

6-45 

43-93 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

2388.21  250.71 

51-50 

1 65.62 

1127.1 1 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Consumed 

77.78 

403.09 

2251.38 

Voided  .... 

51*50 

165.62 

1 127. 1 1 

Digested 

. 2777.98  134-15 

26.28 

237-47 

1 124.27 

Co-efficients  or  percentages 

digested 

33.79 

58.91 

49.94 

*The  moisture  and  crude  fibre  determinations  in  this  sample  of  orts  were 
which  introduces  a  slight  error  into  the  co-efficients  obtained. 


Extract. 

36.52 

Extract. 

2019.18 


Extract. 

2019.18 


Extract. 

3148 

Extract. 
716.1 1 

Extract. 
2019.18 
7 1 6. 1 1 


1303.07 

64.53 


Extract. 

36.52 

Extract. 

2019.18 


Extract. 


Extract. 

2019.18 


2019.18 


Extract. 

30.80 

Extract. 

790.71 

Extract. 

2019.18 

79°-7T 

1228.47 

60.79 

omitted. 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders.  13 


Average  Digestion  Coefficients  for  Timothy  Hay. 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Sheep  i\o. 

3 . 

. 56.83 

34.62 

23.01 

57.51 

56.33 

62.72 

Sheep  No. 

4 . 

.  59.52 

32.94 

35.85 

58.70 

57.56 

64.53 

Sheep  No. 

8 . 

.  53.77 

34 .80 

33.79 

58.91 

49.94 

60.79 

Average  .  . 

34.14 

31.88 

5S.37 

54.61 

62.80 

The  average  coefficients  obtained  are  well  within  the  range 
found  by  other  experimenters,  with  the  exception  of  the  coeffi¬ 
cient  of  digestion  for  the  fat  or  ether  extract,  which  is  far  below 
the  coefficient  given  for  fat  in  timothy  hay  cut  before  or  in  bloom, 
and  even  lower  than  the  minimum  given  for  fat,  34.6,  in  timothy 
hay  cut  past  bloom.  The  digestion  coefficient  of  crude  fibre  is 
lower  than  the  minimum  given  for  timothy  hay  cut  before  or  in 
bloom,  but  above  the  maximum  for  timothy  cut  after  bloom.  The 
digestion  coefficient  for  the  fat  is  markedly  low.  The  same  fact 
is  observable  in  the  results  obtained  for  the  digestion  coefficient 
of  fat  in  corn  fodder.  The  native  hay  gives  us  a  higher  coeffi¬ 
cient  for  the  digestibility  of  the  fat  or  ether  extract  than  is  given 
for  blue  joint,  a  meadow  grass  common  in  the  East;  but  as  al¬ 
ready  noted,  the  Eastern  blue  joint  and  the  Western  blue  stem  are 
different  grasses,  and  their  digestion  coefficients  may  not  be  the 
same,  in  fact,  are  probably  not  the  same,  and  my  only  justifica¬ 
tion  in  comparing  them  is  the  very  general  one  that  they  each 
constitute  a  meadow  hay. 

We  will  have  to  take  up  the  question  of  the  digestion  coeffi¬ 
cient  of  fat  in  a  subsequent  paragraph,  after  we  have  set  forth  the 
results  obtained  with  alfalfa  hay. 

The  timothy  hay  used  was  purchased  in  the  Denver  market, 
it  had  been  grown  in  the  mountains,  had  been  cut  in  early  bloom 
and  well  cured.  It  was  as  good  a  sample  as  we  could  hope  to  pro¬ 
cure  either  in  the  market  or  by  growing  it  on  the  Station  farm. 


ALFALFA  HAY. 
Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  4. 


Weight  of 

fodder  received  in  five  days,  5470.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Fodder. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-23  9-63 

0.80 

13.12 

41.05 

30.17 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in: 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5183.88  526.72 

43-76 

717-63 

2245.23 

1650.34 

Orts,  air 

dried,  weighed  000  grams. 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

• 

■» 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  . 

. 5^83.88  526.72 

43-76 

717.63 

2245.23 

1650.34 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  2340.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.21  10.30 

3.06 

9.44 

44-23 

26.76 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

2194.63  241.07 

71.60 

220.80 

1034.10 

626.1 1 

14  Bulletin  93. 


Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 


Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  . 

43*76 

717-63 

2245.23 

1650.34 

Voided  . 

71.60 

220.81 

1034.10 

626.1 1 

Digested  .... 

— 27.84 

496.82 

1211.13 

1024.23 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  57.66  54.23 

—63.61 

69. OS 

54.43 

62.06 

ALFALFA 

HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No. 

3. 

Weight  of 

fodder  received  in  five  days,  5470.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Fodder. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-23  9-63 

0.80 

13.12 

41.05 

30.17 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5183.88  526.72 

43-76 

717.63 

2245.23 

1650.34 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  000  grams. 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  .  . 

. 5183.88  526.72 

43*76 

717.63 

2245.23 

1650.34 

Feces 

■ 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  2832.0  grams. 

• 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.26  11. 12 

3-27 

9.27 

44.00 

26.08 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided 

■ 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

2654.68  315-03 

92.63 

262.65 

1246.19 

738.82 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  .  . 

. 5183.88  526.72 

43-76 

717.63 

2245.23 

1650.30 

V  oided  . 

. 2654.68  3x5-03 

92.63 

262.65 

1246.19 

738.82 

Digested  .  .  .  .  , 

-48.87* 

454.98 

999.04 

911.52 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  49.56  40.19 

—111.67 

63.40 

44.49 

55.23 

ALFALFA 

HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  8. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  5470.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-23  9-63 

0.80 

13.12 

41.05 

30.17 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5183.88  526.72 

43-76 

717*63 

2245.23 

1650.30 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  1522.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.44  1 1. 1 2 

0.84 

12.44 

36.48 

32.68 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1423.98  169.24 

12.78 

189.34 

555-23 

497-33 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 5183.88  526.72 

43-76 

717-63 

2245.23 

1650.34 

Less  orts  . ' . 1423.98  169.24 

12.78 

189.34 

555-23 

497*39 

Consumed  . 3759-90  357-48 

39-9S 

52S.29 

1690.00 

1 1 52.95 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  2044.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.99  10.00 

2. 99 

8.38 

46.00 

26.64 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1921.57  205.40 

61. 1 1 

171.22 

940.22 

544-55 

Colorado 

Hays  and  Fodders. 

15 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. 3759-90 

357-48 

30.98 

528.29 

1690.00 

1152.95 

Voided  . 

. 1921.57 

205.40 

61. 1 1 

171.22 

940.22 

544-55 

Digested  .  . . 

. 1838.33 

152.08 

—30.13 

357-07 

749.78 

608.40 

Co-efficients  or  percentages 

digested  . 

.  48.89 

42.57  - 

-97.26 

67.59 

44.36 

52.77 

Average  Digestion 

Coefficients  for 

Alfalfa  Hay. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Negative 

Sheep  No.  3. 

.  49.56 

40.19 

111.67 

63.40 

44.49 

55.23 

I 

Negative 

Sheep  No.  4. 

.  57.66 

54.23 

63.61 

69.0S 

54.43 

62.06 

Negative 

Sheep  No.  8. 

.  48.89 

42.54 

97.26 

67.59 

44.36 

52.77 

Negative 

Averages 

.  52.04 

45.65 

90.85 

66.69 

47.76 

t 

56.69 

The  maximum,  minimum  and  average 

coefficients  of 

diges- 

gestion  as 

given  by  Jordan  and  Hall 

are  as 

follows: 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Maximum  .  .  . 

40.9 

54-o 

77.0 

49.0 

71.8 

Minimum  .  .  . 

.  57-o 

38.0 

48.4 

68.8 

43-3 

64.0 

Average  .  .  .  . 

.  58.9 

39-5 

5i-o 

72.0 

46.0 

69.2 

The  experiments  on  which  the  quoted  data  were  based  were 
made,  one  by  Utah  Experiment  Station,  using  two  steers;  one  by 
the  New  York  Experiment  Station,  using  a  cow;  one  by  the  Colo¬ 
rado  Station,  using  two  steers.  Additional  experiments  which 
have  appeared  since  the  compilation  of  Jordan  and  Hall  was  made 
are,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  find,  the  following: 

Kansas  Station,  Bulletin  103. — Steers. 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

First  cutting,  plants  in  bloom  59.40 

63-49 

60.00 

78.52 

46.10 

75-31 

Second  cutting,  50  per  cent. 

of  plants  in  bloom. 

-  58.29 

56.41 

30.39 

75-14 

50.44 

71.99 

Third  cutting,  plants  in 

full  bloom  . 

60.90 

51-65 

76.70 

50.63 

75-24 

Minnesota  Station,  Bulletin  80.- 

-Steers. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Alfalfa  hay  . 

-  65.84 

51.40 

55-88 

75-38 

57-57 

71.86 

Ontario  Agricultural 

College  and 

Experimental  Farm  Report,  1898.- 

—Sheep. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

First  cutting . 

58.6 

48.8 

73-4 

39-i 

71.8 

Second  cutting . 

56.2 

50.4 

72.8 

37-7 

70.1 

Third  cutting  . 

5i-3 

44.1 

64.4 

37-x 

64.0 

Utah  Station. — Bui 

.  54. — Steers. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

60.16 

40.85 

50-57 

70.30 

45-67 

71.80 

These  give  for  alfalfa  hay,  first  cutting, 

taking 

the  Minnesota 

and  Utah  samples 

as  such,  the  following: 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Average  alfalfa  hay . 

5i-58 

53-8x 

74.40 

47.11 

72.49 

Average  all  cuttings . 

.  58.73 

56.61 

48.97 

73-33 

45-54 

71.41 

My  average  results  are 

lower 

than 

the  averages  of 

other 

experimenters,  but  are  within  the  bounds  of  probability,  with  the 
exception  of  the  fat  or  ether  extract,  which  in  my  series  is  nega¬ 
tive,  and  we  assume,  tentatively  only,  that  the  results  are  erro- 


10 


Bulletin  93. 


neous,  even  though  the  three  sheep  give  the  same  result,  i.  e.,  a 
negative  one.  The  natural  explanation  would  be  to  attribute  it  to 
some  error,  and  as  the  result  is  common  to  the  three  sheep,  the 
error,  if  any  has  been  made,  must  be  a  fundamental  one,  and 
would  seem  to  lie  in  the  determination  of  the  fat  or  ether  extract 
in  the  hay  itself.  The  hay  used  was  first  cutting  hay,  furnished 
by  the  Farm  Department,  probably  cut  when  the  plants  were  in 
early  to  half  bloom,  as  it  is  our  custom  to  cut  the  alfalfa  when  in 
this  condition,  though  the  analysis  corresponds  to  much  later  cut 
hay. 

The  results  in  the  case  of  the  ether  extract  being  so  remark¬ 
able,  the  analytical  work,  though  already  done  in  duplicate,  was 
repeated  in  the  case  of  the  hay  and  the  feces  of  sheep  No.  3.  The 
principal  weakness  in  my  data  lies  in  the  sample  of  hay,  the  com¬ 
position  of  which  shows  nothing  unusual  except  a  very  small 
amount  of  fat,  ether  extract,  which  is  even  less  than  I  have  here¬ 
tofore  found  in  the  stems  alone  or  in  hay  made  from  plants  that 
were  in  full  seed. 

This  extremely  low  percentage  of  fat  almost  forbids  the  use  of 
the  coefficient  obtained  for  it  in  this  series  of  experiments. 

The  crude  protein,  13.12  per  cent,  is  a  shade  low,  and  the 
crude  fibre,  41.05  per  cent,  a  little  too  high  for  prime,  first  cutting 
alfalfa  hay.  But  they  are  so  well  within  the  range  found  for 
these  constituents  in  alfalfa  hay  that  they  cannot  justly  be  made 
the  subject  of  adverse  comment.  The  fat,  however,  being  less 
than  one-half  the  amount  usually  found  in  good  alfalfa  hay,  is 
open  to  the  gravest  doubts.  The  feces  of  the  sheep  fed  on  this 
hay  are,  on  the  other  hand,  quite  as  rich  in  ether  extract  as  the 
feces  of  other  sheep  fed  with  a  much  better  alfalfa  hay.  The 
average  ether  extract  found  in  the  feces  of  this  series  of  experi¬ 
ments,  and  being  the  average  of  fifteen  determinations,  is  3.10  per 
cent,  while  the  average  percentage  of  ether  extract  found  in  the 
feces  of  three  other  sheep,  likewise  based  upon  fifteen  determi¬ 
nations,  is  3.09  per  cent. 

It  would  seem  that  if  the  feces  of  two  sets  of  sheep,  to  which 
the  same  kind  of  hay  had  been  fed,  contained  the  same  amount  of 
ether  extract  (fat),  we  ought  to  find  a  corresponding  agreement  in 
the  amounts  contained  in  the  hay  feed,  provided  that  the  diges¬ 
tion  processes  had  acted  upon  them  in  the  same  manner  and  de¬ 
gree  ;  but  we  do  not  find  this  to  be  the  case,  as  will  appear  more 
fully  in  the  statement  of  a  subsequent  series  of  experiments.  I 
therefore  feel  it  to  be  incumbent  upon  me  either  to  reject  this  se¬ 
ries  or  to  make  a  somewhat  full  record  of  the  study  made,  which 
I  shall  do  as  briefly  as  possible.  It  would  be  easier  to  do  the 
former  and  to  use  only  such  results  as  are  in  harmony  with  other 
experiments  which  are  considered  as  altogether  reliable,  and  the 
number  of  which  add  materially  to  their  conclusiveness. 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


17 


The  hay  was  passed  through  a  cutter  and  the  sample  taken 
by  Professor  W.  W.  Cooke,  who  was  at  the  time  Professor  of  Agri¬ 
culture  at  this  institution,  and  by  him  delivered  to  me.  The  hay 
was  discolored  to  a  degree  which  might  be  produced  by  its  being 
exposed  to  a  heavy  dew  or  a  light  rain.  An  analysis  of  it  indi¬ 
cated  it  to  be  at  least  a  fair  quality  of  hay,  the  only  thing  attract¬ 
ing  attention  being  the  very  unusually  low  percentage  of  ether 
extract  or  fat. 

Two  things  were  possible  in  our  results:  We  might  have  ob 
tained  too  low  results  in  our  analysis  of  the  hay,  or  those  obtained 
for  the  fat  in  the  feces  might  have  been  too  high,  and  it  is  con¬ 
ceivable  that  both  determinations  might  have  been  wrong,  even 
though  the  former  was  made  in  duplicate  and  the  latter  was  the 
average  of  five  closely  agreeing  determinations.  The  analysis  of 
both  the  hay  and  the  feces  were  repeated  without  changing  the 
results.  It  was  then  thought  the  alfalfa  being  very  rich  in  chlo¬ 
rophyll,  the  coloring  matters  might  have  accumulated  in  the  feces 
and  possibly,  having  been  rendered  more  readily  soluble  in  ether, 
might  account  for  a  part  of  the  discrepency  between  our  results  and 
thoseof  others.  The  hay  and  feces  of  sheep  Nos.  3,  4 and  8  were  re¬ 
sampled,  the  samples  carefully  dried  in  hydrogen  and  extracted 
with  petroleum  ether,  boiling  from  35  deg.  to  50  deg.  Pe¬ 
troleum  ether  of  this  boiling  point  dissolved  about  50  per  cent  as 
much  out  of  both  hay  and  feces  as  the  anhydrous  ether.  The  pe¬ 
troleum  ether  Bp.  35  deg.-50  deg.,  dissolved  1.78,  1.97  and  1.78 
per  cent  from  the  feces,  whereas  the  anhydrous  ether  dissolved 
3.64,  3.62  and  3.62  per  cent.  The  petroleum  extract  had  a  yel¬ 
lowish  green  color  and  it  was  evident  that  there  was  some  color¬ 
ing  matter  present  which  was  freely  soluble  in  this  menstruum. 

An  attempt  to  separate  the  fatty  acids  and  in  this  manner  to 
eliminate  the  question  of  coloring  matters  and  bile  products,  gave 
unsatisfactory  results. 

We  next  tried  a  higher  boiling  petroleum,  50  deg.-60  deg. 
We  found  this  much  more  difficult  to  work  with  than  the  lower 
boiling  petroleum,  and  further,  that  it  yielded  a  much  higher  per¬ 
centage  of  extract,  in  one  instance  falling  only  0.10  percent  below 
the  ether  and  in  no  instance  more  than  1  per  cent^  less 
than  the  ether.  After  extracting  five  samples  with  petroleum  Bp. 
50  deg.-60  deg.,  we  abandoned  it  and  had  recourse  to  alternate 
extraction  with  petroleum  Bp.  35  deg.-50  deg.  and  anhydrous 
ether,  also  treating  same  samples  in  reverse  order.  As  a  result  of 
this  treatment  we  found  that  samples  treated  with  ether  yield  but 
little,  0.07  per  cent  average  of  three  trials,  to  petroleum  Bp.  35 
deg.-50  deg.,  while  those  treated  with  petroleum  Bp.  35  deg.- 
50  deg.  yield  0.90  per  cent  to  the  ether.  At  first  I  supposed  that 
this  difference  was  due  to  chlorophyll  soluble  in  ether,  but  insol- 


18 


Bulletin  93. 


uble  in  the  petroleum ;  subsequent  attempts  to  separate  the  col¬ 
oring  matters  from  these  extracts,  though  very  unsatisfactory  in 
themselves,  indicate  that  this  assumption  was  not  wholly  justi¬ 
fied.  The  coefficient  of  digestion  for  the  fat,  petroleum  extract, 
was  negative,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ether  extract — showing  over  twice 
as  much  fat  in  the  feces  as  was  ingested  with  the  hay;  the  negative 
coefficient  for  the  ether  extract  being  111.67  and  for  the  petro¬ 
leum  110.8. 

The  next  thing  suggesting  itself  was  that  the  excess  of  sub¬ 
stances  extracted  from  the  feces  by  the  ether  might  be  due  to 
biliary  products,  and  we  sought  for  cholesterine  and  bile  pigments. 
We  did  not  obtain  satisfactory  crystallizations  of  cholesterine,  but 
we  did  obtain  a  good  Petenkofer  reaction.  This  is  hardly  to  be 
wondered  at,  as  this  substance  occurs  so  generally  distributed  with¬ 
in  the  body.  We  obtained  fairly  good  reactions  for  bile  pig¬ 
ments,  and  were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  other  substances  which 
might  have  produced  the  reactions  observed,  one  would  be  justi¬ 
fied  in  asserting  that  they  were  present.  As  the  matter  stands, 
however,  I  am  very  doubtful  about  the  actual  presence  of  bile  pig¬ 
ments,  and  I  am  very  fully  convinced  that  this  class  of  products 
do  not  furnish  the  explanation  for  the  excessive  amount  of  extract 
in  the  feces.  By  excessive  is  here  meant  relative  to  the  amount  in 
the  hay  feed. 

We  attempted  to  determine  the  chlorophyll  in  these  extracts; 
the  results  were,  as  was  to  be  foreseen,  unsatisfactory,  but  indicated 
that  from  30  to  35  per  cent  of  the  extract  consists  of  chlorophyll 
and  related  substances.  The  petroleum  extract  was  not  colorless, 
but  contained  a  considerable  quantity  of  coloring  matter.  This 
coloring  matter  was  also  soluble  in  ether,  for  when  the  sample 
was  first  extracted  with  ether,  and  then  with  petroleum,  the  latter 
remained  colorless.  The  large  amount  of  coloring  matter  in  al¬ 
falfa  gave  us  trouble  in  other  operations;  for  instance,  we  found  it 
necessary  to  use  lead  and  copper  salts  jointly  in  obtaining  a  col¬ 
orless  solution  from  an  alcoholic  extract  of  alfalfa  hay. 

The  question  of  the  coloring  matters  was  not  prosecuted  fur¬ 
ther  and  was  considered  to  this  extent  only  because  of  their  direct 
disturbing  influence  upon  our  fat  determinations  and  indirectly 
upon  some  of  our  work  due  to  the  color  imparted  to  the  solutions, 
making  it  difficult  to  observe  the  reactions  or  to  determine  when 
the  end  had  been  reached. 

In  all  of  this  we  have  been  unable  to  find  any  explanation  of 
the  fact  that  this  series  of  experiments  gives  us  no  digestion  coeffi¬ 
cient  for  the  ether  extract  in  alfalfa  hay.  I  have  canvassed  all 
of  the  analytical  difficulties  which  have  occurred  to  me  as  pos¬ 
sibly  being  capable  of  furnishing  even  a  suggestion  of  an  ex¬ 
planation,  the  analysis  of  the  hay  and  also  those  of  the  feces  have 
been  repeated  several  times  by  different  operators  and  with  great 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


19 


care.  The  results  are  so  constant  that  they  preclude  any  mistake 
in  the  analytical  work.  To  convey  an  idea  of  the  care  with  which 
my  assistants  worked  and  the  concordant  results  obtained,  I  may 
be  permitted  to  give  some  of  them:  Ether  extract  in  alfalfa  hay, 
0.783,  0.835,  0.785,  0.812  and  0.750,  after  resampling  and  pro¬ 
longed  drying  in  hydrogen.  Ether  extract  in  the  only  sample  of 
orts  left  by  the  sheep  was  0.827,  0.850.  The  results  obtained  in 
the  analysis  of  the  feces  were  equally  satisfactory. 

The  only  suggestion  remaining  is  that  the  hay  used  in  this 
experiment  had  suffered  some  change  which  affect  the  solubility 
of  the  “ether  extract”  in  this  remarkable  manner,  i.  e.,  reducing 
it  to  about  one-half  the  amount  to  be  expected  in  good  alfalfa 
hay,  this  hay  showing  0.80  per  cent,  while  the  next  sample  experi¬ 
mented  with  contained  1.62  per  cent  and  was  likewise  first  cutting 
but  in  much  better  condition.  The  orts  show  the  same  relation;  the 
orts  in  this  series  show  an  average  of  0.83  per  cent  ether  extract, 
in  the  next  one  to  be  given  1.22  per  cent.  Of  the  three  sheep 
used  only  one  left  any  portion  of  its  fodder,  and  I  am  inclined  to 
consider  it  an  accident  that  the  fat  in  the  hay  and  orts  in  this  one 
sample  are  so  nearly  the  same.  The  feces,  on  the  other  hand, 
do  not  show  this  difference,  but  are  very  similar  in  the  percentage 
of  ether  extract  yielded. 

As  already  stated,  the  feces  from  this  hay  containing  only 
0.80  per  cent  ether  extract  yielded  as  the  average  of  fifteen  deter¬ 
minations  made  on  the  feces  of  three  sheep  3.10  per  cent,  while 
the  feces  from  another  alfalfa  hay  yielded  as  the  average  of  the 
same  number  of  determinations  made  on  the  feces  of  three  other 
sheep  3.09  per  cent.  One  thing  is  evident,  i.  e.,  that  however 
changed  the  hay  may  have  been,  this  change  did  not  affect  the 
amount  of  ether  extract  appearing  in  the  feces. 

There  are  no  facts  that  I  know  of  to  justify  us  in  assuming 
that  oxidation  would  diminish  the  solubility  of  the  fats  in  alfalfa 
hay,  even  if  slightly  damaged  by  rain  or  dew,  as  this  may  have 
been.  Beyond  this  I  cannot  conceive  by  what  cause  the  fat  in 
this  hay  could  have  been  so  reduced,  and  I  am  still  less  able  to 
apprehend  what  changes  could  have  taken  place  within  the  ani¬ 
mal  to  restore  an  apparently  normal  amount  of  ether  extract  to  the 
feces. 

It  is  almost  certain  that  the  ether  extract  consists  of  soluble 
fecal  matter,  the  amount  of  which  is  not  dependent  upon  the 
amount  of  ether  extract  in  the  hay,  and  the  coefficient  obtained  is 
of  but  little  value. 

It  is  generally  accepted  as  a  fact  that  the  determination  of 
the  coefficient  of  digestion  of  fat,  especially  when  only  small 
amounts  are  fed,  is  at  best  unsatisfactory.  This  is  applicable  in 
the  case  of  hays  and  fodders  in  which  the  amount  of  fat  or  ether 


20 


Bulletin  93. 


extract  is  small.  In  the  case  here  presented  the  largest  amount 
of  ether  extract  consumed  in  the  five  days  during  which  the  feces 
were  collected  was  43.76  grams,  a  little  less  than  an  ounce  and  a 
half.  This  is  a  small  quantity,  but  concerning  the  result  there  is 
no  room  for  questions,  it  is  not  doubtful,  for  we  find  in  the  feces 
92.63  grams  of  fat  or  ether  extract — more  than  twice  the  amount 
consumed,  and  we  find  almost  exactly  the  same  ratio  if  we  take  the 
petroleum  extract,  i.  e.,  23.52  grams  consumed  and  48.99  grams 
voided  in  the  feces.  All  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  coefficient 
disappears  in  this  markedly  negative  result.  While  I  am  unable 
to  give  any  explanation,  satisfactory  or  otherwise,  for  this  anomal¬ 
ous  result,  except  as  already  suggested,  I  cannot,  in  fairness, 
do  otherwise  than  publish  the  results  obtained. 

I  see  but  one  question  which  can  still  be  raised,  i.  e.,  the 
character  of  the  sample  itself.  The  experience  of  Professor  Cooke 
as  a  chemist  and  his  own  interest  in  the  experiment  ought  to  be 
a  sufficient  guaranty  of  its  fairness.  The  fact  that  the  one  sample 
of  orts  obtained  in  the  experiment  gives  the  same  amount  of  ether 
extract  that  the  sample  of  hay  gave  is  remarkable,  for  sheep,  when 
they  have  the  opportunity,  eat  the  leaves  of  alfalfa  in  prefer¬ 
ence  to  the  stems,  and  the  fact  that  this  hay  had  been  chopped 
would  in  no  way  preclude  the  animals  leaving  the  stems  in 
preference  to  a  mixture  of  leaves  and  stems.  The  analysis,  as 
already  intimated,  suggests  a  sample  of  hay  which  had  been 
cut  when  passed  full  bloom,  but  by  what  process  the  ether 
extract  in  the  feces  has  been  rendered  so  large  is  not  apparent. 

SECOND  SERIES. 

It  was  my  intention  to  extend  the  work  with  the  preceding 
hays  and  fodders  to  include  a  study  of  the  alcoholic  and  aqueous 
extracts  together  with  several  other  points  which  appear  to  me 
interesting  and  possibly  of  considerable  value.  The  doubts  which 
gathered  about  the  alfalfa  hay  and  the  anamalous  results  obtained 
decided  me  to  take  up  another  series  of  experiments.  I  accord¬ 
ingly  obtained  other  sheep  and  repeated  the  work  de  novo.  I  was 
the  more  willing  to  do  this,  as  it  would  increase  the  number  of 
experiments  made  and  the  number  of  animals  experimented  with, 
both  of  which  are  desirable  factors  in  this  kind  of  work,  besides 
there  is  a  scarcity  of  experiments  to  determine  the  coefficients  of 
some  of  the  fodders  with  which  I  wished  to  experiment.  Some 
of  the  conditions,  too,  under  which  the  experiments  were  con¬ 
ducted  were  made  more  favorable.  The  comfort  of  the  animal 
was  better  provided  for  and  the  spring  season  was  chosen  in¬ 
stead  of  the  summer. 

It  further  seemed  advisable  to  extend  the  experiments  to  in¬ 
clude  sorghum  fodder  raised  without  irrigation  and  one  of  our  na- 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


21 


tive  salt  bushes,  A  triplex  argentea ,  because  they  are  of  import¬ 
ance  to  the  eastern  section  of  the  state,  which  is  largely  devoted  to 
grazing.  The  cattlemen  find  it  desirable  to  have  some  fodder  to 
feed  during  severe  storms,  as  by  doing  so  they  avoid  during  the 
late  winter  and  spring  the  loss  of  cattle,  which  are  already  some¬ 
what  reduced  by  the  scanty  supply  of  grass  and  the  exposures  of 
the  season.  Owing  to  the  climatic  conditions  prevailing  in  this 
section  it  would  be  a  boon  if  some  of  the  native  plants  could  be 
used  for  fodder  when  dried.  As  the  salt  bush  mentioned,  A  triplex 
argentea ,  has  been  used  for  this  purpose,  I  included  it  in  our  ex¬ 
periment.  In  regard  to  the  sorghum  fodder,  two  things  are  to  be 
considered;  first,  it  is  necessary  to  grow  it  without  irrigation  and 
with  but  little  rainfall;  the  average  rainfall  of  Cheyenne  Wells  is 
15.90  inches;  second,  the  plants  will  not  grow  rankly  and  the  fodder 
would  not  be  used  until  the  latter  part  of  winter  or  some  time 
during  the  spring,  by  which  time  it  is  claimed  that  sorghum  fod¬ 
der  will  have  deteriorated  very  materially.  But  even  under  these 
conditions  one  would  judge  sorghum  fodder  to  be  preferable  to  hay 
made  from  the  Russian  thistle  or  some  of  the  salt  bushes. 

The  Sub-station  at  Cheyenne  Wells  experimented  with  the 
growing  sorghum  for  this  purpose.  The  cultural  problems  lie  en¬ 
tirely  beyond  my  province.  The  sample  of  sorghum  fodder  used 
was  grown  by  this  Sub-station,  cut  when  only  a  few  of  the  plants 
were  advanced  enough  to  mature  seed,  shocked  and  preserved 
in  shock  until  the  following  spring.  The  sample  was  leafy  and 
of  an  excellent  color,  and  whatever  the  changes  this  fodder 
may  have  suffered  due  to  its  having  stood  in  shock,  exposed  to 
the  weather  of  an  eastern  Colorado  winter,  it  is  still  representative 
of  the  very  best  sorghum  fodder  that  the  people  of  this  section 
can  hope  to  obtain. 

The  second  series  of  experiments  include  the  following:  Al¬ 
falfa  hay,  native  hay,  timothy  hay,  corn  fodder,  sorghum  fodder 
and  salt  bush  hay. 

The  sheep  used  in  these  experiments  were  wethers  about  one 
year  old,  so-called  Mexican  lambs,  and  represented  the  stock  fed 
by  feeders  in  this  valley.  The  sheep  were  rather  under-sized  but 
healthy  and  hardy.  They  were  gentle  and  their  stalls  were  light 
and  airy,  so  arranged  that  we  could  close  them  nights  and  during 
severe  weather.  The  water  given  them  to  drink  was  heated  to 
from  14  deg.  to  20  deg.  C.,  and  in  cold  weather  to  from  35  deg.  to 
40  deg.,  usually  to  about  30  deg.  During  this  series  of  experi¬ 
ments  the  sheep  received  a  small  allowance  of  salt,  except  with 
the  salt  bush  hay.  The  weights  of  the  sheep  were  taken  on  the 
morning  of  the  day  the  experiments  began,  before  feeding,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  day  they  were  turned  out  of  the  stalls  twelve 
hours  after  the  last  feed. 


22 


Bulletin  93. 


ALFALFA  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  4. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4450.5  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder. 


• 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

7-7  5 

11.77 

1.62 

15-03 

30.28 

35-55 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4106.00 

533-23 

72.01 

668.12 

1346. 10 

1580.27 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  320.7  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-32 

20.74 

1.22 

14-93 

32-44 

25-35 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

■  323.60 

66.51 

3-9i 

47.88 

104.03 

81.29 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . . . . 

523-23 

72.01 

668.12 

1346.10 

1580.27 

Less  orts 

.  323*60 

66.51 

3-9i 

47.88 

104.03 

81.29 

Consumed 

. 3782.40 

456.72 

68.18 

620.24 

1242.07 

1498.98 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1485.20  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.68 

13-37 

3-09 

10.99 

39-95 

25.92 

Fodder 

Constituents 

Voided 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1386.00 

198.51 

45-89 

163.25 

593-34 

384.92 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  .  .  . 

456.72 

68.18 

620.24 

1242.07 

1498.98 

Voided  . 

198.51 

45-89 

163.25 

593-34 

384.92 

Digested  . 

258.21 

22.29 

456.99 

648.76 

1 1 14.06 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested 

. 63.64 

56.54  32.61 

73.68 

52.23 

74.32 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment  46.0  pounds. 
Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  49.0  pounds. 


ALFALFA  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  5. 


Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4450.5  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

7-75 

11.77 

1.62  15-03 

30.28 

35-55 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4106.00 

523-23 

72.01  668.12 

1346.1 

1580.27 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  436.7  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Extract. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

5-52 

22.10 

1.32  19.12 

24.44 

27.50 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the  Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

412.60 

96.51 

5.76  83.44 

106.73 

120. ox 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed,  in  Grams 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  .... 

523-23 

72.01  668.12 

1346.10 

1580.27 

Less  orts 

96.51 

5.76  83.44 

106.73 

120.01 

Consumed 

. 3693-40 

426.72 

66.25  564.68 

1239-37 

1460.26 

Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1426.7  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

6-73 

11.77 

3-o6 

10.46 

41.72 

Fodder  Constituents 

Voided 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

1 130.69 

167.94 

43-65 

149.22 

595-25 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Consumed  .  .  . 

. 3693-40 

426.72 

66.25 

564.68 

1239.37 

Voided  . 

167.94 

43-65 

149.22 

595-25 

Digested  . 

258.78 

22.60 

415.48 

644.12 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  69.39 

60.64  34.11 

75.5S 

51.97 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment  46.0  pounds. 
Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  49.0  pounds. 


ALFALFA  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  6. 


Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4450.5  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 

Moisture.  Ash.  Fat. 

7-75  n-77  1-62 

Fodder  Constituents  Fed,  in 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat. 

4106.00  523.23  72.01 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  229.3  grams. 

Analysis  of  Orts. 


Protein. 

15-03 

Grams. 

Protein. 

668.12 


Moisture. 

5-45 


Ash. 

22.02 


Fat. 
1. 12 


Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 


Protein. 

16.78 

Orts,  in 


Fibre. 

30.28 

Fibre. 

1346.10 


Fibre. 

30-73 

Grams. 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

216.81 

50-49 

2«57 

38.48 

70.46 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Fed  . 

523-23 

72. ox 

668.12 

1346.10 

Less  orts  . . . . 

50-49 

2-57 

38.48 

70.46 

Consumed 

. 3889.19 

472.74 

69.52 

629.64 

1275.64 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1718.6  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash.  Fat. 

6.82  12.15  3-i2 


Protein. 

10.86 


Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 


Dry  Matter. 
1601.36 


Ash. 

208.83 


Fat. 

53-62 


Protein. 

186.21 


Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein. 

Consumed  . 3889.19  472.74  69.52  629.64 

Voided  . 1601.36  208.83  53.62  186.21 

Digested  . 2287.83  263.91  15.91  443-42 

Co-efficients  or  percentages 

digested  .  58.83  55.83  22.85  70.36 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment  42.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  45.0  pounds. 

The  Average  Co-efficients. 


Fibre. 

40-34 

Fibre. 

693-3I 

Fibre. 

1275.64 

693-3I 

582.33 

45.65 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Sheep  No. 

4 . 

.  63.64 

56.54 

32.61 

73.68 

52.23 

Sheep  No. 

5 . 

.  63.69 

60.61 

34.11 

73.58 

51.97 

Sheep  No. 

6 . 

.  5S.83 

55.8  i 

22.85 

70.36 

45.65 

Average  .  . 

.  63.95 

57.67 

29.86 

72.54 

49.93 

23 


Extract. 

26.26 


Extract. 

374-6i 

Extract. 

1460.26 

374-6i 

1085.65 

74.35 


Extract. 

35-55 

Extract. 

1580.27 


Extract. 

23.90 

Extract. 

43-53 

Extract. 

1580.27 

43-53 

1536.74 


Extract. 

26.83 

Extract. 

461.12 

Extract. 

1536.74 

461.12 

1075.62 

69.99 


Extract. 

74.32 

74.35 

69.99 


72.89 


24 


Bulletin  93. 


If  we  do  not  include  the  coefficient  22.85  found  for  the  fat  in 
the  experiment  with  sheep  No.  6,  we  would  still  have  only  33.34 
as  the  average  for  sheep  Nos.  4  and  5,  which  is  still  very  much 
lower  than  has  been  found  by  any  other  experimenter  for  any 
cutting  of  alfalfa  hay.  A  very  little  of  the  hay  used  in  these  ex¬ 
periments  was  slightly  mouldy,  the  rest  of  the  hay  was  in  prime 
condition  and  the  sample  was  fair.  The  highest  average  coeffi¬ 
cient  which  we  find  for  the  fat  or  ether  extract  is  33.34,  and  that 
actually  found  for  the  three  sheep  is  29.86,  while  the  highest  in¬ 
dividual  coefficient  is  34.11.  All  that  has  been  said  concerning 
the  care  taken  to  eliminate  analytical  errors  in  the  first  series  of 
experiments  with  alfalfa,  applies  to  this,  and  we  believe  that  we 
have  succeeded  in  eliminating  them. 


CORN  FODDER. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  1. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  3896.2  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract 

8.21 

9-53 

i-55 

4.62 

29.85 

46.24 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

3576.37 

371.22 

60.36 

179.91 

1162.12 

1802.14 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  818.6  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Asn. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.79 

8.49 

1.28 

2.49 

35-02 

45-93 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

763.02 

69.49 

10.47 

20.38 

286.61 

375-91 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

. 3576.37 

371.22 

60.36 

179.91 

1 162.12 

1802.14 

Less  orts 

69.49 

10.47 

20.38 

286.61 

375-91 

Consumed 

. 2813.35 

301.73 

49.89 

159-53 

875-5I 

1426.23 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1400.3  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

hat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6-73 

12.63 

1. 1 2 

7.16 

30.16 

42.20 

Fodder 

Constituents 

Voided. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1306.06 

176.82 

19.74 

100.22 

422.33 

590-94 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. .  •  .2813.35 

301.73 

49.89 

159-53 

875-5I 

1426.23 

Voided  . 

176.82 

19.74 

100.22 

422.33 

590.94 

Digested  . 

. 1507-29 

124.91 

30.15 

59-31 

453-i8 

835-29 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  . . 

.  53.58 

41.30  60.43 

37.18 

51.76 

57.16 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment  47.0  pounds. 
Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  49.0  pounds. 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders.  25 

CORN  FODDER. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  2. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  3896.2  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

8.21 

9-53 

i-55 

4.62 

29.85 

46.24 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

3576.37 

371.22 

60.36 

179.91 

1 162.12 

1802.14 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  995.6  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.72 

7.66 

1.30 

2. 59 

35-oi 

46.72 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

928.7 

76.26 

12.94 

25.78 

348.52 

465.12 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  .... 

. 3576.37 

371.22 

60.63 

179.91 

1 162.12 

1802.14 

Less  orts 

76.26 

12.94 

25.78 

348.52 

465.12 

Consumed 

294.96 

47.42 

I54-I3 

813.60 

1337.02 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1230.4  grams. 


Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.67 

13.26 

1. 19 

7-83 

29.20 

42.00' 

Fodder 

Constituents  Voided 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1148.34 

163.12 

14.64 

96.34 

359-21 

516.71 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

294.96 

47.42 

154-13 

813.60 

1337.02 

Voided  . 

163.12 

14.64 

96.34 

359-21 

5x6.71 

Digested  . 

131-84 

332.77 

57-79 

454-39 

820. 3T 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  56.63 

44.70 

69.11 

37.49 

55.85 

61.35- 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  the  experiment  46.0  pounds. 
Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  47.0  pounds. 

CORN  FODDER. 

Fodder  Fed. — Sheep  No.  3. 


Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  3896.2  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

8.21 

9-53 

i-55 

4.62 

29.85 

46.24 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

3576.37 

371.22 

60.36 

179.91 

1 162.12 

1802.14 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  800.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.47 

7.22 

1.26 

2.63 

37-19 

45-23 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

748.24 

57-76 

10.08 

21.04 

297*55 

362.83 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

. 3576.37 

371.22 

60.36 

179.91 

1 162.12 

1802.14 

Less  orts 

57-76 

10.08 

21.04 

297-55 

362.83 

Consumed 

313-46 

50.28 

158.87 

864.57 

I439-3I 

26 


Bulletin  98. 


Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1220.2  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.76 

14.17 

1.29 

7.90 

26.56 

43-32 

Fodder 

Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1137.72 

172.94 

15-74 

95-73 

324.01 

528.51 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  . 

313-46 

50.28 

158.87 

864.57 

I439-3I 

Voided  . 

172.94 

15-74 

95-73 

324.01 

528.51 

Digested  . 

140-52 

34-54 

63.14 

540.56 

910.80 

Co-efficients  or  percentages 

digested . 

_  59.77 

44.83 

68.69 

33.45 

62.52 

63.28 

Weight  of  sheep 

at 

beginning  of 

experiment 

48.5  pounds 

Weight  of  sheep 

at 

end  of  experiment  49.0 

pounds. 

Average  Digestion  Co-efficients  of  Corn  Fodder. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Sheep  No.  i . 

.  53.58 

41.39 

60.43 

37.1S 

51.76 

57.16 

Sheep  No.  2 . 

.  56.63 

44.7  0 

69.11 

37.49 

55.85 

61.35 

Sheep  No.  3 . 

.  59.77 

44.83 

68.69 

33.45 

62.52 

63.28 

Average  . 

. 56.66 

43.61 

66.0S 

36.04 

56.71 

60.60 

The  fodder  used  in  the  preceding  experiments  was  obtained 
from  the  Farm  Department.  It  was  cut  August  20,  stood  in  shock 
until  November  22,  when  it  was  hauled  in  and  stacked,  where  it 
remained  till  March  10.  The  fodder  was  bright,  prime  fodder. 
The  corn  was  a  variety  of  dent,  and  was  mature  enough  to  have  a 
few  ears  so  far  developed  that  the  corn  hardened  up  while  in 
shock.  All  of  the  ears  and  nubbins  were  husked  out.  The  corn 
had  been  seeded  thinly  in  drills.  The  ratio  of  the  leaves  to  the 
stems  was  2-1.  The  fodder  was  cut  fine,  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  inch  long.  The  orts  consisted  wholly  of  stalks,  as  the  sheep 
ate  all  the  leaves.  We  did  not  succeed  in  inducing  the  sheep  to 
eat  all  the  stems,  even  when  they  had  been  ground  in  a  drug  mill 
and  moistened. 

Jordan  and  Hall  give  as  maximum,  minimum  and  average  di¬ 
gestion  coefficients  for  dent  and  flint  corn  fodder  (mature): 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Maximum  . 

.  72.7 

52-9 

82.0 

67.6 

79.8 

81.2 

Minimum 

.  59-8 

6.6 

64.7 

37-9 

42.8 

63-4 

Average 

.  68.2 

30.6 

73-9 

56.1 

55-8 

72.2 

The 

same  authors  give 

the  maximum, 

minimum  and 

average 

coefficients  for  dent  and  flint  cornfodder,  immature, 

as: 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Maximum  . 

.  69.8 

57-4 

79-5 

70.5 

74-6 

74.0 

Minimum 

.  52.3 

17.7 

57-3 

24.1 

46.1 

59-2 

Average  .  .  . 

.  63.9 

37-2 

72.2 

51-7 

66.0 

66.2 

The  coefficients  obtained  for  our  three  individual  sheep  agree 
very  well  indeed,  but  our  averages  are  quite  different  from  those 
given  in  the  compilation  cited.  Neglecting  the  ash  and  consider¬ 
ing  the  other  results,  we  have  the  following  exhibit  of  facts  rela¬ 
tive  to  the  digestibility  of  corn  fodder,  with  which  many  experi- 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


27 


merits  have  been  made,  the  most  of  them  by  Eastern  experi¬ 
menters,  and  naturally  under  Eastern  conditions. 

My  first  series  of  experiments  gave  the  following  results — 
corn  fodder  inmature: 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 


Sheep  No.  i .  56.43  47.08  48.04  47-46  64.07  54-90 

Sheep  No.  2 .  60.28  42.29  45-40  46.07  70.24  60.25 

Sheep  No.  3 .  58.98  39.06  44.28  48.62  69.30  57-66 


Average  . 58.56  42.S4  45.91  47.38  67.87  57.60 


Second  series.  Corn  fodder,  grown  thinly  infdrills  and  ma¬ 
ture  enough  to  ripen  a  few  ears: 


Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 


Sheep  No.  1 .  53-58  4*-39  60.43  37-i8  51-76  57-i6 

Sheep  No.  2 .  56.63  44.70  69.11  37.49  55.85  61.35 

Sheep  No.  3 .  59.77  44.83  68.69  33.45  62.52  63.28 


Average  .  56.66  43.64  66.08  36.04  56.71  60.60 


The  coefficients  obtained  for  the  individual  sheep  in  the  re¬ 
spective  series  agree  as  well  as  could  be  expected,  and  while  the 
two  series  vary  greatly,  as  it  is  proper  that  they  should,  all  of  the 
conditions  under  which  the  experiments  were  made  being  differ¬ 
ent  in  every  respect.  Still  the  results  have  a  common  feature 
when  compared  with  the  results  recorded  by  all  other  American 
experimenters,  i.  e.,  they  are  uniformly  low.  This  is,  perhaps, 
most  fairly  shown  by  taking  the  averages,  but,  as  will  be  noticed 
upon  mere  inspection,  I  might  take  the  minima  given  by  others 
and  my  result  would  still  be  comparatively  low,  but,  as  suggested, 
the  averages  may  be  fairer. 

The  averages  found  in  Jordan  and  Hall,  “The  Digestibility  of 
American  Feeding  Stuffs,”  are  for  dent  and  flint Forn]f odder: 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 


Immature  .  63.9  37-20  72.2  51.7  66.0  66.2 

Mature  .  68.2  30.60  73.9  56.1  55.8  72.2 

My  first  series .  58.6  42.84  45.9  47.4  67.9  57.6 

My  second  series .  56.7  43-64  66.1  36.0  56.7  60.6 


In  only  one  instance  does  the  average  found  for  any  of  the 
constituents  given  exceed  the  average  given  by  Jordan  and  Hall, 
i.  e.,  the  coefficient  found  for  crude  fibre.  With  this  exception 
my  coefficients  are  all  low.  I  will  take  up  this  point  later,  but 
will  remark  that  in  spite  of  the  low  coefficients  obtained,  the 
animals  were  gaining  flesh,  as  the  three  made  an  aggregate  gain 
of  three  and  a  half  pounds  in  the  five  days.  The  ration  fed  was 
not,  in  my  opinion,  such  as  to  permit  any  unusual  portion  of  it  to 
pass  the  animal  without  having  been  fully  acted  on  by  the  diges¬ 
tion  processes.  The  amount  of  dry  matter  consumed  was  2.7  per 
cent,  of  the  animal’s  weight,  a  ratio  which  is  by  no  means  ex¬ 
cessive. 


28 


Bulletin  93. 


TIMOTHY  HAY. 


Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  1. 


Weight 

of 

fodder  received  in  five  days,  4440.  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Fodder. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

F  ibre. 

Extract.. 

6.49  9.37 

2.99 

5.62 

31-54 

43.99, 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4151.88  416.03 

132.72 

249.54 

1400.26 

1923.64 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  1269.6  grams. 

Analysis  of  Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4.99  6.97 

1.48 

5-83 

33-20 

47-51 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1206.25  88.49 

18.79 

74.01 

421.52 

603.42 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in 

Grams 

•• 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

132.72 

249.54 

1400.26 

1923.64 

Less  orts  .  . 

18.79 

74.01 

421.52 

603.42 

Consumed 

. 2945.63  327-54 

H3-93 

175-53 

978.74 

1320.22 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  1549.9  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.79  7.84 

2.28 

5-92 

37.26 

39-91 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided 

■ 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1444.67  121.59 

35-33 

91-75 

577-41 

618.52- 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. 2945.63  327-54 

H3-93 

175-53 

978.74 

1320.22 

Voided 

. I444-67  121.59 

35-33 

91-75 

577*4i 

618.52 

Digested 

. 1500.96  205.95 

78.60 

83.78 

401.33 

702.70 

Co-efficients 

or 

percentages 

digested 

.  50.96  62.88 

68.99 

47.73 

41.00 

53.23 

Weight  of 

sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment 

47.5  pounds. 

Weight 

of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  48.0 

pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  2. 

7  per  cent 

of 

the  animals  weight. 

TIMOTHY  HAY. 
Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  2. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4440.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6-49 

9-37 

2.99  5.62 

31-54 

43-99 

Fodder  Constituents  Fed,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4151.88 

416.03 

132.72  249.54 

1400.26 

1923.64 

Orts,  air 

dried,  weighed  1329.4  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-78 

6.71 

2.14  7.93 

37-44 

40. 00’ 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained 

in  the  Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1232.53 

89.20 

28.44  105.45 

497*74 

53I-72 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed,  in  Grams 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat.  Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

416.03 

132.72  249.54 

1400.26 

1923-64 

Less  orts  .  . 

89.20 

28.44  105.45 

497-74 

531-72 

Consumed  . 

. 2919.35 

326.83 

104.28  144.09 

902.52 

1391.92 

Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


29 


Air  dried  feces  weighed  1549.7  grams. 


Feces. 


Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6-35 

6.72 

2.06 

5-48 

39-75 

39-64 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

I4SI-30 

104.13 

31.92 

84.92 

616.02 

614.21 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

■Consumed 

326.83 

104.28 

144.09 

902.52 

1391.92 

Voided  . 

. I45I-30 

104.13 

31.92 

84.92 

616.02 

614.21 

Digested  . 

222.70 

72.36 

59-17 

286.50 

777.71 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  50.28 

68.14 

69.39 

41.06 

31.94 

55.87 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment  48.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  47.5  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  2.7  per  cent  of  the  animals  weight. 


TIMOTHY  HAY. 


Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  3. 


Weight  of 

fodder  received  in  five  days,  4440.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  1 

Fodder. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6-49  9-37 

2.99 

5.62 

31-54 

43-99 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4151.88  416.03 

132.72 

249.54 

1400.26 

1923.64 

Orts,  air  1 

dried, 

weighed  1893.7  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.26  6.66 

1.62 

6. 11 

38.13 

42.22 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1794.10  126.15 

30*67 

115.72 

722.01 

799-55 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

132.72 

249.54 

1400.26 

1923.64 

Less  orts  .... 

30.67 

115.72 

722.01 

799-55 

Consumed  . . . 

102.02 

123.82 

678.25 

1 124.09 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces 

weighed  1208.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.00  8.19 

2-57 

6.02 

36.34 

41.08 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

ii35*52  98.93 

31.04 

72.72 

438.91 

496.22 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  . .  , 

. . 2357.78  289.88 

102.05 

123.82 

678.25 

1 124.09 

Voided  . 

31.04 

72.72 

438.91 

496.22 

Digested  . 

71.01 

51.10 

239-34 

627.87 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  51.84  65.87 

69.58 

41.27 

35.29 

55.86 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment  47.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  46.0  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  2.2  per  cent  of  animals  weight. 


Average  Digestion  Co-efficients  for  Timothy  Hay. 


Sheep  No.  1. 
Sheep  No.  2 
Sheep  No.  3. 

Dry  Matter. 

.  50.96 

.  50.28 

.  51.84 

Ash. 

62. 8S 
68.14 
65.87 

Fat. 

68.99 

69.39 

69.58 

Protein. 

47.73 

41.06 

41.27 

Fibre. 

41.00 

31.94 

35.29 

Extract. 

53.23 

55.87 

55.86 

Average  .  .  .  . 

.  51.03 

65.63 

69.32 

43.35 

36.08 

54.99 

30 


Bulletin  93. 


The  hay  fed  was  not  the  same  as  in  the  former  experiment. 
The  sheep  were  younger  and  of  a  different  breed,  and  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  air,  sunlight  and  general  attention  to  the  comfort  of  the 
animal  were  more  favorable  than  in  the  former  experiment.  All 
of  these  facts  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  comparing  the 
results.  As  both  samples  of  hay  were  obtained  in  the  Denver 
market,  I  cannot  be  more  than  morally  certain  that  they  were  of 
about  the  same  age,  bnt  I  really  entertain  no  doubt  on  this  point. 
If  we  may  judge  by  the  amount  of  orts  left,  the  hay  used  in  the 
first  experiment  was  more  palatable  to  the  sheep  than  that  used 
in  the  second.  The  total  amount  of  orts  left  by  the  three  sheep 
in  the  first  experiment  was  60  grams,  while  they  aggregated 
4493.0  grams  in  the  second. 

The  individual  taste  of  one  of  the  sheep  was  very  marked  in 
the  second  series,  as  it  seemingly  ate  none  of  the  timothy  heads, 
all  of  which  seemed  pretty  mature. 

I  will  restate  the  results  obtained  in  the  first  experiment  that 
the  differences  may  be  the  more  easily  observed: 

The  Digestion  Co-efficients  of  Timothy  Hay,  First  Series. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 


Sheep  No.  3 .  56.83  34.62  26.01  57.51  56-33  62.72 

Sheep  No.  4 .  59.52  32.94  35.85  58.70  57.56  64.53 

Sheep  No.  8 .  53-77  34-86  33-79  58.91  49-94  60.79 


Average  .  5 6.71  34.14  3!-88  58-37  54-6i  62.80 


Jordan  and  Hall  give  the  digestion  coefficients  for  timothy 
hay  before  or  in  bloom  as  follows: 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 

Maximum  . 

65-7 

48.2 

60.8 

60.4  62.1 

71.8 

Minimum  . 

55-9 

41.8 

5i-5 

51. 1  56.6 

57-4 

Average  . 

60.7 

44.2 

58.4 

56.8  58.8 

64-3 

Timothy  hay  past  bloom. 
Average  . 

53-4 

30.3 

5i-9 

45.1  47.1 

60.4 

The  coefficient 

found 

for  the 

fat 

or  ether  extract 

in 

the  second  series 

seems 

to 

be 

an  exception, 

be- 

ing  much  higher  than  the  maximum  given  by  Jordan 
and  Hall  for  this  constituent  of  the  hays,  but  the  coeffi¬ 
cients  found  for  the  three  sheep  are  in  much  closer  agreement 
than  we  usually  find  to  be  the  case  in  this  work.  With  this  ex¬ 
ception  we  find  in  both  series  a  very  marked  tendency  toward 
lower  coefficients  than  other  experimenters  have  found — a  result 
which  was  specifically  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  coeffi¬ 
cients  found  for  corn  fodder. 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders.  31 

NATIVE  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  4. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4394.0  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.13  10.64 

3-i3 

6.98 

3I-38 

42.74 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Orts,  air  dried, 

4168.56  467-54 

weighed  839.5  grams. 

137-53 

306.71 

1388.12 

1878.23 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.22  9.84 

3-05 

6.09 

31-34 

44.46 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

795.68  82.60 

25.60 

51.12 

263.01 

373-23 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

>■ 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

137-53 

306.71 

1388.12 

1878.23 

Less  orts  . 

25.60 

51.12 

263.01 

373-23 

Consumed 

in. 93 

255-59 

1125. 11 

1505.00 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces 

weighed  1643.8  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.03  12.92 

5-12 

5.78 

27.99 

42.16 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1544.68  212.31 

84.16 

95.01 

406.19 

693-04 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  . 

hi. 93 

255-59 

1125. 11 

1505.00 

Voided 

84.16 

95.01 

406.19 

693.04 

Digested  .  . 

27.74 

160.58 

664.92 

812.96 

Co-efficients 

or  percentages 

digested 

.  54.20  44.SS 

22.10 

62.83 

59.09 

54.02 

Weight  of  sheep  at  beginning  of  experiment  50.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  end  of  experiment  50.5  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  3.0  per  cent  of  the  animals  weight. 


NATIVE  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  5. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4394.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-i3 

10.64 

3-i3 

6.98 

31-38 

42.74 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4168.56 

467-54 

137-53 

306.71 

1388.12 

1878.23 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  954.5  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.06 

7.69 

2-99 

5-4i 

33-32 

45-53 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained 

in  the 

Orts,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

906.21 

73-40 

28.53 

51-63 

318.01 

434-51 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed 

467-54 

137-53 

306.71 

1388.12 

1878.23 

Less 

orts 

73-40 

28.53 

51-63 

318.01 

434-51 

Consumed 

394*14 

109.00 

255.08 

1070. 1 1 

1443.72 

.32 


Bulletin  93. 


Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1766.4  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-9i 

13.42 

5-i7 

5-48 

28.12 

41.90 

Fodder 

Constituents  Voided 

■ 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1642.09 

237.02 

91.32 

96.79 

496.78 

740.14 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  .  . . . 

394*14 

109.00 

255.08 

1070. 1 1 

1443-72 

Voided  . 

237.02 

91.32 

96.79 

496.78 

740.14 

Digested  . 

157.12 

17.68 

158.29 

573-33 

703-58 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  . . 

39.76 

16.22 

62.06 

53.58 

48.74 

Weight  of  sheep  at  begining  of  the  experiment  50.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  the  end  of  the  experiment  50.5  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  2.9  per  cent  of  the  animals  weight. 


NATIVE  HAY. 

Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  6. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4394.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.13  10.64 

3-13 

6.98 

3I-38 

42-74 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4168.56  467-54 

137-53 

306.71 

1388.12 

1878.23 

Orts,  air  dried, 

weighed  803.3  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-23  9-93 

2.60 

6.09 

31.40 

44-65 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

761.29  79-76 

20.88 

48.93 

252.22 

358.62 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

:■ 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

. 4168.56  467-57 

137-53 

306.71 

1388.12 

1878.23 

Less  orts  .  . 

20.88 

48.93 

252.22 

358*62 

■Consumed 

. 3407-27  387-78 

116.65 

257-78 

II35-90 

1519.61 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces 

weighed  1783.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5.96  12.41 

5.02 

5-48 

29.29 

41.84 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1676.78  221.21 

89.50 

97.71 

522.26 

746.01 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  . 

. 3407-27  387-78 

116.73 

257-78 

II35-90 

1519.61 

Voided  .... 

.  89.50 

97.71 

522.26 

746.01 

Digested 

. 1730.49  166.57 

27.23 

160.07 

613.64 

773.60 

Co-efficients 

or  percentages 

digested 

.  50.79  42.95 

23.33 

62.09 

54.02 

51.09 

Weight  of  sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  45.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  the  end  of  the  experiment  47.5  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  3.3  per  cent  of  the  animals  weight. 

The  Average  Digestion  Co -efficients  for  Native  Hay. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 


Sheep  No.  4 .  54.20  44.81  22.10  62.83  59.09  54.02 

Sheep  No.  5 .  46.60  39.76  16.22  62.06  53.58  48.78 

Sheep  No.  6 .  50.79  42.95  23.33  62.09  54.02  51.09 


Average  . . .  50.53  42.52  20.55  62.33  55.56  51.30 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


QQ 

•JO 

I  have  stated  in  connection  with  the  first  series  of  experi¬ 
ments  that  I  know  of  no  data  really  applicable  to  this,  which  we 
designate  as  native  hay. 

The  coefficients  found  for  these  two  hays  with  which  I  have 
experimented  agree  fairly  well,  with  the  exception  of  those  found 
for  the  ether  extract,  which  are  very  far  apart.  The  hays  were 
composed  of  different  grasses  and  were  grown  in  localities  twenty- 
two  miles  apart.  The  average  coefficients  found  in  the  first  series 
of  experiments  were  as  follows: 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 

59-78  43-32  47-09  60.90  61.36  62.01 

This  hay  seems  to  have  been  a  decidedly  more  diges¬ 
tible  one  than  that  used  in  the  second  series.  The  grass  constitut¬ 
ing  the  greater  part  of  that  used  in  the  second  experiment  was 
Colorado  blue  stem,  Agi'opyron  tenerum. 

SORGHUM  FODDER. 

Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  1. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4441.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-75  8.17 

i-55 

5.80 

23.26 

55-47 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4185.68  371-21 

68.83 

258.51 

1055-45 

2019.45 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  482.3  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.37  10.19 

1.29 

4-97 

28.43 

48.75 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

457-95  38.95 

4-93 

19.00 

108.61 

186.31 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

. 4185.68  371-21 

68.83 

258.51 

1055.4S 

2019-45 

Less  orts  . 

.  457-95  38.95 

4-93 

19.00 

108.61 

186.31 

Consumed 

. 3727-73  332.26 

63.70 

239-51 

946.84 

1833.14 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1698.8  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.80  11.46 

1.28 

8.48 

28.16 

43-82 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1583.24  194.61 

21.74 

144.02 

478.34 

744-47 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

63.70 

239-51 

946.84 

1833.14 

Voided 

21.74 

144.02 

478.34 

744-47 

Digested  .  . 

41.96 

95-49 

468.50 

1088.67 

Co-efficients 

or  percentages 

digested 

.  57.53  41.43 

65.87 

39.87 

49.38 

59.39 

Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  53.5  pounds. 
Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  end  of  the  experiment  50.5  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  mattr  equalled  3.1  per  cent  of  the  animals  weight. 


BtrttE'riN  9‘fj 


SORGHUM  FODDER, 
Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  2. 

Weight  of  fodder  received'  rrt  live  days,  44,;  1  .0  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-75  8.17 

1  -55 

5.80 

23.26 

55-47 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams, 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein, 

Fibre. 

Extract, 

4185.68  371.21 

68.83 

258.51 

*055.45 

2019.45 

Orts,  aif  dried,  weighed  890.8  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts, 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

8.09  8.35 

1.25 

4-55 

25-14 

52.62 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre, 

Extract, 

818.74  74.38 

1 1. 13 

40.53 

223.92 

468.73 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

i» 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . ,...  .4185.68  37 1.21 

68.83 

258.51 

*055-45 

2019.45 

Dess  orts  . 818.74  74-38' 

11. 13 

40-53 

223.9:2 

468.73 

Consumed  3366. 94  296.83 

S7-7o 

217.98 

73  2”- $3 

*550.72 

Feces, 

t 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1502. 1  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.42  11. 15 

1.47 

8.38 

28.18 

44.40 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided, 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract, 

1405.6s  167.41 

22.08 

125.81 

423-35 

666.91 

Fodder  Constituei 

its  Digested. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract, 

Consumed  . 3366.94  296.83 

57-70 

217.98 

732.53 

1550.72 

Voided  . . . ,..1405.65  167.41 

22.08 

125.81 

423-35 

666.91 

Digested  . 1961.29  129.4 2 

35-62 

92.17 

309.18 

883.81 

Co-efficients  or  percentages 

digested'  .  58.212  43.6 > 

61.73 

42.28 

42.21 

56.90 

Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  49.5  pounds. 

Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  ertd  of  the  experfnirtt  47. 9  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  3.0  per  cent  of  the  animaFs  weiglit. 


SORGHUM  FODDER. 
Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  3, 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  4441.0  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder, 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract 

5-75 

8.17 

*•55 

5.80 

23.26 

55-47 

Fodder  Const ituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams, 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein, 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

4185.68 

371.21 

68.83 

258.51 

*055-45 

2019.43 

Orts, 

air  dried,  weighed  375.6  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts, 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

8.26 

10.54 

1.27 

4.70 

24.76 

50.47 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

344-58 

39-58 

4-77 

17-65 

*  92-99 

185.22 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . . , . 

371.21 

68.83 

258.51 

*055-45 

2019.45 

Less  orts 

39-58 

4-77 

*7-65 

92.99 

185.22 

Consumed 

. 3841.10 

33*-63 

64.06 

240.86 

962.46 

1834-23 

Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders.  £5 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  1648.4  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.66 

”•57 

1.44 

8.69 

28 .17 

4 1. or 

Fodder 

Constituents  Voided 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1550.61 

169.81 

21.14 

127.61 

422.42 

608.93 

Fodder  < 

Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  . . . 

33163 

64.06 

240.86 

962.46 

1834.23 

Voided  ...... 

............ .*550.61 

169. 8t 

•21.14 

127.6 1 

422.42 

608.93 

Digested  .  . .  .  < 

161.82 

42.92 

”3-25 

540.04 

1225.30 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  . . 

. . .  so.oa 

48.8  :> 

67.60 

47.02 

56.11 

06.80 

Weight  of 

the  Sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment 

56.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  end  of  the  experinint 

53.0  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  mattr  equalled  3.0  per 

cent  of  the  animal’s 

weight. 

Average  Co-efficients  for  Sorghum 

Fodder. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Sheep  No .  i  . .  . 

^ .  57 #0^ 

41.44 

65.87 

30.87 

49.38 

59.39 

Sheep  No.  2.. 

.  . .  5S.22 

43.6  > 

61.73 

42.28 

42.21 

56.99 

Sheep  No.  3.. 

. . .  50.63 

48.8 1> 

67.00 

47.02 

56.11 

66.80 

Average  . 

. .  • « t  o8>46 

44.61 

64.87 

43.06 

49.23 

61.06 

There  are  but  few  recorded  experiments  upon  the  digesti¬ 
bility  of  sorghum  fodder.  The  following  is  quoted  by  Jordan 
and  Hall  from  the  publications  of  the  North  Carolina  Station— two 
experiments  with  sorghum  fodder  (pulled  from  Black  African  and 
Collier  canes): 

Dry  Matter.  Ash.  Fat.  Protein.  Fibre.  Extract. 

First,  with  goat.............  59.89  17.64  4 7.14  -59-46  64.88  63.5* 

Second,  with  cow... . ...66.29  41.31  46.25  62.20  75-8S  66.5.5 

There  is  a  record  of  two  experiments  by  the  Texas  Station, 
but  the  fodder  was  cut  in  dough  state  and  fed  green.  This  fact 
would  make  but  little  difference,  provided  the  fodder  was  cut  at 
the  same  period  of  development  and  the  fodder  retained  its  feeding 
qualities  unmodified  by  keeping,  especially  when  exposed  to  al¬ 
ternations  of  freezing  and  warm  weather.  These  experiments  were 
made  with  cows  and  gave  the  following  results: 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

73-3 

43-8 

81.6 

56.7 

75-o 

78.2 

73- * 

39-5 

§i-3 

5*. i 

74.0 

78.7 

Average  ....... 

41.6 

81.4 

53-4 

74-5 

.78.3 

The  coefficients  are  very  varying,  but  represent  different 
fodders.  I  used  one  cut  in  the  latter  part  of  September  and  kept, 
as  the  most  of  our  fodders  are  kept,  in  shock  until  used.  The  time 
of  my  experiment  also  corresponded  to  that  at  which  this  fodder 
would  be  used,  so  the  results  represent  as  nearly  as  possible  the  value 
of  this  fodder  to  the  stockmen  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  state. 
Considering  that  the  North  Carolina  experiments  were  made  with 
pulled  fodder,  blades  and  tops,  while  mine  were  made  with  the 
whole  plant,  it  seems  that  the  results  obtained  in  my  experiments 


XET-fiNT 


have  really  lost  nothing  of  their  general  value,  from  the  fact  that 
the  experiments  were  made  with  regard  to  special  conditions. 

I  am  inclined  to  doubt,  the  claim  which  is  sometimes  urged, 
against  this  fodder,  that  it  changes  rapidly,  losing  its  feeding 
qualities.  One  must  admit,  however,  that  the  coefficients  given; 
by  the  Texas  Station  experiments  show  a  much  higher  degree  of 
digestibility  than  either  those  of  the  North  Carolina  Station  or 
my  owm  My  experiments  show  that  a  large  amount  of  dry 
matter  was  eaten  per  thousand  of  live  weight,  i.  e.,  30  to  31 
pounds.  The  animals  ate  it  freely  enough,  but  each  of  the  ani¬ 
mals  lost  weight  while  feeding  upon  it.  The  aggregate  loss  was* 
7.5  pounds  in  five  days;  so  that  neither  the  coefficients  found  nor 
the  weights  of  the  animals  at  the  end  of  the  experiments  indicate 
any  great  value  for  such  sorghum  fodder. 

The  animals  fed  upon  it  well,  as  the  amount  left  as  orts  as 
well  as  the  large  amount  of  dry  matter  consumed  indicate,  and,, 
so  far  as  we  could  observe,  they  suffered  no  inconvenience  from 
their  being  kept  upon  it  as  an  exclusive  diet  for  12  days. 

The  variety  of  sorgfmm  was  Minnesota  Early  Amber,  grown 
on  sandy  loam;  sown  May  10,  cut  September  15,  stood  in  shock 
tmtil  following  March.  Weight  of  crop  not  given. 


SALT  BUSH.  Atriplex  Argentea, 
Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  4. 

Weight  of  fodder'  received  in'  five  days,  6422.0  grams. 


Analysis  of  Fodder, 


Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5,32  19.28 

1.46 

9-73 

27-33 

36.38 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract, 

6080.38  1238.6  2 

93-76 

624.82 

1755-75 

2368.23 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  1547.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

* 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.24  15.61 

1.07 

7-23 

39-57 

30.28 

Fodder  Constituents  Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract 

1450.47  241.41 

16. ss 

1 1 1.82 

61 2. 1 2 

468.43 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . .  6080.38  1238.62 

93-76 

624.82 

1755-75 

2368.23 

Less  orts  . . . 1450.47  241.41 

16.55 

1 1 1.82 

612.12 

468.43 

Consumed  . . 4629.91  997-21 

77.21 

513-00 

1143.67 

1899.80 

Feces. 

4-.ir  dried  feces  weighed  2655.1  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6-53  10.53 

1.32 

6.27 

40.44 

34-91 

Fodder  Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter.  Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

2481.78  279.51 

35-04 

166.41 

1073.14 

926.81 

Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


37 


Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed  . . . 

997.21 

77.21 

5i3-oo 

1143.67 

1899.80 

Voided  . 

279-51 

35-04 

166.41 

1073.14 

926.81 

Digested  . 

717.70 

42.17 

346.59 

70-53 

972.99 

Co-efficients  or 
digested  . . 

percentages 

.  46.40 

71.97 

54.62 

67.56 

6.02 

51.21 

Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  52.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  the  end  of  the  experiment  50.0  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  3.9  per  cent  of  the  animal’s  weight. 


SALT  BUSH.  Atriplex  Argentea. 


Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  5. 

Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  6422.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-32 

19.28 

1.46 

9-73 

27-33 

36.38 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Orts, 

6080.38 

1238.62 

93*76 

624.82 

1755-75 

2368.23 

air  dried,  -weighed  761.0  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-84 

13-96 

1.16 

7.18 

40.17 

31.69 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in  Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

716.56 

106.23 

8.83 

54-63 

305-61 

241. 1 1 

Fodder  Constituents  Consumed, 

in  Grams. 

Fed  .... 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

1238.62 

93-76 

624.82 

1755-75 

2368.23 

Less  orts 

106.23 

8.83 

54-63 

305-61 

241. 11 

Consumed 

1132.39 

84-93 

570.19 

1450.14 

2127.12 

Feces. 

Air  dried  feces  weighed  31 02.1  grams. 

Analysis  of  Feces. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6.36 

10.18 

i-37 

6-49 

38.66 

37.01 

Fodder 

Constituents 

Voided. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

2904.89 

3i5-7i 

42.50 

201.34 

1227.48 

1148. 11 

Fodder  Constituents 

Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein.- 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

1132.39 

84-93 

570.19 

1450.14 

2127.12 

Voided  . 

3i5*7i 

42.50 

201.34 

1227.48 

1148. 11 

Digested  . 

. 2458.93 

816.68 

42.43 

368.85 

222.66 

979.01 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  45.84 

72.12  49.95 

64.69 

15.35 

46.03 

Weight  of  sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  58.0  pounds. 

Weight  of  sheep  at  the  end  of  the  experiment  52.0  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  4.1  per  cent  of  the  animal’s  weight. 


SALT  BUSH.  Atriplex  Argentea. 
Fodder  Fed  Sheep  No.  6. 


Weight  of  fodder  received  in  five  days,  6422.0  grams. 

Analysis  of  Fodder. 


Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-32 

19.28 

1.46 

9-73 

27-33 

36.38 

Fodder  Constituents 

Fed,  ini 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

6080.38 

1238.62 

93*76 

624.82 

1755-75 

2368.23 

Orts,  air  dried,  weighed  870.1  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Orts. 

1 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5*57 

14.88 

0-99 

6.42 

42.32 

29.82 

Fodder  Constituents 

Contained  in  the 

Orts,  in 

Grams. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

821.46 

129-41 

8.61 

55-86 

368.24 

259.41 

38 


Bulletin  93. 


Fodder  Constituents  Consumed,  in  Grams. 


Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Fed  . 

1238.62 

93-76 

624.82 

1755-75 

23  68.23 

Less  orts  .  .  . 

129.41 

8.61 

55-86 

368.24 

259-41 

Consumed  .  .  . 

. 5258.92 

1 109.21 

85-15 

568.96 

1387-51 

2108.82 

Feces. 

Air  dried 

feces  weighed  2979.6  grams. 

Analysis  of 

Feces. 

Moisture. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

5-58 

10.87 

1.36 

6-34 

40.61 

35-24 

Fodder 

Constituents  Voided. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

• 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

2813.48 

326.62 

40.49 

188.71 

1369.10 

1049.27 

Fodder  Constituents  Digested. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Consumed 

. 5258.92 

1 109.21 

85-15 

568.96 

1387-51 

2108.82 

Voided  . 

326.62 

40.49 

188.71 

1369.10 

1049.27 

Digested  . 

. 2445.44 

782.50 

44.66 

380.25 

48.41 

1059-55 

Co-efficients  or 

percentages 

digested  .  . 

.  40.50 

70.55 

52.45 

00.83 

3.49 

50.24 

Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment 

47.5  pounds. 

Weight  of  the  sheep  at  the  end  of 

the  experiment  47.0  pounds. 

Daily  consumption  of  dry  matter  equalled  4.9 

per  cent  of  the  animal’ 

s  weight. 

The 

Average  Co-efficients  of  Salt 

Bush. 

Atriplex  argentea. 

Dry  Matter. 

Ash. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Extract. 

Sheep  No.  4.. 

.  40.40 

71.97 

54.02 

•  07.50 

0.02 

51.21 

Sheep  No.  5 .  . 

.  45.84 

72.12 

49.95 

04.09 

15.35 

40.03 

Sheep  No.  6.  . 

.  40.50 

70.55 

52.45 

00.83 

3.49 

50.24 

Average  . 

.  40.25 

71.55 

52.34 

00.30 

8.29 

49.10 

No  data  on  the  subject  of  the  fodder  value  of  the  native  salt 
bushes  have  come  to  my  knowledge,  so  there  are  no  results  with 
which  to  compare  these  obtained  with  Atriplex  argentea. 

This  salt  bush  is  not  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Australian  salt 
bush,  Atriplex  semibaccata ,  which  plant  differs  materially  from 
Atriplex  argentea.  The  Australian  salt  bush  has,  I  believe,  been 
recommended  by  the  California  Station  as  a  forage  plant  in  alkali 
soils.  I  have  made  two  preliminary  tests  with  this  plant,  with 
results  showing  it  to  be  better  as  it  grows  with  us  than  the  native 
silvery  salt  bush,  but  not  a  real  good  foddei .  It  probably  would 
be  a  good  plant  for  trial  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  where  this 
silvery  one  grows.  The  Australian  salt  bush  is  an  annual  with 
us,  which  seeds  itself  abundantly. 

The  average  digestion  coefficients  as  found  in  these  experi¬ 
ments  with  the  silvery  salt  bush  present  some  rather  striking  fea¬ 
tures.  The  coefficient  for  the  dry  matter  is  low,  but  it  is  evident 
that  this  must  be  the  case  when  we  observe  that  the  crude  fibre, 
constituting  over  one-quarter  of  the  weight  of  the  hay,  is  so  good 
as  indigestible. 

The  coefficient  found  for  the  nitrogen  free  extract  is  also  low, 
but  approaches  the  coefficients  found  for  this  constituent  in 
hays,  being,  in  fact,  higher  than  in  some  of  them.  The  ash  in 
this  plant  is  very  abundant  and  its  coefficient  of  digestion,  71.55, 


Colorado  Hays  and  Fodders. 


39 


is  very  high.  The  effect  of  this  fodder  upon  the  animals  was  very 
marked.  The  animals  seemed  to  suffer  no  inconvenience,  they 
looked  as  bright  and  contented  as  usual  and  chewed  their  cuds 
freely.  There  was  no  laxative,  but  a  very  marked  diuretic  action 
observed.  I  regret  that  I  was  not  provided  with  facilities  for 
collecting  the  urine.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  the  amount 
voided  and  its  nitrogen  content.  The  water  drunk  daily  by  the 
same  sheep  varied  from  1.5  to  4.5  pounds  when  fed  native  hay  and 
a  little  salt,  but  this  amount  of  water  was  increased  to  10.5  to 
15.0  pounds  when  they  were  fed  on  the  salt  bush  and  salt  was 
withheld.  Sheep  No.  5  drank  from  1.5  to  3.0  pounds  of  water 
when  fed  on  native  hay,  but  drank  from  12  to  14  pounds  daily 
when  fed  on  the  salt  bush;  but  No.  6  drank  the  maximum  quan- 
ties  of  water,  from  13  to  15  pounds.  There  is  no  proof  that  the 
excessive  amount  of  urine  voided  was  due  to  the  specific  action  of 
any  substance  contained  in  the  plant,  and  it  seems  rather  more 
probable  that  the  large  amount  of  saline  matter  taken  into  the 
system,  782.59  grams,  a  trifle  over  five  ounces  daily,  provoked  an 
intense  thirst,  as  indicated  by  their  drinking  from  three  to  eight 
times  the  amount  of  water  usually  drank  by  these  individual 
animals,  which  flooded  the  system  and  had  to  be  voided. 

The  weather  at  the  time,  the  first  week  in  June,  was  fine,  the 
temperature  of  the  water  drank  13  deg.-14  deg.  C. 

Had  the  weather  been  cold  and.  stormy  and  the  water  which 
the  animal  drank  very  cold,  the  results  would  have  been  less  fa¬ 
vorable  than  those  observed.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  this 
hay  was  put  up  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  it  to  animals,  already 
reduced  in  flesh  and  vitality,  to  take  them  over  stormy  periods. 
The  general  result  of  the  experiment  is  not  encouraging. 

Some  of  the  fodder  constituents,  the  protein,  for  instance, 
show  a  comparatively  good  coefficient  and  there  is  a  fair  amount 
of  it  contained  in  the  fodder.  The  same  is  true  of  the  nitrogen 
free  extract.  The  coefficient  for  the  fat  is  good  and  compared 
with  other  plants  there  is  a  fair  amount  of  it,  but  these  good  feat¬ 
ures  of  the  salt  bush  as  a  fodder  plant  are  offset  by  this  thirst 
provoking  and  diuretic  effect,  whether  the  latter  is  consequent 
upon  the  former  or  not.  I  omit  the  composition  of  the  ash  in 
the  hay  and  the  feces,  but  may  take  it  up  in  a  later  bulletin. 

This  bulletin  is  already  longer  than  I  desired  it  to  be,  and  as 
each  set  of  experiments  summarizes  itself  I  will  not  recapitulate  the 
results  here. 

This  bulletin  will  be  followed  very  shortly  by  another,  in 
which  I  shall  take  up  some  subjects  omitted  in  this,  i.  e.,  the  di¬ 
gestibility  of  the  various  extracts,  alcoholic,  aqueous,  etc.,  together 
with  the  digestibility  of  the  pentosans  occurring  in  these  fodders. 

All  of  these  hays  and  fodders  have  been  cured  and  preserved 


40 


Bulletin  93. 


under  Colorado  conditions,  and  the  animals  used  were  the  average 
grade  of  sheep  fattened  by  the  hundred  thousand  in  this  valley. 
Our  results  are  as  representative  of  our  fodders  and  conditions 
as  they  can  be  made. 

The  coefficients  found  are  not  only  lower  than  those  usually 
given,  but  are  lower  than  those  given  by  investigators  experiment¬ 
ing  under  very  similar  conditions.  I  have  exercised  every  care  to 
obtain  correct  results,  and  I  believe  that  the  coefficients  of  our 
fodders  actually  have  a  lower  value  than  is  usually  given  for  the 
same  fodders  elsewhere. 

Our  fodders  are  seldom  preserved  under  cover,  but  in  stacks 
or  shocks  out  of  which  they  usually  come  as  green,  bright,  attrac¬ 
tive  looking  hays  and  fodders.  They  have,  however,  been  ex¬ 
posed  to  our  changes  of  temperature,  our  dry  air  and  continuously 
strong  light. 

I  believe  that  the  results  recorded  in  this  bulletin  are  verv 

j 

close  to  the  facts  and  would  tentatively  suggest  that  the  coeffici¬ 
ents  of  digestion  for  our  hays  and  fodders  are  lower  than  the  coef¬ 
ficients  shown  by  the  same  fodders  elsewhere.  I  do  not  know  the 
reason  for  this,  but  believe  that  the  manner  of  preserving  the  fod¬ 
ders,  together  with  our  climatic  conditions,  may  account  for  it. 


SUMMARY. 


The  average  coefficients  of  digestibility  found  for  corn  fodder — a  variety 
of  dent  corn — sown  thickly  and  cut  quite  immature  were:  Dry  Matter,  58.56; 
Ash,  42.84;  Fat,  45.91,  Protein,  47.38;  Crude  Fibre,  67.87;  Nitrogen  Free  Ex¬ 
tract,  57.60.  The  average  coefficients  given  by  Jordan  and  Hall  for  the  im¬ 
mature  fodder  are:  Dry  Matter,  63.9;  Ash,  37.2;  Fat,  72.2;  Protein,  51.7; 
Crude  Fibre,  66.0;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  66.2. 

The  second  experiment  with  corn  fodder,  dent  corn,  drilled  thinly  in 
rows,  cut  August  20,  some  ears  matured  corn  which  were  husked  out  before 
cutting  to  be  fed,  gave  the  following:  Dry  Matter,  56.66;  Ash,  43.64;  Fat. 
66.08;  Protein,  36.04;  Crude  Fibre,  56.71;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  60.60.  Jor¬ 
dan  and  Hall  give  the  following  coefficients  for  dent  and  flint  corn  (mature) : 
Dry  Matter,  68.2;  Ash,  30.6;  Fat,  73.9;  Protein,  56.1;  Crude  Fibre,  55.8;  Nitro¬ 
gen  Free  Extract,  72.2. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  our  coefficients  are  lower  than  the  quoted  ones, 
which  are  averages. 

The  average  coefficients  obtained  for  alfalfa  hay  in  the  first  series  of 
experiments  were:  Dry  Matter,  52.04;  Ash,  45.65;  Fat,  90.85;  Protein,  66.69; 
Crude  Fibre,  47.76;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  56.69. 

The  sample  of  hay  used  in  this  experiment  contained  an  unusually  low 
percentage  of  ether  extract,  0.80,  and  was  not  a  first-class  hay,  neither  was 
it  a  decidedly  inferior  hay. 

The  second  experiment  in  which  a  prime,  first  cutting  hay  was  used  gave 
the  following:  Dry  Matter,  63.95;  Ash,  57.67;  Fat,  29.86;  Protein,  72.54; 
Crude  Fibre,  49.93;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  72.89.  The  animals  used  in  the 
first  experiment  were  mature  sheep  probably  4  years  old;  those  used  in  the 
second  were  young  sheep,  so-called  Mexican  lambs,  about  1  year  old. 

The  average  digestion  coefficients  of  first  cutting  alfalfa  hay,  which  I 
obtain  by  using  all  the  data  available  at  this  time,  not  including  my  own,  are: 
Dry  Matter,  61.00;  Ash,  51.58;  Fat,  53.81;  Protein,  74.40;  Crude  Fibre,  47.11; 
Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  72.49. 

There  is  here  a  substantial  uniformity  except  in  the  case  of  the  coeffi¬ 
cient  for  the  fat  or  ether  extract,  which  we  hold  to  be  of  little  or  no  value, 
which  is  emphasized  by  the  extreme  results  obtained  in  the  first  series  of 
experiments.  See  remarks  at  conclusion  of  first  series  of  experiments. 

We  mean  to  indicate  by  the  negative  sign  that  there  was  90.85  per  cent, 
more  fat,  ether  extract,  in  the  feces  than  in  the  hay  eaten. 

Native  hay  is  seldom  composed  of  the  same  mixture  of  grasses  even 
if  cut  from  the  same  ground,  but  in  different  years.  It  is  therefore  diffi¬ 
cult  to  obtain  comparable  samples. 

We  obtained  for  a  sample  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fort  Collins  the 
following  coefficients:  Dry  Matter,  59.78;  Ash,  43.32;  Fat,  47.09;  Protein, 
60.90;  Crude  Fibre,  61.36;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  62.01;  and  for  another 
sample  grown  in  the  Box  Elder  Valley  about  23  miles  north  of  the  Poudre 
Valley  the  following:  Dry  Matter,  50.53;  Ash,  42.52;  Fat,  20.55;  Protein, 
62.33;  Crude  Fibre,  55.56;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  51.30.  The  hay  used  in  the 
second  series  of  experiments  seems  to  have  been  a  decidedly  less  digestible 
one  than  that  used  in  the  first  experiment;  it  represented  a  different  mixture 
of  grasses,  the  former  consisting  largely  of  Colorado  blue  stem. 

Jordan  and  Hall  give  for  meadow  hay,  with  which  our  “native  hay”  is 
possibly  more  nearly  comparable  than  with  any  other  fodder,  the  following: 
Dry  Matter,  54.3;  Ash,  29.4;  Fat,  44.7;  Protein,  63.4;  Crude  Fibre,  54.5;  Nit¬ 
rogen  Free  Extract,  55.9. 

Timothy  hay  is  grown  in  large  quantity  in  some  of  our  mountainous  dis¬ 
tricts  and  is  of  superior  quality.  We  obtained  as  digestion  coefficients  for 
this  hay,  in  the  first  series:  Dry  Matter,  56.71;  Ash,  34.14;  Fat,  31.88;  Pro¬ 
tein,  58.37;  Crude  Fibre,  54.61;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  62.80.  In  the  second 
series:  Dry  Matter,  51.03;  Ash,  65.63;  Fat,  69.32;  Protein,  43.35;  Crude 
Fibre,  36.08;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  54.99. 


42 


Bulletin  93. 


These  samples  differed  as  much  from  one  another  as  any  two  samples 
which  we  might  purchase  in  the  market  would  be  likely  to  differ,  as  the 
second  was  purchased  two  years  subsequent  to  the  first  and  both  would  be 
properly  classed  as  prime  timothy  hay. 

Jordan  and  Hall  gave  the  average  digestion  coefficients  for  timothy  hay 
before  and  in  bloom  as:  Dry  Matter,  60.7;  Ash  44.2;  Fat,  58.4;  Protein, 
56.8;  Crude  Fibre,  58.8;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  64.3.  For  timothy  hay  past 
bloom:  Dry  Matter,  53.4;  Ash,  30.3;  Fat,  51.9;  Protein,  45.1;  Crude  Fibre, 
47.1;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract,  60.4. 

The  differences  are  marked  in  some  instances  but  the  agreement  is  as 
great  as  we  have  any  right  to  expect. 

The  native  hays  are  highly  esteemed  as  feed  for  horses,  commanding  the 
same  price  in  the  market  as  timothy  hay.  If  there  is  any  choice  the  native 
hay  receives  the  preference,  while  both  are  prefered  before  alfalfa,  especial¬ 
ly  for  livery  and  road  animals.  The  results  with  the  sheep  are  interesting  in 
this  connection.  The  fodders  were  fed  alone,  there  was  no  mixed  ration,  but 
the  sheep  made  a  gain  of  3  pounds  each  when  fed  alfalfa,  the  timothy  scarcely 
maintained  their  weight,  one  sheep  gained  y2  pound,  one  sheep  lost  y2  pound 
and  one  lost  1  pound.  The  native  hay  makes  a  somewhat  better  showing 
as  a  fodder  for  sheep,  two  sheep  gained  y2  pound  each,  while  the  third  one 
gained  2 y2  pounds  in  five  days. 

The  result  which  will  appeal  to  the  public  as  most  striking,  so  far  as  a 
digestion  experiment  can  be  depended  upon  to  indicate  the  value  of  a  fodder, 
is  that  obtained  with  the  corn  fodder.  This  fodder  was  not  shredded,  but 
simply  cut  as  fine  as  we  could  conveniently  cut  it  with  a  hand  cutter,  neither 
was  it  prepared  in  any  manner,  being  fed  dry,  and  yet  the  sheep  showed  a 
gain  of  2  pounds,  1  pound  and  y2  pound  respectively  in  the  five  days  and  the 
dry  matter  consumed  per  100  weight  of  animal  was  less  than  of  the  other 
fodders. 

The  average  digestion  coefficients  found  for  sorghum  is  for  a  fodder  held 
until  the  spring  of  the  year.  The  question  which  I  had  in  mind  when  I  un¬ 
dertook  this  particular  experiment  was  what  can  our  ranchmen  in  the  east¬ 
ern  part  of  the  state  grow  as  a  fodder  to  feed  their  cattle  during  the  severe 
storms  of  late  winter  and  spring  when  it  is  often  necessary  to  tide  the  ani¬ 
mals  over  trying  periods.  Sorghum  promises  to  yield  them  as  much  fodder 
under  their  conditions  as  any  other  forage  plant.  The  fodder,  if  it  is  used 
at  all,  must  be  shocked  and  kept  till  late  winter  or  spring.  It  might  have 
greater  value  if  fed  in  the  fall  or  early  winter,  but  the  experiments  with  it 
gave  disappointing  results  so  far  as  its  feeding  value  was  concerned,  the 
sheep  losing  3,  2.5  and  3  pounds  respectively  in  five  days. 

The  average  digestion  coefficients  obtained  were:  Dry  Matter,  58.46; 
Ash,  44.61;  Fat,  64.87;  Protein,  43.06;  Crude  Fibre,  49.23;  Nitrogen  Free 
Extract,  61.06. 

There  are  but  few  recorded  digestion  experiments  with  sorghum  fodder. 
An  experiment  with  a  goat  gave  the  following:  Dry  Matter,  59.88;  Ash, 
17.64;  Fat,  47.14;  Protein,  59.46;  Crude  Fibre,  64.88;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract, 
62.51. 

The  salt  bush  atriplex  argentea  used  by  ranchmen  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  state  yields  digestion  coefficients  as  follows:  Dry  Matter,  46.25;  Ash, 
71.55;  Fat,  52.34;  Protein,  66.36;  Crude  Fibre,  8.29;  Nitrogen  Free  Extract, 
49.16. 

These  coefficients,  that  for  crude  fibre  and  consequently  that  for  the  dry 
matter  excepted,  are  quite  favorable,  but  as  a  fodder  for  sheep  it  is  a  failure 
if  the  weights  of  the  sheep  after  their  12  days  feeding  on  salt  bush  can  be 
relied  upon.  The  sheep  were  weighed  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  their 
last  5  days  feeding  on  this  fodder,  when  we  found  that  they  had  lost  y2, 
2  and  6  pounds  respectively  in  this  time. 

This  fodder  provoked  an  intense  thirst,  the  animals  drinking  from  10^ 
to  15  pounds  of  water  a  day  and  voiding  an  immense  amount  of  very  ill- 
smelling  urine. 

These  same  animals  drank  from  1  y2  to  4 y2  pounds  of  water  daily  when 
fed  on  other  fodders. 


INDEX 


Page. 

Reasons  for  presenting  this  Bulletin  .  3 

Differences  between  hays  made  from  leguminous  plants  and  grasses  4 

Alfalfa  hay  sensitive  to  moisture,  extent  of  injury  caused  by  rain  ....  4 

Native  hay,  grasses  composing  one  sample  .  5 

Alfalfa  hay  used  in  first  series,  description  and  comments  .  5 

Reasons  stated  for  giving  first  series  of  experiments  with  alfalfa  hay.  6 

Age  of  sheep  used  in  first  series  .  6 

Fodders  experimented  with  in  first  series  .  6 

Duration  of  experiments,  first  series  .  6 

Corn  fodder,  analytical  details  of  first  series  .  7-8 

Average  coefficients  found  for  corn  fodder,  first  series  .  8 

Corn  fodder  used  in  first  series  described  .  8 

Native  hay,  analytical  data,  first  series  .  9-10 

Native  hay,  average  coefficients  found  in  first  experiment .  10 

Meadow  grasses,  average  digestion  coefficients  .  11 

Native  hay  used  in  first  series  of  experiments  described  .  11 

Timothy  hay,  analytical  data,  first  series  .  11-12 

Timothy  hay,  average  digestion  coefficients  found  in  first  series  ....  13 

Timothy  hay  used  in  first  series  described  .  13 

Alfalfa  hay,  analytical  data  of  first  series .  13-15 

Alfalfa  hay,  average  digestion  coeficients  obtained  in  first  series  ....  15 

Alfalfa  hay,  average  digestion  coeficients  obtained  by  other  ex¬ 
perimenters  .  15 

Average  digestion  coefficients  found  for  alfalfa  in  first  series  lower 

than  those  given  by  others  • .  15 

Ether  extract  yielded  by  feces,  fecal  matter  dissolved,  the  same 

though  different  samples  of  hay  were  used .  16 

Preparation  and  taking  of  sample  of  alfalfa  hay  used  in  first  series  .  .  17 

Extraction  with  petroleum  ether,  Bp.  35°-50° .  17 

Extraction  with  petroleum  ether,  Bp.  50°-60°  .  17 

Anhydrous  ether  dissolves  more  than  petroleum  ether  .  17 

Extraction  with  petroleum  ether  gives  same  coefficient  for  fat  as 

anhydrous  ether  .  18 

Bile  products  do  not  explain  low  coefficient  .  18 

Chlorophyll  in  feces  . ■ .  18 

Analytical  errors  do  not  account  for  low  coefficients  found  for  fat.  19 
Changes  in  .the  hay  itself  do  not  account  for  low  coefficient  found 

for  fat  .  19 

The  soluble  fecal  matter  in  the  feces  is  not  intimately  dependent  upon 
ether  extract  in  hay  and  is  probably  the  cause  of  the  low 

coefficient  found  .  19 

Second  series,  reasons  for  making  it  .  20 

Fodders  experimented  with  in  second  series  .  20 


44 


Bulletin  93. 


Sheep  used  in  second  series  . . .  21 

Conditions  under  which  second  series  of  experiments  were  made  21 

Alfalfa  hay,  analytical  data,  second  series  .  22-23 

Alfalfa  hay,  average  coefficients  found  in  second  series  .  2  3 

Alfalfa  hay,  coefficient  of  fat  found  in  second  series  also  low  ....  24 

Corn  fodder,  analytical  data,  second  series  .  24-26 

Corn  fodder,  average  coefficients  found  in  second  series .  26 

Corn  fodder  used  in  second  series  described  .  26 

Corn  fodder,  maximum,  minimum  and  average  coefficients  given 

by  others  .  26 

Corn  fodder,  results  of  first  and  second  series  compared  .  27 

Timothy  hay,  analytical  data  of  second  series  .  28-29 

Timothy  hay,  average  coefficients  found  in  second  series  .  29 

Timothy  hay  used  in  second  series  described  . . .  30 

Timothy  hay,  results  of  first  and  second  series  compared . 30 

Native  hay,  analytical  data  of  second  series  .  31-32 

Native  hay,  average  coefficients  found  in  second  series  .  32 

Native  hay  used  in  second  series  .  33 

Sorghum  fodder,  analytical  data  .  33-35 

Sorghum  fodder,  average  coefficients  found  .  35 

Sorghum  fodder,  quoted  results  compared  with  those  found .  35 

Sorghum  fodder  used  in  experiment .  36 

Salt  bush,  silvery  salt  bush,  analytical  data  .  3  6-38 

Salt  bush,  average  coefficients  found  .  38 

Salt  bush,  Australian  .  38 

Salt  bush  hay,  effects  upon  animals .  39 

Summary  .  41-42 


Bulletin  94. 


(Technical  Series  No.  6)  December,  I9O4. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


REPORT  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


I.  SOME  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  INSECTS  OF  1903 

and 

AN  ANNOTATED  LIST  OF  COLORADO  ORTHOPTERA. 

BY 

Clarence  P.  Gillette. 


II.  SOME  NEW  COLORADO  ORTHOPTERA. 

BY 

Lawrence  Bruner. 


III.  BEES  OF  THE  GENUS  NOMADA  FOUND  IN  COLORADO. 

BY 

T.  D.  A.  Cockerell. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1904. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  ROUTT,  - 
Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELL, 
Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 
Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB, 


TERM 

EXPIRES 

Denver  -  •  1905 

Port  Collins,  -  1905 

Denver,  -  •  1907 

Denver,  -  -  1907 

Gypsum,  -  -  1909 

Rocky  ford,  -  1909 

Canon  City,  -  1911 

Carbondale,  -  1911 


Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY,  \  ~ 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLEbWORTH,  $  ex'°lJlC10 


Executive  Committee  in  charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  .B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


Station  Staff. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ....  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D„ . Chemist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S.,  -  . Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S., . Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M., . Veterinarian 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  SM  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S., . Assistant  Agriculturist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Horticulturist 

P.  H.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY,  ....  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


•*lP$ 


?%r  r  %£!&& vf  MW?***' '  f  ~ 

k  Wt%3|  *'«$# 
k  ‘If  A  i 


p«j 

\  '  1  : 

*#3?" 

The  Xs  east  of  Fruita  on  the  Grand  River  are  for  Grand  Junction  and  Palisades 


Some  of  the  More  Important  Insects  of 

1903. 


By  CLARENCE  P.  GILLETTE. 


mm  bug. 

The  Gram  Bug  ( Pentama  sayi  Stal.*) 

[PL  I.  Fig.  H.] 

Early  in  August  complaints  came  to  the  Experiment  Station 
of  a  large  green  bug  that  was  doing  extensive  injuries  to  grain  and 
other  crops  in  Montezuma  county.  Mr.  S.  A.  Johnson  was  sent  to 
investigate  the  trouble.  He  went  directly  to  Cortez  and  was 
greatly  assisted  in  the  work  by  Mr.  P.  S.  Taylor  of  that  place. 
The  following  is  an  extract  from  Mr.  Johnson’s  report  of  what  he 
found: 

uMr.  Taylor  took  me  to  a  number  of  fields  of  wheat  and  oats 
that  had  been  injured  by  the  green  plant-bug'-  He  says  that  the 
bugs  appeared  in  great  numbers  in  the  fields  of  grain  when  they 
were  just  heading  out  where  they  accumulated  upon  the  heads 
and  seemed  especially  to  suck  the  juices  of  the  forming  kernels. 
As  the  grain  would  reach  maturity  the  bugs  would  migrate  to  oth¬ 
er  fields  where  the  grain  was  not  so  far  advanced.  At  present  the 
attack  is  less  severe,  much  of  the  grain  having  matured  but  still 
in  most  fields  four  or  five  strokes  of  an  insect  net  will  collect  a 
handful  of  the  bugs  and  many  of  the  insects  are  upon  the  lower 
portions  of  the  plants  and  upon  the  grou.nd.  The  injuries  in  the 
grain  fields  are  indicated  by  the  presence  of  the  blasted  heads  that 
have  few  or  no  kernels  in  them  and  which  have  ripened  and  turned 
white  prematurely  (see  plate  II.  Fig.  A.): 

“The  injury  to  oats  was  very  severe.  In  some  cases  entire 
fields  of  grain  appeared  to  be  destroyed.  Often  the  heads  were 
blasted  from  the  punctures  of  the  bugs  before  they  appeared  above 
the  leaf  sheath. 

“The  insect  seems  to  be  a  rather  general  feeder.  It  was  re¬ 
ported  upon  first  cutting  of  alfalfa,  and  upon  sunflowers,  sage  and 
garden  vegetables,  especially  peas.  But  very  few  were  obtained 

""Determined  for  us  by  Mr.  E.  P.  VanDuzee;  also  by  Mr.  Otto  Heidemann,  through  the 

kindness  of  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard.  '  * 


4  BULLETIN  94. 

sweeping  alfalfa  with  the  net  and  it  seemed  probable  that  those 
taken  in  this  manner  might  have  come  from  the  weeds.  In  case 
of  peas  and  beans  the  pods  were  chiefly  attacked  and  the  juices 
were  extracted  from  the  seeds  within.  A  peculiar  effect  upon  the 
peas  was  that  the  punctures  introduced  or  prepared  a  way  of  en¬ 
trance  for  a  fungus  which  soon  rendered  all  the  seeds  unfit  for  use. 

“No  one  remembered  having  seen  the  insect  in  injurious  num¬ 
bers  before  and  some  believed  that  the  insect  had  migrated  into 
their  midst  from  farther  down  the  river  where  it  was  reported  that 
the  bugs  were  still  more  abundant,  and  where  they  did  some  in¬ 
jury  last  year.’1 

The  following  letter  giving  an  estimate  of  injuries  in  Monte¬ 
zuma  valley  was  written  by  Mr.  P.  S.  Taylor,  Oct.  21,  1903,  in 
reply  to  my  letter  of  inquiry: 

“The  bugs  first  appeared  tn  the  valley  about  the  20th  of  May,  com¬ 
ing  from  the  southwest  for  three  days  in  succession.  These  lighted 
mostly  on  alfalfa  fields  where  they  deposited  their  eggs,  which  hatched 
about  two  weeks  later. 

“The  bugs  remained  on  the  alfalfa  until  the  first  cutting  of  hay  was 
made.  Then,  (about  the  first  part  of  July)  they  left  the  hay  fields  going 
to  adjoining  wheat  fields  where  for  a  time  they  sucked  the  sap  from  the 
wheat  plants.  As  soon  as  grain  formed  in  the  heads  the  bugs  bored  in¬ 
to  it,  drawing  their  nourishment  from  the  soft  grain.  This  they  contin¬ 
ued  until  the  wheat  either  hardened  or  was  killed. 

“Leaving  the  wheat  they  attacked  oat  fields  in  August,  working  in 
the  same  manner  as  on  the  wheat.  But  the  damage  that  was  done  to 
oats  was  not  nearly  so  great  as  that  done  fo  wheat. 

“By  the  first  of  September  nearly  all  the  bugs  had  disappeared  and 
so  far  as  I  could  determine  there  were  no  eggs  deposited  after  the  first 
lot  in  June.  The  damage  was  done  almost  entirely  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  valley,  on  an  area  of  725  acres  where  an  average  yield  for  the  past 
eight  years  was  35  bushels  per  acre,  or  a  total  of  25,375  bushels.  The 
yield  of  the  past  season  on  the  same  number  of  acres  was  15  bushels  per 
acre,  or  a  total  of  10,875  bushels.  This  would  show  a  shortage  of  14,500 
bushels  and  a  money  loss  at  present  prices  of  over  thirteen  thousand 
dollars. 

“Some  fields  of  grain  were  entirely  destroyed  while  others  were  in¬ 
jured  only  in  spots.” 

Respectfully  yours, 

P.  S.  Taylor. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  letter  received  from  Mr. 
M.  V.  B.  Page,  of  Fruita,  Colo.,  dated  August  6: 

“I  am  sending  you  samples  of  a  bug  that  is  destroying  crops  of  all 
kinds  but  more  especially  potatoes,  by  sucking  the  sap  from  the  stems 
of  the  plants.  They  are  upon  oats  as  well.  They  come  in  patches  and 
then  spread  over  the  fields.  I  first  discovered  them  in  a  small  patch  of 
ten  acres  of  early  potatoes  a  week  ago  and  now  they  are  all  over  the 
patch.  I  find  no  small  ones;  all  seem  to  be  of  the  size  of  the  sample  sent.” 

This  bug  is  a  close  relative  of  Lioderma  uhleri  which  was 
reported  by  Saunders  in  Bulletin  57  of  the  South  Dakota  Experi¬ 
ment  Station  and  the  habits  of  the  two  insects  seem  much  alike. 
The  species  that  has  been  so  abundant  in  the  southwestern  por¬ 
tion  of  Colorado  the  past  summer  is  generally  distributed  over  the 
mountainous  portions  ofl  the  State  and  has  frequently  been  taken 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


5 

from  native  plants  for  the  College  and  Station  collections.  Mr.  C. 
R.  Jones,  a  special  student  in  entomology  here,  found  this  bug 
common  above  timberline  at  Silverton,  Colo.,  the  past  summer 
where  he  was  collecting.  Specimens  are  seldom  taken  at  Fort 
Collins. 

The  insect  is  single  brooded. 

There  was  a  great  advantage  this-year  in  having  grain  ripen 
early.  Fall  wheat  escaped  the  injuries  almost  entirely. 

GRASSHOPPERS. 

The  destructive  grasshoppers  (locusts)  which  are  usually  very 
numerous  over  a  great  portion  of  the  agricultural  section  of  the 
State  were  comparatively  few  in  number  this  year  except  in  limited 
sections.  The  previous  year  was  marked  by  unusually  severe 
grasshopper  depredations  and  the  small  number  of  these  insects  the 
present  year  is  probably  due  to  the  prevalence  last  year  of  the  na¬ 
tive  grasshopper  disease,  Empusa  grylli  On  the  other  hand, 
there  has  been  very  little  of  this  disease  among  the  grashoppers 
the  past  summer  and  fall. 

The  Australian  Grasshopper  Fungus ,  was  experimented 
with  again  this  year.  Several  tubes  of  the  fungus  were  sent  di¬ 
rectly  from  the  Colonial  Bacteriological  Institute  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  through  the  kindness  of  the  director,  Dr.  Alexander 
Edington.  The  cultures  were  received  in  an  excellent  condition 
and  were  used  in  the  field  and  in  our  breeding  cages  but  in  no  case 
were  we  successful  in  killing  any  of  the  grasshoppers  as  far  as  we 
could  determine.  As  this  is  the  second  year  that  we  have  worked 
with  this  disease  without  obtaining  any  apparent  results,  I  can  see 
no  reason  to  encourage  Colorado  farmers  to  hope  for  relief  from 
grashopper  depredations  through  the  use  of  the  x-lfrican  grasshop¬ 
per  fungus  (Mu cor  sp.) 

A  new  grasshopper  remedy  known  as  uCriddle  mixture”  has 
been  reported  very  efficient  for  the  destruction  of  grasshoppers  in 
Manitoba.  It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  fresh  horse  manure,  salt 
and  Paris  green  which  is  distributed  about  the  fields  where  the 
grasshoppers  are  numerous.  In  our  experiments  the  ingredients 
were  used  in  the  following  proportions: 


Fresh  horse  manure . 40  quarts. 

Barrel  salt . 2  quarts. 

Paris  green . 1  quart. 


The  preparation  was  repeatedly  used  in  breeding  cages  and 
in  field  tests.  In  no  case  were  the  results  very  encouraging  so  long 
as  there  was  green  food  obtainable.  Poisoned  alfalfa  leaves  and 
poisoned  bran  were  used  in  comparison  with  the  Criddle  mixture 
and  of  the  three  the  bran  seemed  most  efficient.  None  of  these 
preparations  gave  results  that  were  very  satisfactory. 


6 


:  '  bulletin  94. 

Mr.  Conrad  Schaffer,'  411  extensive  and  intelligent  farmer  liv¬ 
ing  at  Deuel,  Colorado,  decided  to  try  the  Criddle  mixture  and  in¬ 
duced  several  of  his  neighbors  to  join  with  him  and  make  a  thor¬ 
ough  test.  In  a  verbal  report  to  the  writer  on  October  20,  Mr. 
Schaffer  said  the  mixture  did  but  little  good.  He  said  he  had 
much  better  results  with  a  mixture  of  bran  and  Paris  green  that 
was  moistened  with  just  l  enough  refuse  syrup  from  a  beet  sugar 
factory  to  make  the  mixture  adhere  in  small  balls.  These  balls 
of  poisoned  bran  were  distributed  about  20  feet  apart  along  potato 
rows  and  in  other  places  where  the  grasshoppers  were  abundant. 

CUTWORMS. 

The  Army  Cutworm  ( Chorizagrotis  auxilaris .*) 

[PI.  I.  Fig.  A.  B.  C.  D.] 

which  is  usually  as  numerous  as  all  other  species  put  together  in 
northern  Colorado,  occured  in  more  than  its  usual  abundance  last 
spring.  The  moths  have  a  strong  propensity  for  getting  into 
buildings  whether  there  are  lights  inside  or  not.  It  is  a  common 
thing  for  these  moths  to  appear  in  large  numbers  upon  the  insides 
of  windows  during  May  and  June.  The  moths  also  conceal  them¬ 
selves  among  the  leaves  of  trees  during  the  day  time.  The  abun¬ 
dance  of  the  moths  was  especially  remarkable  during  the  summer 
of  1902  and  many  inquiries  were  received  at  the  Station  concern¬ 
ing  them.  A  stick  or  a  stone  thrown  into  a  tree  when  they  were 
most  numerous  would  often  cause  hundreds  to  fly  out  for  a  few 
seconds  then  thev  would  return.  They  were  such  an  annovance 
about  lamps  in  houses  that  the  occupants  of  the  home  would  blow 
out  the  lights  and  go  to  bed  just  to  get  away  from  the  nuisance. 
So  that  the  unusual  cutworm  invasion  of  the  past  spring  was 
only  the  sequel  of  the  abundance  of  moths  the  preceding  summer. 

This  is  the  species  treated  by  Dr.  Wilcox  in  Bulletin  17  of 
the  Montana  Experiment  Station.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region.  I  have  found  the  moths  not  uncommon  in  this 
State, near  to  timber-line  under  the  loose  bark  of  stumps. 

Specimens  of  the  spring  brood  of  moths  have  been  taken  at  the 
Station  between  April  16  and  July  10, and  are  usually  most  abund¬ 
ant  about  the  first  of  June.  The  fall  brood  has  been  taken  from 
September  13  to  October  12.  A  queer  circumstance  in  connection 
with  my  studies  of  this  moth  is,  I  have  never  been  able  to  find 
fully  developed  ova  in  the  females  of  the  first  brood  though  hun¬ 
dreds  have  been  dissected  and  examined.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases  there  has  been  no  indication,  of  ova  in  any  stage  of  develop- 

_ _ _  •  \  •  •  «  •  i 

*  Chorizagrotis  auxilaris  having  ;priarity,  X  have  included  with  it  forms  commonly  de¬ 
termined  as  introf evens  and  agrestis because  in  a  larger  series  there  seems  to  be  every 
gradation  between  the  three  fbrpis  aud  because  they  always  occur  together  and  rise 
and  fall  together  in  numbers  so  far  as  my  experience  has  gone.  The  specimens  in  the 
collection  were  determined  by  ;Ur.  J.  B.  Smith;  also  by  Mr.  Otto,  Heidemann  through 
the  courtesy  of  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  7 

ment.  The  females  taken  in  the  fall  have,  almost  without  excep¬ 
tion,  contained  fully  formed  ova.  Neither  have  I  ever  known  the 
fall  brood  to  be  noticeably  adnndant,  only  occasional  specimens 
being  taken. 

x\bont  the  first  of  May  there  were  several  newspapers  of  the 
State  reporting  the  presence  of  some  kind  of  army  worm  in  mil¬ 
lions  in  different  localities.  On  April  31  I  went  to  PAort  Morgan 
where  extensive  injuries  from  such  an  insect  were  reported.  In 
company  with  Senator  W.  A.  Drake,  several  farms  were  visited 
and  the  injuries  of  the  worm  noted.  In  one  instance  the  Chapman 
brothers  had  sowed  alfalfa  seed  in  the  spring  of  1902  and  secured  a 
good  stand  and  then  the  alfalfa  suddenly  disappeared,  from  some 
unknown  cause, for  a  distance  of  four  or  five  rods  along  the  border 
of  the  field  adjoining  wild  land.  The  strip  was  re-seeded  May  28 
and  a  good  stand  secured  which  grew  thriftily  throughout  the  sum¬ 
mer.  The  past  spring  alfalfa  in  this  field  made  a  good  start  again 
and  at  the  time  of  my  visit  it  was  rapidly  disappearing.  An  ex¬ 
amination  showed  the  cause  to  be  cutworms. 

Another  field  of  the  previous  year’s  seeding  belonged  to  Mr. 
Burnett  and  seemed  to  be  perfectly  bare,  but  on  examination  the 
little  alfalfa  stocks  could  be  seen  everywhere,  but  the  leaves  and 
tender  new  shoots  had  all  been  eaten  down  by  the  worms. 

O11  Senator  Drake’s  farm  a  large  field  of  virgin  soil  had  been 
plowed  and  sowed  to  barley  early  in  the  spring.  The  barley  came 
up  nicely  all  over  the  field  and  then  suddenly  disappeared.  To 
one  driving  past  this  field  there  was  no  evidence  that  there  had 
been  a  green  thing  growing  there  a  few7  days  before.  I  went  into 
the  field  and  could  not  find  a  single  spear  of  barley  but  upon  dig¬ 
ging  down  from  one  to  twro  inches  conld  find  the  stubs  of  the  young 
plants  and  the  worms.  The  senator  told  me  later  that  the  barley 
did  not  appear  again  so  that  the  fields  had  to  be  replanted. 

Other  fields  were  visited  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  there 
were  tv7o  types  of  injuries.  In  some  cases  the  fields  of  grain  and 
alfalfa  w7ere  attacked  about  the  borders  only,  while  in  others  the 
injuries  seemed  equally  distributed  throughout  the  field.  A  little 
inquiry  revealed  the  fact  that  in  all  cases  where  the  virgin  soil  had 
been  plowed  in  the  spring  and  seeded  the  injuries  were  distributed 
throughout  the  field,  but  where  the  virgin  soil  had  been  plowed 
the  previous  fall  or  summer,  the  cutworm  injuries  were  only  no¬ 
ticed  about  the  borders  of  the  fields  and  only  those  borders  that 
were  adjacent  to  wild  land.  Fort  Morgan  is  in  a  grazing  region 
and  the  ground  is  pretty  well  covered  with  a  mixture  of  gramma 
and  buffalo  grasses  which  are  evidently  among  the  native  food 
plants  of  this  cutworm,  in  fact  the  worms  were  found  feeding  upon 
these  grasses. 


8 


BULLETIN  94. 

About  the  first  of  May  reports  began  to  come  in  of  extensive 
injuries  to  sugar  beets  from  cutworms.  As  near  as  could  be  deter¬ 
mined  not  less  than  four  or  five  hundred  acres  of  beet  land  in 
Northern  Colorado  had  to  be  re-seeded  this  year  because  of  the  rav¬ 
ages  of  cutworms.  Next  to  virgin  soil,  the  fields  that  were  in 
grain  the  previous  season  seem  to  have  suffered  most  and  barley 
seems  to  have  been  the  grain  that  attracted  the  moths  for  the  dep¬ 
osition  of  their  eggs  far  more  than  anv  of  the  others. 

On  May  29,  in  company  with  Mr.  H.  H.  Griffin,  one  of  the 
field  agents  for  the  Fort  Collins  Sugar  Company,  I  visited  Mr.  John 
Hice’s  farm  near  Fort  Collins.  He  partially  plowed  a  field  of  bar¬ 
ley  stubble  late  last  fall  and  then  finished  plowing  in  the  spring 
and  put  the  field  in  to  beets.  The  beets  on  the  fall-plowing  were 
in  very  good  condition,  but  upon  the  spring  plowing  they  were  so 
badly  taken  by  the  worms  that  it  was  decided  to  re-plow  the  entire 
field  and  seed  again.  At  that  date,  May  20,  the  worms  were  fast 
disappearing  and  many  pupae  could  be  found  and  fields  seeded  af¬ 
ter  this  date  were  not  seriously  attacked  by  the  worms.  The 
spring  was  unusually  late  this  year  so  that  it  is  probable  that  in 
an  ordinary  season  the  cutworms  would  do  little  injury  to  beets 
after  the  10th  or  15th  of  May,  or  after  the  moths  begin  to  appear 
upon  the  windows  or  about  the  lights  of  our  houses.  May  20th 
was  the  first  date  we  noticed  them  upon  our  windows  the  past 
summer. 

On  May  30,  Mr.  S.  A.  Johnson  went  to  Aurora,  a  suburb  of 
Denver,  to  investigate  cutworm  injuries  and  was  aided  in  the  work 
by  Mr.  H.  Rauchfuss,  who  had  written  the  Station  concerning  the 
injuries  by  the  worms.  Mr.  Johnson  found  the  worms  mostly  full 
fed  or  in  the  pupa  state.  The  worms  were  pupating  about  two 
inches  beneath  the  surface  in  vertical  burrows  with  the  head  of 
the  chrysalis  towards  the  mouth  of  the  burrow.  The  earthen 
cells  at  the  bottom  of  the  burrow  were  quite  firm  though  they  could 
be  crushed  without  difficulty  between  the  thumb  and  fingers.  A 
quantity  of  the  worms  were  brought  into  the  laboratory  and  placed 
in  breeding  cages  for  the  purpose  of  rearing  the  moths  and  it  was 
found  that  nearly  half  of  the  worms  were  parasitized.  The  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  parasitized  individuals  seemed  to  be  entirely  eaten  out 
beneath  the  skin  and  to  be  packed  full  of  minute  pupae  of  a  species 
of  CopecLosoma.  In  one  instance  1705  of  the  adults  issued  from  a 
single  worm.  See  Plate  I.  Fig.  D.  Two  Ichneumon  parasites 
( Ichneumon  Ion o-n  /us  and  Ambly teles  subrufus )  were  also  bred 
from  the  worms. 

Two  pupae  and  worms  brought  into  the  laboratory  the  last  of 
April  began  appearing  as  moths  June  26. 

Plowing  during  the  summer  or  fall  and  keeping  the  ground 
clean  of  all  vegetation  until  winter  will  give  almost  perfect  pro- 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


9 

tection  against  these  cutworms  unless  there  are  adjacent  infested 
lands  from  which  the  worms  may  migrate  into  the  borders  of  grow¬ 
ing  crops. 

The  clandestine  cutworm,  ( Noclua  clandestina .) 

A  dark  brown,  almost  black  species,  without  conspicuous  mark¬ 
ings  upon  the  wings,  is  also  common  each  year  in  the  north-eastern 
portion  of  Colorado,  at  least.  It  is  a  little  later  than  the  preceding 
species,  the  moths  appearing  about  the  lamps  as  those  of  Chon- - 
azgrotis  auxilaris  are  becoming  scarce.  I  have  never  known  it 
to  be  nearly  so  numerous  as  that  species. 

LEAF  ROLLERS. 

The  Fruit-Tree  Leaf -Roller  ( Caccecia  argyrospila  Walk.) 

[PI.  I.  Figs.  E  and  F.] 

This  insect  in  company  with  Caccecia  semij  erena ,  the  boxel- 
der  leaf-roller,  has  an  interesting  history  in  Colorado.  Thirteen 
years  ago  both  were  destructively  abundant  in  Northern  Colorado 
in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  and  Greeley.  Their  numbers  have 
gradually  grown  less  in  that  portion  of  the  State  until  the  past 
year  or  two,  when  they  have  not  occured  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
attract  attention  much  north  of  Denver,  wdiile  they  are  very  de¬ 
structive  to  the  foliage  of  fruit  and  box-elder  trees  in  that  city  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  Colorado  Springs. 

Many  of  the  Tortricid  moths  vary  greatly  in  color  markings 
so  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  distinguish  between  species  without 
rearing  the  moths  from  single  patches  of  eggs.  There  has  been 
so  much  of  this  variation  in  the  moths  that  I  have  been  grouping 
under  the  name  C.  argyrospila  that  I  decided  to  rear  a  few  “fami¬ 
lies”  from  separate  batches  of  eggs.  Six  egg-batches  were  placed 
in  separate  cloth  sacks  and  each  sack  tied  over  a  limb  of  a  plum 
tree  on  April  23,  when  two  of  the  patches,  (numbers  1  and  5  of 
the  following  diagram)  were  beginning  to  hatch.  These  sacks 
were  frequently  examined  and  when  the  larvae  were  nearly  grown 
the  contents  of  each  sack  were  brought  into  the  laboratory  and 
placed  in  a  separate  breeding  cage  and  the  transformations  noted 
until  the  moths  all  appeared.  The  records  of  the  six  cages  are 
given  as  follows: 


SUMMARY  OF  SIX  BREEDING-CAGE  RECORDS  UPON  TRANSFORMA¬ 
TIONS  OF  CACCECIA  ARGYROSPILA. 


Cage  numbers 

1 

2 

3 

~ *4 

5 

6 

Began  Hatching 

April  23 

did  not 

April  23 

First  Pupa 

June  2 

hatch. 

June  2 

June  2 

June  2 

Last  Pupa 

June  13 

June  17 

June  11 

June  20 

First  Moth 

June  15 

J  une  13 

June  13 

June  13 

June  13 

Last  Moth 

June  25 

June  30 

July  1 

J  une  19 

June  29 

IO 


bulletin  94. 

As  egg-patches  3  and  4  were  not  hatching  when  placed  in  the 
sacks  but  gave  pupae  and  moths  as  early  as  any,  it  is  to  be  presumed 
that  they  were  not  more  than  a  day  behind  those  in  cages  1  and  5. 
This  would  make  the  shortest  time  from  hatching  of  the  egg  to 
emergence  of  adult  moth  50  days  and  the  longest  time  68  days.  It 
is  rather  remarkable  that  in  the  four  cases  noted  the  first  pupation 
occured  on  the  same  date,  June  13.  This  would  indicate  about  11 
days  as  the  ordinary  time  spent  in  the  pupa  stage. 

Moths  bred  from  the  same  batch  of  eggs  vary  in  color  from  a 
dark  rusty  red  with  only  one  conspicious  pale  yellow  patch  in  the 
middle  of  the  costal  margin  of  the  anterior  wing  to  a  light  straw 
yellow  with  only  faint  indications  of  the  rusty  coloration  outlined 
in  a  very  light  rusty  brown.  There  is  one  typical  pattern  of  the 
dark  markings  however,  which  can  be  traced  through  all  the  speci- 
imens.  Figs.  E.  and  F.  Plate  I.  show  twelve  of  these  moths  in 
two  rows.  All  in  the  front  row  were  bred  from  a  single  patch  of 
eggs.  Those  in  the  second  row  are  from  two  other  patches.  That 
all  the  moths  from  the  five  cages  are  of  the  same  species  is  proven 
by  the  fact  that  each  group  has  one  or  more  moths  that  are  exact¬ 
ly  like  some  in  all  the  other  groups. 

Experiments  for  the  destruction  of  eggs.  Several  laboratory 
tests  were  made  to  determine  the  effect  of  certain  insecticides  up¬ 
on  the  egg-patches  early  in  the  spring.  They  resulted  as  follows: 

Kerosene  emulsion  that  was  one-third  kerosene  was  applied 
to  6  egg  patches.  None  of  the  eggs  hatched. 

Kerosene  emulsion  that  was  one-fourth  kerosene  was  applied 
to  7  egg  patches.  One  patch  hatched  well,  one  partially,  5  not  at 
all. 

Kerosene  emulsion  that  was  one-sixth  kerosene  was  applied  to 

6  egg-patches.  From  one  patch  two  larvae  emerged  and  from  5 
none  hatched. 

Crude  petroleum  was  applied  to  5  egg-patches,  and  none 
hatched. 

Whale-oil  soap,  1  pound  to  1  gallon  of  water  was  applied  to  8 
egg  patches.  Three  hatched  well,  2  partially  and  3  did  not  hatch 
at  all. 

Whale-oil  soap,  1  pound  to  2  gallons  of  water,  was  applied  to 

7  egg-patches ;  three  hatched  well,  one  hatched  about  half,  two 
hatched  a  very  few,  one  did  not  hatch  at  all. 

Whale-oil  soap,  One  pound  to  four  gallons  of  water  was  ap¬ 
plied  to  six  egg-patches;  two  hatched  well  and  four  did  not  hatch  * 
at  all. 

Kinie  salt  and  sulfur  was  applied  to  five  patches;  four 
hatched  well  and  one  did  not  hatch  at  all. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


I  I 

Whitewash  composed  of  lime  one  pound,  water  two  quarts, 
was  applied  to  eight  patches;  one  patch  hatched  well,  five  patches 
hatched  about  half  of  the  larvae  and  two  hatched  a  very  few. 

Lime  wash  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  to  three  gallons 
of  water  was  applied  to  seven  egg-patches  all  of  which  hatched 

well. 

Arsenite  of  lime  in  which  there  was  about  one  pound  of  ar¬ 
senic.  to  ioo  gallons  of  water  was  applied  to  six  patches  of  eggs; 
one  patch  hatched  well,  three  hatched  about  half  the  eggs,  two 
hatched  but  very  few. 

Arsenate  of  lead  in  the  proportion  of  a  pound  to  five  gallons 
was  applied  to  12  patches  of  eggs;  five  patches  hatched  well,  two 
hatched  about  half  of  the  eggs,  two  hatched  a  very  few  larvae  and 

three  hatched  none. 

From  these  tests  we  are  encouraged  to  think  that  crude  pe¬ 
troleum  and  the  stronger  emulsions  may  be  used  quite  successfully 
for  the  destruction  of  the  eggs  before  the  leaves  appear  in  the 
spring,  but  whale-oil  soap,  whitewash,  lime-sulfur-and-salt,  and 
the  arsenical  poisons  do  not  give  much  promise.  Our  whale-oil 
soap  was  very  hard  and  probably  not  of  good  quality. 

The  Choke-Cherry  Leaf-Roller  ( Cenopsis  testulana  Zell.) 

PI.  I.  Fig.  G. 

This  leaf-roller  is  occasionally  quite  abundant  among  the 

small  choke-cherrv  bushes  in  the  foothills  near  Fort  Collins  where 

•/ 

it  builds  extensive  and  rather  loose  webs.  It  is  also  an  extremely 
variable  species.  In  some  the  fore  wings  are  pale  yellowish  brown 
almost  without  dark  markings,  in  others  the  fore  wings  are  a  deep 
and  rather  dark  rust-brown  without  any  signs  of  light  markings 
while  a  majority  have  sulfurous  yellow  back-ground  more  or  less 
heavily  marked  with  rust-brown.  See  the  third  or  lower  row  of 
moths  in  Plate  I.  Fig.  G. 

BEET  WEB-WORM  (Loxostege  sticticcilis  Linn.)* 

[PI.  I.  Fig.  I.] 

On  July  nth  the  writer  was  called  to  investigate  the  injuries 
being  done  by  a  horde  of  small  striped  caterpillars  to  onions  and 
cabbages  on  a  farm  near  Fort  Collins.  On  visiting  the  farm  in 
question  it  was  found  that  in  the  center  of  a  large  field  there  was 
a  small  area,  perhaps  an  acre,  that  was  above  irrigation  and  which, 
being  neglected,  had  grown  up  to  lamb’s  quarter.  Upon  these 
weeds  the  worms  had  fed  until  the  plants  were  brown  and  dry. 
The  worms  then  left  the  dead  weeds  and  marched  out  like  an  in¬ 
vading  army  into  the  cultivated  crops  of  onions  and  cabbages 
which  they  were  devouring  very  rapidly  at  the  time  of  my  visit. 


determined  by  Mr.  Ooquillett  through  kindness  of  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard. 


12 


BULLETIN  94. 

Two  days  later,  word  came  to  the  Station  that  some  worm 
had  appeared  in  great  numbers  in  many  of  the  fields  of  young 
beets.  A  ride  through  the  infected  area  in  company  with  Mr. 
Charles  Evans,  manager  of  the  Fort  Collins  Beet  Growers’  Associa¬ 
tion,  revealed  the  fact  that  nearly  if  not  qnite  all  of  the  injuries 
from  worms  were  to  fields  that  had  been  plowed  in  the  spring.  In 
most  of  these  fields  considerable  alfalfa  was  growing  at  the  time 
of  onr  visit. 

To  avoid  such  injuries  as  the  above,  do  not  allow  lamb’s 
quarter  {Che nopodium  sp.)  to  grow  in  proximity  to  other  crops, 
and,  in  case  alfalfa  ground  is  to  be  put  in  to  cultivated  crops  it 
would  be  better  to  plow  the  previous  fall,  but  in  any  case  keep 
the  ground  sufficiently  cultivated  to  keep  down  any  growth  of 
alfalfa  which  might  attract  the  moths  for  the  purpose  of  egg-lay¬ 
ing  early  in  the  season. 

THE  GOOSEBERRY  FRUIT-WORM  ( Dakruma  Convolutella )  (?) 

The  gooseberry  fruit-worm  has  become  a  serious  pest,  espec¬ 
ially  to  currants,  along  the  foot  hills  of  the  eastern  slope  in  this 
State.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  that  this  insect  has  destroyed 
the  greater  portion  of  the  crop.  It  also  feeds  freely  upon  a  com¬ 
mon  wild  currant,  Ribes  aurium ,  which  grows  in  the  foothills,  a 
fact  which  adds  much  to  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  pest  in  check. 

PLANT  LICE  ( Aphididse .) 

Several  species  of  plant  lice  were  extremely  abundant  again 
during  the  past  summer.  Various  insecticide  substances  have 
been  used  experimentally  against  these  lice  both  in  the  egg  and  in 
the  later  stages  and  a  press  bulletin,  No.  20,  entitled  “Plant  Eice 
and  their  Remedies,”  written  by  Mr.  S.  Arthur  Johnson  has  been 
issued  by  the  Station. 

The  apple  plant  louse  (Aphis  pomi )  has  been  extremely  abun¬ 
dant  and  quite  destructive  to  small  trees  in  some  localities.  For 
several  years  past  there  have  been  many  trees,  particularly  small 
ones,  that  have  had  many  of  their  small  limbs  literally  blackened 
with  eggs  of  this  insect.  Such  trees  are  common  in  the  orchards 
of  Northern  Colorado  during  the  present  fall.  I  have  observed 
such  trees  for  several  years  and  have  never  known  more  than  a 
very  small  fraction  of  the  eggs  to  hatch  in  the  spring.  In  fact  in 
some  cases  I  have  been  unable  to  find  that  any  of  the  eggs  upon  a 
tree  have  hatched.  I  am  confident  that  not  more  than  one  egg  in 
a  thousand  hatched  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  last  spring  and 
yet  by  the  middle  of  June  the  lice  were  common  in  orchards  and 
gradually  increased  in  numbers  so  that  from  the  middle  of  July 
on  through  the  summer  the  lice  on  the  apple  trees  of  this  section 
were  exceedingly  numerous.  I  have  never  seen  any  evidence  that 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


this  louse  has  an  alternate  food-plant  in  Colorado,  at  least  it  is  con¬ 
tinuously  upon  apple, and  pear  trees  from  the  opening  of  the  leaves 
in  spring  until  the  eggs  have  been  deposited  in  October  and  No¬ 
vember. 

The  green  plum  louse, {Aphis  pruni ,)  the  black  cherry  louse, 
(Myzuz  cerasi ,)  the  boxelder  louse  ( Chaitophrous  negiindinis ,)  the 
snow-ball  louse  {Aphis  viburni )  and  the  woolly  louse  {Schizoneura 
lanigerd)  of  the  apple,  were  all  of  them  specially  abundant.  The 
beet-root  louse  ( Tychea  brevicornis )  has  been  reported  by  Mr.  P. 
K.  Blinn,  field  agent  for  the  Station  in  the  Arkansas  Valley,  as 
quite  generally  distributed  in  the  beet  fields  in  the  vicinity  of 
Rockyford  and  as  attacking  the  roots  of  many  weeds.  He  reports 
a  louse  that  seems  to  be  this  species  as  very  abundant  and  quite 
injurious  to  the  common  garden  purslane.  One  beet  field  of  eight 
acres  near  Fort  Collins,  investigated  by  Mr.  Johnson,  has  been 
badly  infested  by  this  louse  and,  apparently,  the  crop  has  suffered 
considerably  from  it. 

A  full  report  upon  the  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  insecti¬ 
cides  for  the  destruction  of  the  lice  and  their  eggs  will  be  given  in 
a  bulletin  later,  after  farther  tests  have  been  made.  I  may  say 
here  that  we  seem  to  have  been  entirelv  successful  in  destrovins: 
eggs  of  the  lice  with  strong  applications  of  kerosene  emulsion, 
crude  petroleum  or  whale-oil  soap,  made  early  in  the  spring. 

FALSE  CHINCH-BUGS  ( Ni/sius  minutus  and  N.  calif ornicus) . 

These  two  species  of  false  chinch-bugs  are  abundant  in  Colo¬ 
rado  and  their  combined  attacks  upon  mother  beets  in  the  Arkan¬ 
sas  valley  make  it  almost  impossible  to  grow  beet  seed  there.  Mr. 
P.  K.  Blinn,  writing  under  date  of  June  29,  [903,  said  he  had  just 
collected  in  one  hour’s  time  20  pounds  of  these  bugs  from  a  patch 
of  mother  beets  by  brushing  the  insects  into  a  dish  held  in  the 
hand.  Mr.  Blinn  also  reported  radishes,  and  mustard,  planted 
near  the  beets  as  trap  crops,  of  no  value  as  the  bugs  were  as  abun¬ 
dant  on  the  fields  of  beets  as  on  the  trap  crops.  He  also  stated 
that  mother  beets  grown  in  a  field  surrounded  by  oats  were  not  in¬ 
jured  by  the  bugs.  These  bugs  seem  partial  to  plants  of  the  mus¬ 
tard  and  goose-foot  families  and  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen 
them  attacking  any  of  the  grasses.  It  is  possible  that  any  of  the 
grains  would  afford  barriers  that  would  be  rather  effectual  in  ex¬ 
cluding  them.  Wild  mustard  is  a  favorite  food-plant  for  these 
false  chinch-bugs.  About  nine-tenths  of  the  specimens  received 
from  Mr.  Blinn  from  beets  were  {N.  minutus.) 

Some  have  thought  these  insects  to  be  the  chinch-bug  of  the 
prairie  states  farther  east,  but  such  is  not  the  case. 


14 


BULLETIN  94. 

WESTERN  WHEAT-STEM  MAGGOT,  < Pegomyia  cerealis  n.  sp.*) 

O11  the  5th  of  last  May  complaint  came  to  this  office  that  a 
wheat  field  that  was  looking  all  right  ten  days  before  had,  for 
some  reason,  died  down  badly.  Mr.  Johnson  went  to  examine  the 
field  and  returned  with  a  quantity  of  wheat  stems  with  maggots 
in  their  centers.  There  were  ten  acres  in  the  field  and  the  inju¬ 
ries  were  so  severe  that  it  was  decided  that  all  would  have  to  be 
plowed  under,  which  was  done,  and  the  field  planted  to  sugar  beets. 
The  field  had  been  sown  to  wheat  for  three  years  in  succession 
and  had  been  fertilized  heavily  with  barnyard  manure  the  past  fall 
and  sowed  to  winter  wheat  which  grew  but  little  in  the  fall  but 
which  made  a  fine  stand  in  the  spring. 

The  maggots  burrow  down  the  centers  of  the  stems  and  feed 
where  the  latter  are  most  tender,  an  inch  or  two  beneath  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  ground.  At  the  time  of  examination,  May  5,  many 
light  colored  dipterous  pupae  were  found  an  inch  or  two  beneath 
the  surface  close  to  the  plants  upon  which  they  had  been  feeding. 
These  pupae  brought  into  the  laboratory  began  giving  flies  June  6. 
The  early  appearance  of  pupae  in  the  field  makes  it  seem  likely 
that  the  eggs  may  have  been  laid  the  previous  fall.  If  this  was 
not  the  case,  the  flies  must  have  emerged  very  early  in  the  spring. 

DESCRIPTION. 

The  maggots  are  dirty  yellowish  white  in  color  and  measurebetween 
6  and  7  mm.  in  length  by  1.5  to  1.75  mm.  in  diameter.  At  the  small  or 
anterior  end  the  two  jaws  show  distinctly  and  at  the  posterior  end  the 
two  spiracles  are  black  and  above  them  is  a  shining  black  plate  or  chi- 
tinous  piece  which  terminates  in  two  short  stout  spines.  The  puparium 
is  like  the  maggot  in  length  and  thickness,  it  is  straw-yellow  at  first  but 
darkens  rapidly  as  the  time  for  the  emergence  or  the  fly  draws  near. 
The  black  plate  and  spines  of  the  maggot  also  show  plainly  and  the  ex¬ 
treme  anterior  end  is  blackened. 

The  Adult  Flies.  Female:  length  about  5.5  mm.  exclusive  of  oviposi¬ 
tor.  Color  of  head  and  body  rather  uniform  light  gray,  set  with  large 
and  small  black  bristles  that  arise,  each  from  a  small  black  spot.  Eyes 
dark  reddish  brown,  naked,  separated  in  front  by  a  space  nearly  equal 
to  the  diameter  of  an  eye;  antennse  black,  the  aristae  also  black  and 
slightly  plumose  to  the  tips.  Color  of  head  like  that  of  thorax  except 
for  a  slight  golden  tint  upon  the  face.  There  are  five  moderately  stout 
bristles  in  a  row  parallel  with  the  inner  margin  of  the  compound  eye  on 
either  side  and  another  row  of  about  20  of  these  bristles  along  the  pos¬ 
terior  border  of  each  eye,  the  two  at  the  upper  angle  of  the  eye  being 
larger  than  the  others.  On  the  thorax  there  may  be  distinguished  one 
median  and,  on  either  side,  two  lateral  darker  stripes  which  are 
quite  distinct,  and  upon  each  of  which  a  row  of  stout  black  bristles 
arises.  Scuttelum  with  four  setae,  two  very  stout  ones  near  the  tip 
and  one  not  so  large  near  each  posterior  angle.  Abdomen  rather  thick¬ 
ly  set  with  stout  black  setae  of  moderate  size,  the  largest  ones  arising 
from  near  the  posterior  margin  of  the  segments.  Femora  cinereous  like 
the  body  except  at  the  knees  where  they  change  to  light  amber  which  is 
the  color  of  all  the  tibias;  the  tarsi  of  all  the  legs  are  deep  black.  The 
wings  are  hyaline,  tegulae  and  sub-tegulae  small  and  nearly  equal  and 
amber  in  color,  as  are  all  the  large  veins. 


^Specimens  submitted  to  C.  W.  Johnson  were  referred  to  Mr.  Coquillett.who  deter 
mined  them,  “Near  Pegomyia  ceptorum,  but  apparently  distinct.” 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


I5 

The  males  differ  from  the  females  in  being  of  a  dark  cinereous  brown 
color.  The  femora  are  also  of  the  same  color  and  the  tibiae  are  much 
darker  than  in  the  female.  The  eyes  are  very  much  larger  being  sub- 
attingent  in  front  of  the  ocelli. 

Described  from  nine  males  and  ten  females  bred  from  stems 
of  winter  wheat. 

The  injuries  of  the  fly  seem  to  have  been  confined  to  the  one 
field.  Mr.  S.A.  Johnson  and  Mr.  Fred  Bishopp  examined  a  large 
number  of  fields  of  winter  wheat  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins 
but  in  no  case  did  they  find  farther  injuries  by  this  insect. 

The  summer  and  fall  habits  of  this  fly  are  unknown. 

A  wing  of  this  fly  is  shown  in  Fig.  C.,  PI.  II. 

Aspidiotus  forbesi.  A  card  from  Prof.  T.  D.  A.  Cockerell,  of 
Colorado  College, states  that  he  has  found  this  scale  abundant  upon 
a  bush  of  Cercocarpus  parvifolius  growing  upon  a  hillside  at 
Colorado  City.  This  is  a  matter  of  sufficient  importance  to  war¬ 
rant  mention  of  the  fact  in  this  report.  It  seems  to  be  the  first 
record  for  the  species  in  Colorado. 

(Explanation  of  plates.) 

Plate  I.  A,  B,  C,  three  forms  of  the  army  cutworm  moth  ( Choriza - 
grotis  auxilaris;)  D,  two  living  cutworms,  a  chrysalis,  a  dead  parasi¬ 
tized  cutworm  and  two  earthen  cells  of  the  same  species;  E,  moths  of 
Cacoecia  argyrospila  (fruit-tree  leaf-roller),  all  bred  from  one  patch  of 
eggs  to  show  variation  in  markings;  F,  moths  of  the  same  species  se¬ 
lected  from  specimens  bred  from  two  patches  of  eggs;  G,  choke-cherry 
leaf-roller  ( Cenopis  testulana  Zell.),  all  from  one  tent  showing  variation 
in  color;  H,  Grain-bug,  (Pentatoma  sayi  Stal) ,  and  wheat  kernels  shrunk¬ 
en  from  attack  of  the  bug,  also  two  plump  kernels  for  comparison;  I, 
two  larvae  of  web-worm  (Loxostege  sticticalis  Linn.) 

Plate  II.  A,  head  of  oats  blasted  from  attacks  of  grain-bug  ( Pentato¬ 
ma  sayi ),  only  three  developed  kernels;  B,  apple  injured  and  deformed 
from  application  of  too  strong  spray  of  Paris  green;  C,  wing  of  western 
wheat  stem-maggot  (Pegomyia  cerealis). 


PLATE  I. 


PLATE  II. 


Annotated  List  of  Colorado  Orthoptera 

From  Material  in  the  Collections  of  the  Colorado  Agri= 
cultural  College  and  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


PART  I. 

Including  Families  Forficulidae,  Blattidae,  Mantidae,  Phasmidae  and  Acridiidae 

BY  CLARENCE  P.  GILLETTE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Since  coming  to  Colorado  about  thirteen  years  ago,  the  writer 
has  done  what  he  could  to  make  the  rich  and  varied  insect  fauna  of 
the  State  known  to  the  world.  First,  the  Cynipidse  were  published 
upon  in  the  Canadian  Entomologist  and  in  Entomological  News 
during  the  years  1892,  ’93  and  ’94.  Then  Bull.  31,  “A  Prelimi¬ 
nary  List  of  the  Hemiptera  of  Colorado,”  by  Gillette  and  Baker, 
was  published  by  the  Experiment  Station  in  1895.  In  1898  Bull. 
43  was  issued  giving  a  list  of  the  Lepidoptera  in  the  College  col¬ 
lection  with  the  accessions  notes  upon  them  and  also  giving  de¬ 
scriptions  of  a  few  new  Jassidae  from  the  State;  and  the  same  year 
the  writer  prepared  a  monograph  of  the  “American  Leaf-hoppers 
of  Subfamily  Typhlocybinse”  which  appeared  in  Vol.  XX  of  the 
Proc.  of  the  National  Museum  which  included  much  Colorado  ma¬ 
terial.  When  Prof.  E.  D.  Ball  came  to  this  department  as  first 
assistant  in  1897  he  had  already  become  a  writer  upon  the  family 
Jassidae  and  was  encouraged  to  continue  his  systematic  work  with 
this  group,  with  a  special  view  of  working  up  the  Colorado  fauna, 
and  his  articles  since  that  time  have  added  much  to  our  knowledge 
of  Colorado  Hemiptera.  Mr.  PL  S.  G.  Titus  wrote  his  thesis  for 
the  degree  of  M.Sc.  upon  “Colorado  Bees,”  a  bound  copy  of  which  is 
in  the  College  library;  and  Mr.  Titus  also  wrote  numerous  articles 
treating  of  Colorado  bees  that  were  published  in  the  Canadian 
Entomologist.  Our  entire  College  collection  of  Colorado  Coleoptera 
were  sent  to  Prof.  Wickham  to  be  used  by  him  in  making  out  his 
list  of  Colorado  Coleoptera  which  he  published  in  the  Canadian 
Entomologist.  Many  other  papers  have  appeared  from  the  pens  of 
other  entomological  workers  in  which  they  report  upon  insects 


1 8  BULLETIN  94. 

from  the  collection  of  the  Colorado  Agricultural  College  and  the 
present  paper  is  another  attempt  to  add  to  the  existing  knowledge 
of  the  insect  fauna  of  the  State.  I  hope  to  follow  this  paper  at  no 
distant  date  with  another  giving  our  records  upon  the  remaining 
families  of  the  order  Orthoptera. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  present  paper  will  be  found  fairly  free 
from  errors  in  determinations.  There  are  still  a  few  species  of 
Acridiidae  not  reported  because  of  uncertain  identifications  and  it 
is  probable  that,  in  a  few  instances,  I  have  included  under  one 
name  forms  that  have  been  considered  distinct  but  which  I  could 
not  separate  except  from  differences  in  size  or  coloration. 

BROODS. 

All  of  our  records  point  to  one  conclusion,  and  that  is  that’all 
the  species  here  reported  are  probably  single-brooded. 

The  number  of  species  reported  in  this  paper  are: 


Forficulidse _  0 

Blattidse _  5 

Mantidse _  5 

Phasmidse _ _  2 

Acridiidae _ 13B 


Total _ _  145 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  BARRIERS. 

There  are  almost  no  cases  where  sharp  lines  of  limitation  in 
this  State  shut  in  the  distribution  of  a  species.  The  Continental 
Divide,  and  the  line  made  by  the  sudden  breaking  of  the  eastern 
plains  into  the  foothills  and  canons  of  the  eastern  slope,  come 
nearest  to  being  such  barriers;  and  a  few  species  seem  rather  close¬ 
ly  confined  to  the  area  lying  above  timberline  upon  the  mountain 
ranges.  As  a  general  rule,  species  that  occur  over  the  eastern 
plains  also  occur  for  some  distance  into  the  mountainous  region 
but  they  seldom  range  higher  than  7,000  or  8,000  feet,  and  many  of 
the  plains  species  occur  but  a  very  short  distance  in  the  hills.  On 
the  other  hand  mountain  species  that  are  common  at  9,000  and 
10,000  feet  altitude  are  seldom  found  outside  the  foothills.  Some 
species  occurring  abundantly  above  timber-line  may  be  found  all 
the  way  to  the  base  of  the  eastern  line  of  foothills,  and  Blattella 
germanica ,  that  thrives  so  well  at  the  sea  shore,  is  equally  prolific 
and  aggressive  in  eating  houses  at  mines  located  above  timberline 
in  the  mountains.  There  are  very  few  species  except  those  that 
follow  in  the  wake  of  civilization,  that  occur  upon  both  the  eastern 
and  western  slopes  of  the  Continental  Divide.  A  few  species  from 
the  south  and  east  have  found  their  way  up  the  Arkansas  valley 
into  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  State  that  we  have  not  found 
elsewhere, and  several  species  occurring  in  the  Platte  valley  of  the 


report  oe  entomologist. 


19 

northern  plains  region  we  have  not  found  occuring  in  the  valley 
of  the  Arkansas. 

The  frontice  piece  is  a  map  giving  the  main  river  sys¬ 
tems  and  water  sheds  of  Colorado  with  the  points  named  where 
our.  collections  have  been  made.  Upon  page  20  I  have  given 
a  list  of  the  places  where  collecting  has  been  done,  with  their  alti¬ 
tudes,  and  with  each  species  I  have  given  all  the  localities  from 
which  it  has  been  taken  by  us.  The  reader  will  thus  be  able  to 
make  out  the  distribution  of  such  species  so  far  as  determined  by 
our  records. 

A  CK  N  O  W  LEDGM  E  N  • T  S . 
determination  OF  SPECIES. 

The  Blattidse  here  reported  have  been  determined  by  Prof. 
Lawrence  Bruner  or  by  comparison  with  examples  named  by  him. 
The  Mantidse  and  Phasmidse  have  been  determined  by  Professor 
Bruner,  A.  N.  Caudell  or  E.  D.  Ball.  The  entire  collection  of 
Tettiginse  has  been  through  the  hands  of  Prof.  Albert  P.  Morse 
and  are  reported  as  named  by  him.  The  remainder  of  the  Acrid- 
iidse  have  been  named  very  largely  by  comparison  with  examples 
of  the  various  species  that  were  determined  for  the  College  by 
Prof.  Bruner  or  Dr.  S.H.  Scudder,  to  whom  doubtful  and  unknown 
species  have  been  referred.  The  more  readily  determined  species 
have  been  named  by  E.  D.  Ball  or  the  writer.  All  errors  are 
chargable  to  me,  as  I  have  worked  over  the  entire  collection  during 
the  past  year,  adding  many  species  and  many  new  records  and 
changing  many  names.  Prof.  Morse  has  also  determined  several 
species  of  Trimerotropis  and  Spharagemou  for  me. 

COLLECTORS. 

The  collection  upon  which  this  report  is  based  has  been  ac¬ 
cumulated  during  the  past  thirteen  years  as  the  result  of  the  ef¬ 
forts  of  many  helpers.  An  examination  of  1,500  entries  upon  the 
Accessions  Book  shows  that  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  records  are 
from  collections  and  observations  made  by  E.  D.  Ball,  about  25 
per  cent,  by  the  writer,  and  the  remaining  25  per  cent,  by  others, 
most  prominent  among  whom  are  S.  A.  Johnson,  E.  S.  G.  Titus, 
E.  P.  Taylor,  F.  C.  Bishopp  and  C.  F.  Baker.  I  have  also  received 
several  species  from  Prof.  T.  D.  A.  Cockerell  from  the  vicinity  of 
Colorado  Springs  and  Pike’s  Peak. 

The  original  plan  was  to  publish  this  report  in  joint  author¬ 
ship  with  Prof.  E.  D.  Ball  who  was,  at  the  time,  my  first  assistant; 
but  after  his  appointment  to  the  Chair  of  Animal  Biology  in  the  Agri¬ 
cultural  College  of  Utah,  this  plan  had  to  be  abandoned.  I  wish 
specially  to  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  Prof.  Ball  for  the  large 


20 


bulletin  94. 

amount  of  work  which  he  did  in  collecting  material  and  data  and 
making  determinations  preliminary  to  the  preparation  of  this 
report. 

The  photographic  reproduction  of  the  topographical  map  of 
Colorado  shown  in  this  report  is  used  with  the  permission  of  the 
“Continental  School  Supply  Company”  of  Denver  who  own  the 
original  map. 


PAPERS. 


I  am  under  special  obligations  to  Professor  Lawrence  Bruner, 
and  Professor  T.  D.  A.  Cockerell  for  permission  to  publish  their 
papers  describing  Colorado  insects  in  this  report. 

LOCALITIES  AND  THEIR  APPROXIMATE  ALTITUDE. 


Akron  (G)  . 4,650 

Alder  (G) . 8,500 

Alamosa  (B) . 7,540 

Alma . 10,240 

Antonito . 7,889 

Bald  Mountain . 8,500 

Boulder  (G) . 5,300 


Buena  Vista  (B)  7,967 
Cameron  Pass (B)  10,000 
Canon  City  (G)  ...5,343 
Cerro  Summit  (G)7,968 
Chama  (N  M.)  ...7,863 

Claremont  (G) . 3,650 

Colorado  Springs  .  6,000 

Cortez  (J) . 7,000 

Craig  (J) . 6,500 

Delta  (G) . 4,980 

Denver .  5, *200 

Dolores  (J) . 6,957 

Durango . .6,520 

Dutch  George’s(B)7,000 

Eddy  (G) . 7,000 

Elbert  (G) . 6,710 

Erie  (G) . 8,179 

Estes  Park  (G) . 8,000 

Fort  Collins . 5,000 

Fort  Morgan  (B)  .  4,263 

Fruita  (G) . 4,500 

Georgetown  (G)...8,476 
Glendevy  (J).  ..9,000 

Glenwood  Sp.  (G)  .5,758 
Golden  (G) . 5,700 


Grand  Junc’n  (G)4,594 
Gray’s  Peak  (G)10,000 

Greeley  . 4,637 

Gunnison . 7,685 

Gypsum  (G) . 6,325 

Hague’s  P’k(S) .  11,000 

Hamilton  (J) . 6,400 

Hayden  (J)  . 6,800 

Hebron  (J) . 8,500 

Holly  (B)  . 3,400 

Home  (B) . 9,000 

Idylwilde  (J) . 9,000 

Julesburg . 3,476 

La  Fayette  (G)..  5,179 

La  Junta . 4,061 

Lamar . 3,600 

La  Salle . 4,663 

Laporte . 5,200 

Las  Animas  (B)..3,900 

Lay  (J)  . 6,163 

Leadville  (G)... 10, 200 

Little  Beaver . 9,000 

Livermore  . 6,000 

Lizard  Head  (B)  10,200 
Long’s  Peak  (G)  11,000 

Loveland  (G)  . 5,000 

McCoy  (G)  . 7,300 

McElmo(G) . 6,800 

Manitou  (G) . 6,200 

MarshallPass(G)10,856 

Maybell  (J)  . 6,000 

Merino  (B) . 4,021 


Montrose  (G) . 5,811 

Nepesta  (B) . 4,400 

Newcastle  (G)....5,562 

North  Park . 8,500 

Orchard  (B) . 4,591 

Ouray  (G)  . 7,706 

Palisades  ( G) . 4,741 

Palmer  Lake . 7,237 

Pagoda  (J) . 6,500 

Paonia  (G) . 5,500 

Pinewood  (B)  . 8,000 

Pueblo  (B) . 4.668 

Rico  (B) . 8,737 

Ridgway  (Jo)  . 7,500 

Rifle  . 5,310 

Rist  Canon . 5,500 

Rocky  Ford . 4,177 

Salida  (G) . 7,050 

Silverton  (Jo) . 9,224 

Snyder  (B) . 4,160 

Steamboat  Spr’gs..7,300 

Sterling . 3,920 

Stove  Prairie.. . 7,500 

Timnath.  . 4,950 

Trinidad  . 5,980 

Walden  (J) . 8,500 

Ward  (B) . 10,000 

Wheat  Ridge . 5,300 

Windsor  (G)  . 4,900 

Wolcott  (G) . 6,976 

Wray  (B) . 3,500 

Yuma  (G) . 4,128 


The  altitude  given  in  each  case  is  that  of  the  town  or  place 
itself.  The  grasshoppers  referred  to  the  different  places  were  of¬ 
ten  taken  at  much  greater  altitudes.  Silverton,  for  example,  has 
an  altitude  of  9,224  feet  but  the  insects  referred  to  Silverton  were 
taken  on  a  mountain  near  by  at  an  altitude  of  over  12,000  feet. 
This  will  account  forf  my  giving  altitudes  farther  on  in  this 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


21 


paper,  for  the  occurrence  of  some  of  the  species  much  higher  than 
the  altitude  of  any  of  the  stations  where  the  species  was  taken. 

NOTE— Names  of  places  followed  by  the  capital  (B)  were  collected  In  by  Prof.  E. 
D.  Ball  only;  those  followed  by  (J)  were  collected  In  by  Mr.  S.  A.  Johnson  only;  those 
followed  by  (S)  were  collected  in  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Skinner  only;  those  followed  by  (Jo) 
were  collected  in  by  Mr.  Charles  Jones  only,  and  those  followed  by  (G)  were  collected 
in  by  the  writer  only. 

Family  FORFICULID/E. 

We  have  not  taken  a  representative  of  this  family  within  the 
State. 

Family  BLATTBD/E. 

BLATTELLA  Caudell. 

germanica  Linn.  Specimens  in  the  College  collection  are  from  a 
boarding  house  in  Ft.  Collins  and  from  a  boarding  house  at  a 
mine  near  Silverton  at  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet,  where  they 
where  very  numerous  in  both  instances, and  a  single  specimen 
from  a  hotel  at  Leadville. 

NYCTQBORA  Burmeister. 

holosericea  Klug.  One  male  and  one  female  taken  at  Ft.  Collins, 
June  5th,  1900. 

mexicana  Sauss.  Occasionally  introduced  upon  bunches  of  bananas 
from  the  south. 


PERIPLANETA  Burmeister. 

americana  Linn.  A  few  examples  from  Ft.  Collins  and  Denver. 

orientalis  Linn.  One  specimen  taken  at  Golden,  Colo.,  April  30th, 
1902. 

Family  MANTID/E. 

YERSINIA  Saussure. 

solitaria  Scudd.  Specimens  of  what  seems  to  be  this  species  have 

been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Palmer  Lake,  Durango  and  Alder. 

They  have  been  taken  in  open  places  running  about  in  short 

grass  and  so  imitating  the  ground  and  dry  leaves  that  they 

are  never  seen  until  they  move.  Rare. 

«/ 

LITANEUTRSA  Saussure. 

borealis  Brim.  Specimens  of  this  species  have  been  taken  at  Ft. 
Collins,  Dutch  George’s,  Holly  and  at  Stratton  and  Kimball 
in  Nebraska.  Rare  in  Colorado. 

minor  Scudd.  This  species  probably  occurs  quite  generally  over 
the  plains  region  east  of  the  foothills  and  a  few  miles  into  the 
hills,  on  dry  grassy  ground.  Specimens  have  been  taken  at 
Ft.  Collins,  Dutch  George’s,  Greeley,  Pueblo  and  Trinidad. 

obscura  Scudd.  A  few  specimens  of  what  seems  to  be  this  species 
have  been  taken  on  the  western  slope  at  Grand  Junction. 


2  2  BULLETIN  94. 

STAGMOMANTIS  Saussure. 

Carolina  Linn.  A  few  specimens  have  been  taken  at  Nepesta  and  at 
Grand  Junction. 

Family  PHASMID£. 

DIAPHEROMERA  Gray. 

veliei  Walsh.  Taken  at  Holly,  Sept.  8,  ’98,  on  corn,  and  at  Jules- 
burg  Aug.  7,  1902  on  grass  on  low  ground.  Rather  common 
in  both  instances.  (Ball.) 

PARABACILLUS  Caudell. 

coloradus  Scudd.  A  few  specimens  have  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins 
both  inside  and  outside  the  foothills.  I11  one  instance  two 
specimens  were  taken  from  a  species  of  Eriogonum ,  July  27, 
’99.  One  of  these  was  mature  and  one  immature.  We  also 
have  specimens  from  Kimball,  Neb.,  taken  Aug.  5th,  1899. 

Family  ACRIDIIO/E. 

TETTIX  Charpentier. 

acadicus  Scudd.  A  single  specimen  taken  at  Steamboat  Springs 
July  16,  1894.  (Baker.) 

crassus  Morse.  A  common  species  in  northeastern  Colorado  on  low 

ground  adjoining  the  foothills  and  near  the  streams  in  the 

canons.  The  adults  hibernate  during  the  winter  among  dead 

leaves.  Most  of  the  adults  have  been  taken  in  the  fall  and 

♦ 

early  spring.  This  species  varies  much  in  color  and  in  the 
length  of  the  pronotum.  Species  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  La- 
porte  and  Steamboat  Springs  only.  Most  of  the  specimens 
were  taken  in  the  foothills  near  Laporte. 

hancocki  Morse.  Four  specimens,  all  taken  in  Rist  Canon  near  La" 
porte,  June  15,  1898.  (Ball.) 

incurvatus  Hanc.  One  specimen  from  Rist  Canon,  near  Laporte, 
June  15,  1898,  one  ten  miles  farther  back  in  the  foothills  July 
21,  1898  (Ball.);  and  one  specimen  at  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  6-16- 
’oo.  (Gillette.) 

tontatus  Morse.  Two  species  taken  at  Little  Beaver,  j-ig-'gS  at 
about  9,000  feet  altitude,  (Ball.);  and  two  specimens  taken 
in  Estes  Park,  one  July  n,  and  one  July  15,  ’94,  (Gillette). 
The  last  two  named  were  rather  immature.  Altitude  about 
8,000  feet. 

PARATETTIX  Bolivar. 

eucullatus  Bunn.  A  few  specimens  have  been  taken  from  the  plains 
and  foothills  in  the  vicinity  of  Ft.  Collins  and  a  single  speci¬ 
men  was  taken  at  Lamar.  The  dates  are  in  the  months 
May  and  June. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


23 

tolticus  Sauss.  Four  specimens,  three  taken  in  Rist  Canon  near 
Laporte,  June  26,  1898,  (Ball.);  and  one  taken  along  the  river 
near  Ft.  Collins  6-12- gy.  (Gillette.) 

mm\m  stai. 

bivittata  Serv.  Common  over  the  entire  eastern  portion  of  the  State 
to  some  distance  within  the  foothills.  This  species  seems  to 
prefer  the  higher  ground  and  is  often  abundant  upon  hill-tops. 
We  have  recorded  specimens  from  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte, Wind¬ 
sor,  Greeley,  Orchard,  Julesburg,  Wray,  Rockyford  and  Holly. 

We  have  taken  adults  at  Ft.  Collins  as  early  as  July  10th 
and  as  late  as  Sept.  10th.  They  doubtless  continue  much 

later. 

neomexicana  Thom.  Phis  specimen  seems  to  cover  about  the  same 
ground  as  the  preceding  though  it  is  much  less  abundant 

We  have  specimens  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  both  within  and 
outside  of  the  foothills,  and  also  a  few  specimens  taken  at 
Rockyford,  Holly  and  Nepesta.  Our  captures  have  all  been 
made  during  August  and  September. 

ACmOPHITUS  Thomas. 

hirtipes  Say.  We  have  found  this  species  most  common  in  the 
gulches  of  the  outer  foothills  and  upon  the  dry  hillsides.  It 
probably  occurs  in  small  numbers  over  most  of  the  plains  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  State.  At  Ft.  Collins  adults  begin 
to  appear  about  the  last  week  in  June.  All  our  specimens 
have  been  taken  before  the  last  of  August.  Most  of  them 
are  uniformly  green  in  color  but  several  individuals  have  a 
lighter  shade,  varing  from  light  green  to  almost  white  upon 
the  elytra  and  pronotum.  Upon  the  elytra  the  lighter  color 
is  so  distributed  as  to  leave  the  green,  for  the  most  part,  in 
round  or  oval  blotches. 

Specimens  from  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Livermore,  Dutch 
George’s,  Wray,  Greeley,  Boulder,  Golden,  Las  Animas  and 
Coolidge,  Ks.  July  7,  ’02  all  adult  and  eggs  mature  at  La¬ 
porte.  (Ball.) 


ERITETTIX  Bruner. 

navicula  Scudd.  Specimens  answering  to  the  discription  of  this  spe¬ 
cies  seem  not  to  be  specifically  distinct  from  tricarinatus. 
Perhaps  Caudell  is  correct  in  thinking  all  the  Colorado  forms 
are  navicula.  See  “note  on  Orthoptera,  etc.”  by  A.  N.  Cau¬ 
dell,  Proc.  U.  S.  National  Museum,  Vol.  xxvi. 


24  BULLETIN  94. 

tricarinatus  Thom.  A  common  species  on  dry  grass  land  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  State  and  extending  some  distance  into 
the  foothills.  Most  common  northward  and  near  the  foothills. 
Adults  taken  in  northern  Colorado  from  May  nth  to  August 

J  o 

13th. 

Specimens  have  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Dutch 
George’s,  Virginia  Dale,  Livermore,  Boulder,  Palmer  Lake, 
and  Pueblo. 

variabilis  Brim.  This  species  seems  to  be  very  generally  distributed 
over  the  State  up  to  an  altitude  of  about  6,000  feet.  We 
have  taken  it  on  grassy  areas.  It  seems  to  feed  mostly  upon 
salt  grasses.  Adults  were  just  beginning  to  appear  at  Ft. 
Collins  June  22,  1899  (Ball)  and  we  have  taken  them  up  to 
Sept.  23rd. 

Specimens  have  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte, 
Windsor,  Timnath,  Greeley,  Merino,  Snyder,  Julesburg, 
Boulder,  Denver,  Pueblo,  Nepesta,  Rockyford,  Lamar,  Holly 
and  Delta. 

AMPHITORNUS  McNeill. 

bicolor  Thom.  A  very  common  species  on  dry  grassy  slopes  over 
all  the  eastern  portion  of  the  State,  particularly,  northward 
near,  and  for  some  distance  within  the  first  foothills.  Speci¬ 
mens  have  been  taken  at  an  altitude  of  fully  8,000  feet.  This 
insect  doubtless  causes  heavy  losses  on  the  native  pasture 
lands  of  the  State. 

June  29,  1901,  a  single  pair  of  adults  and  many  young 
were  found  in  the  foothills  west  of  Ft.  Collins;  June  6th,  1902, 
in  the  some  locality  only  young  nymphs  could  be  found;  at 
Greeley,  June  23,  1902,  several  adults  were  seen.  (Ball.)  Our 
latest  captures  of  this  species  at  Ft.  Collins  were  made  Sept. 

5>  *901- 

Specimens  have  been  taken  at  the  following  places:  Ft. 
Collins,  Laporte,  Dutch  George’s,  Livermore,  Westlake, Wind¬ 
sor,  Greeley,  Merino,  Wray,  Julesburg,  Snyder,  Boulder,  Den¬ 
ver,  Rockyford,  Las  Animas,  Holly,  Lamar,  Alder,  Dunkley 
and  Steamboat  Springs. 

CORDILLACRIS  Helm. 

affinis  Morse.  A  single  male  answering  to  the  structural  characters 
given  for  this  species,  but  having  the  dark  stripe  of  the  hind 
femora  solid,  was  taken  by  Mr.  S.  A.  Johnson  at  Hayden, 
July  29th.  The  hind  tibiae  are  very  pale  yellowish  tinged 
with  dusky  and  not  at  all  red. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


25 

cinerea  Brim.  What  I  have  placed  under  this  name  seems  to  be  a 
light  colored  form  of  occipitalis ,  and  it  occurs  over  about  the 
same  area.  Perhaps  my  specimens  are  not  true  cinerea ,  but 
if  so,  we  have  not  taken  this  species  in  the  State. 

crenulata  Brun.  Generally  distributed  on  dry  grassy  areas  east  of 
the  Continental  Divide  to  8,000  feet  altitude  and  also  occur¬ 
ring  over  some  of  the  western  slope.  It  seems  to  be  a  grass 
feeder.  The  earliest  that  adults  have  been  seen  at  Ft.  Collins 
is  June  26,  1901.  (Ball.)  They  continue  until  the  middle  of 
September. 

Specimens  taken  at  FT  Collins,  Laporte, Windsor, Greeley, 
LaSalle,  Wray,  Boulder,  Denver,  LaFayette,  Colorado 
Springs,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Lajuhta,  Lamar,  Las  Aninas, 
Trinidad,  Ridgway,  Antoni  to,  Durango  and  Grand  Junction. 

occipitalis  Thom.  The  notes  for  the  preceding  species  may  be  re" 
peated  for  this.  In  addition  to  the  above  localities  we  can 
add  Dolores,  Salida,  Golden, Virginia  Dale,  Timnath,  Ft.  Mor¬ 
gan,  Julesburg,  Merino,  Trinidad,  Alamosa,  Antonito  and 
Durango. 

Specimens  from  Tiinidad,  Alamosa,  Antonito  and  Du¬ 
rango  are  darker  in  color  and  the  elytra  are  longitudinally 
striped  with  dark  fuscous  with  or  without  light  yellow  spots, 
but  I  do  not  take  this  form  to  be  specifically  distinct  from  the 
specimens  from  other  parts  of  the  State  as  there  is  considera¬ 
ble  inter-gradation. 

PHLIBOSTROMA  Scudder. 

quadrimaculatum  Thom.  very  common  species  feeding  upon  prairie 
grasses,  particularly  on  the  plains  of  the  northeastern  portion 
of  Colorado.  The  species  occurs  in  the  foothills  at  an  altitude 
of  about  8,000  feet.  It  varies  much  in  size  and  color,  and  in 
wing-length.  This  is  one  of  our  most  destructive  species  to 
prairie  grasses. 

Specimens  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Dutch  George’s, 
Virginia  Dale,  Livermore,  Windsor,  Greeley,  La  Salle,  Sny¬ 
der,  Sterling,  Lafayette,  Denver,  Golden,  Boulder,  Pinewood, 
Pueblo,  Colorado  Springs,  Rockyford,  Holly  and  Buena  Vista. 

Adults  taken  at  Ft.  Collins  from  the  24th  of  June,  1901, 
until  the  1 2th  of  October,  1898.  Fully  developed  eggs  found 
in  females  July  27th,  1901.  (Ball.) 

ORPHULELLA  Giglio-Tos. 

pclidna  Bunn.  Thomas  in  writing  of  this  species  has  said  “Bur- 
meister’s  description  is  so  meager  that  it  is  doubtful  whether 
it  will  ever  be  recognized  with  satisfactory  certainty.”  What 


26 


BULLETIN  94. 

I  am  calling  this  species  is  common  in  the  northern  plains 
portion  of  the  State  upon  grassy  areas  and  we  have  taken  it 
in  the  foothills  to  an  altitude  of  5,500  feet.  The  males  meas¬ 
ure  from  15  to  18  mm.  and  the  females  between  18  and  21 
mm.  in  length.  O11  going  south  this  form  gives  way  to  a 
larger  and  longer  winged  form  that  I  am  calling  pratorum. 
Scndd. 

The  specimens  have  been  taken  at  FT  Collins,  Laporte, 
Windsor  and  Greeley.  Adults  have  been  taken  as  early  as 
July  22,  and  as  late  as  September  17th. 

1 

pratorum  Scndd.  What  I  am  calling  this  species  is  abundant  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  State  east  of  the  foothills  and  is  also 
common  in  the  southern  portion.  The  males  range  between 
18  and  20  mm.  and  the  females  between  21  and  24  mm.  in 
length. 

The  specimens  in  the  College  collections  have  been  taken 
at  the  following  points:  Ft.  Collins,  Greeley,  Sterling,  Sny¬ 
der,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Lamar  and  Holly  in  Colorado,  and 
Stratton  in  Nebraska.  See  Orphulella  pelidna. 

salina  Scndd.  This  low-ground  species  has  been  taken  by  ns  upon 
the  west  slope  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Delta  and  Grand  Junc¬ 
tion  from  July  7  to  Sept.  23.  On  Sept.  17th,  1903,  it  was 
noted  as  the  most  abundant  grasshopper  on  salt-grass,  Dis- 
tichlis  maratimci ,  growing  through  a  heavy  deposit  of  alkali 

on  low  ground  near  Delta.  (Gillette.) 

♦ 

CHLOEALTIS  Harris. 

©onspersa  Harr.  We  have  taken  this  species  on  five  different  dates 
at  altitudes  from  5,500  to  6,000  feet  in  the  foothills  west  of 
Ft.  Collins.  The  captures  have  all  been  from  a  single  canon 
known  as  Horse-tooth  Gulch  and  between  July  iotli  and  Aug. 
12th.  A  single  female  was  also  taken  in  the  foothills  near 
Boulder  July  23rd,  1901. 

The  females  vary  between  22  mm.  and  24  mm.  in  length 
and  their  elytra  vary  between  8  mm.  and  10  mm.  in  length. 
The  males  are  from  18.5  mm.  to  21  mm.  in  length  and  their 
elytra  are  from  9.5  mm.  to  12.5  mm.  long.  In  three  of  the 
males  the  entire  sides  of  the  pronotum  to  the  lateral  carinse 
are  black.  In  two  others  the  lower  portion  is  brown.  The 
females  lack  the  black  dash  upon  the  upper  posterior  angles 
of  the  sides  of  the  pronotum.  There  are  other  reasons,  partic¬ 
ularly  in  the  elytral  venation  of  the  males,  for  thinking  that 
this  Colorado  form  may  be  a  new  species. 


2  7 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 

STENOBOTHRUS  Fischer. 

curtipennis  Harr.  A  common  species  on  native  grasses  along  the 
mountains  and  foothills  of  the  State  and  occurring  in  smaller 
numbers  across  the  plains  of  the  northern  portion.  We  have 
found  it  most  abundant  at  altitudes  of  8,000  to  9,000  feet. 
We  have  taken  adults  as  early  as  June  26th  in  the  foothills 
near  Ft.  Collins  and  as  late  as  Sept.  30th  in  the  same  place. 
We  have  taken  no  females  with  elytra  long  enough  to  reach 
to  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  With  the  males,  however,  the 
wings  just  attain  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 

Specimens  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Dutch  George’s, 
Home,  Sterling,  Orchard,  Merino,  Greeley,  Ward,  Salida, 
Gunnison,  Antonito,  Gizzard  Head,  Alder,  Cameron  Pass  and 

Walden. 

PLATYBOTHRUS  Scudder. 

brunneus  Thom.  Both  sexes  taken  in  and  near  Estes  Park,  Aug.  11 
to  13,  1903,  sweeping  native  grasses  between  altitudes  of  7,000 
and  8,500  feet. 

GOMPHQCERUS  Thunberg. 

clavatus  Thom.  This  is  preeminently  a  high-altitude  species, though 
it  occurs  down  to  an  altitude  of  something  less  than  5,000 
feet,  and  has  been  taken  by  us  along  the  Cache  la  Poudre 
river  seven  miles  from  the  foothills.  It  occurs  in  large  num¬ 
bers  on  grassy  areas  above  timberline.  We  have  recorded  it 
abundant  on  Mt.  Ouray  (near  Marshall  Pass)  at  12,500  feet 
altitude,  Aug.  27th,  1899. 

In  the  foothills  near  Ft.  Collins  we  have  taken  adults  as 
early  as  June  17th,  and  on  Marshall  Pass  as  late  as  Oct.  7th. 
In  the  lower  altitudes  the  species  is  not  abundant. 

We  have  taken  specimens  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Dutch 
George’s,  Livermore,  Westlake,  Stove  Prairie,  Little  Beaver, 
Home,  Pueblo,  Ward,  Pike’s  Peak  at  12,000  feet  (Cockerell), 
Marshall  Pass  (on  Mt.  Ouray),  and  Cerro  Summit. 

The  Colorado  specimens  are  larger  than  Thomas’  type, 
females  measuring  between  18  and  22  millimeters  in  length, 
with  elytra  4.5  mm.  to  8  mm.  long,  and  males  measuring  be¬ 
tween  15.5  mm.  and  18  mm.  in  length. 

It  seems  strange  that  the  type  of  this  species  should  have 
been  recorded  as  taken  in  Kansas.  Probably  this  is  an  error. 

B00PED0N  Thomas. 

nubilum  Say.  A  rather  common  species  along  the  Arkansas  valley 
from  Pueblo  down,  on  moist  ground  where  grasses  grow.  A 
few  specimens  have  been  taken  from  wheat  and  corn  fields. 


28 


bulletin  94. 

Outside  of  the  Arkansas  valley  a  specimen  was  taken  at  Wray 
(Ball).  We  have  taken  this  species  at  Pueblo,  Nepesta, 
Rockyford,  Las  Animas,  Lamar  and  Wray. 

All  the  males  are  black  with  hind  tibiae  more  or  less  red 
and  with  elytra  nearly  attaining  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  In 
length  they  vary  between  20  mm.  and  27  mm.  (52  specimens). 
Out  of  30  females,  26  are  dusky  and  greenish,  marked  with 
yellow,  and  four  are  black.  They  vary  in  length  between  31 
mm.  and  44  mm.,  and,  with  one  exception,  the  wings  are 
short,  about  12  111m.  long.  The  single  long-winged  female 
has  elytra  surpassing  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 

flavofasciatum  Thos.  Probably  the  light-colored  form  of  the-  preced¬ 
ing  species. 

STIRAPLEURA  Scudder. 

decussata  Scudd.  Occurs  across  the  plains  and  in  the  mountains  to 
an  altitude  of  8,000  feet.  Quite  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ft.  Collins.  Occurs  commonly  in  open  grassy  areas;  food- 
plants  not  known. 

Taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  North  Park,  Denver,  Col¬ 
orado  Springs,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Lamar,  Canon  City,  Trini¬ 
dad,  Antonito,  Gunnison,  Claremont,  Elbert  and  Dunkley. 

AGENOTETTiX  McNeill. 

deorum  Scudd.  What  I  take  to  be  typical  examples  of  this  species 
in  the  collection  are  from  Colorado  Springs  (Cockerell),  Pueblo 
and  Boulder,  though  others  nearly  as  typical  come  from 
Rockyford,  Ft.  Collins  and  other  points.  This  species  seems 
to  me  to  grade  impereeptably  into  scudderi . 

occidental^  Brun.  (See  diseription  following  this  article). 

A  west  slope  species,  the  specimens  in  the  College  collec¬ 
tion  coming  from  Antonito,  Durango,  Grand  Junction,  Glen- 
wood  Springs  and  Delta.  Dates — Aug.  5th  to  Sept.  23rd. 

scudderi  Brun.  A  common  species  upon  the  plains  near  the  foothills, 
particularly  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  State.  It  extends 
to  the  eastern  border  of  Colorado  and  to  an  altitude  of  6,000 
feet  at  least  in  the  foothills.  Adults  begin  to  appear  at  Ft. 
Collins  about  June  20th  and  we  have  taken  them  as  late  as 
Sept.  28th.  Adults  were  mating  freely  July  30th,  1902.  (Ball.) 

Specimens  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Dutch  George’s, 
Livermore,  Greeley,  Ft.  Morgan,  Snyder,  Merino,  Wray,  Ster¬ 
ling,  Julesburg,  Boulder,  Palmer  Lake,  Pueblo,  Rockyford, 
Las  Animas  and  Lamar.  This  species  seems  to  me  to  be  a 
unicolorous  variety  of  deorum. 


29 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 

AULOCARA  Sou  elder 

elliotti  Thom.  This  is  also  a  very  abundant  species  over  the  grass- 
covered  plains  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  State,  and 
occurs  upon  open  grassy  areas  in  the  mountains  to  an  altitude 
of  8000  feet.  Adults  appear  in  the  vicinity  of  Ft.  Collins 
about  the  middle  of  June  and  the  sexes  have  been  taken  in 
coitn  as  early  as  July  2. 

The  75  females  in  the  collection  vary  in  length  between 
21  mm.  and  27  111111.  and  their  elytra  between  16  111111.  and 
18  mm.  The  males  vary  between  17  111111.  and  20  111111.  and  their 
elytra  between  11  nun.  and  1  7  111111. 

There  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  colors.  The  common 
one  is  a  dingy  brown,  slightly  tinged  with  rufous,  with  more  or 
less  numerous  brown  spots,  particularly  upon  the  elytra.  Occas¬ 
ional  specimens  are  deep  ferruginous  in  color  with  or  without 
.  the  fuscous  spots  upon  the  elytra  and  with  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  dorsum  of  the  pronotum  deeply  infuscated.  Specimens 
from  the  higher  altitudes  (Buena  Vista,  Antonito  and  Gunni¬ 
son)  are  smaller  and  are  of  a  dark  slate  color  with  markings 
very  inconspicuous. 

Our  specimens  came  from  the  following  places:  Ft.  Collins, 
Laporte,  Pike’s  Peak  at  9000  feet  (Cockerell),  Dutch  George’s, 
Livermore,  Sterling,  Boulder,  Lafayette,  Ya.  Dale,  Nepesta, 
Rockyford,  Lamar,  Trinidad,  Canon  City,  Buena  Vista,  Anton¬ 
ito,  Durango  and  Dunkley. 

femoratum  Scudd.  A  very  abundant  species  near  the  foothills  in 
northern  Colorado.  It  occurs  among  the  native  grasses  which 
probably  serve  as  its  food  plants.  It  occurs  entirely  across  the 
plains  to  the  eastward  but  we  have  not  found  it  occuring  far 
back  in  the  foothills  nor  upon  the  western  slope.  O11  July  16, 
1902,  adults  were  just  beginning  to  appear  in  the  foothills  west 
of  Fort  Collins  (Ball).  In  1901  a  few  males  were  found  in ‘the 
same  locality  June  29,  and  on  July  26th  of  this  year  Mr.  Ball 
found  females  containing  fully  developed  eggs.  Occasional 
specimens  have  been  observed  at  Fort  Collins  as  late  as  Sept. 
30,  (1902). 

This  species  has  been  collected  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte, 
Dutch  George’s,  Windsor,  Greeley,  Ft.  Morgan,  Boulder, 
Rockyford,  Las  Animas,  Lamar  and  Holly. 

An  examination  of  the  74  females  and  52  males  in  the  col¬ 
lection  shows  that  the  former  vary  between  19  and  25  mm.  and 
their  elytra  between  12  mm.  and  19  mm.  in  length,  and  that  the 
latter  vary  between  14  mm.  and  17  mm.  and  their  elytra  between 


30 


BULLETIN  94. 

7  mm.  and  12  mm.  in  length.  The  smaller  size,  shorter  wing, 
conspicuous  black  bands  upon  the  hind  femora,  and  absence 
of  the  lower  ridge  for  the  inclosure  of  the  frontal  fovea  easily 
separate  this  species  from  elliotti.  In  general  appearance,  the 
females\)f  the  two  species  are  very  similar. 

rufum  Scudd.  We  have  found  this  species  fairly  common  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Arkansas  and  the  Rio  Grande  rivers  and  also 
at  an  altitude  of  about  8000  feet  at  Gunnison.  We  have  also 
taken  it  upon  the  plains  at  Greeley  and  at  LaSalle  but  not  at 
Ft.  Collins.  The  captures  have  been  between  June  24  (Gree¬ 
ley)  and  Aug.  11  (Denver). 

Taken  at  Greeley,  LaSalle,  Denver,  Pueblo,  Nepesta, 
Rockyford,  Lamar,  Antonito  and  Gunnison. 

This  species  also  varies  greatly  in  color.  There  are  colors 
from  light  to  dark  slate  through  various  shades  of  ferruginous. 
In  some  the  elytra  are  conspicuously  spotted  with  brown  while 
in  others  the  maculation  is  almost  entirely  absent.  The 
posterior  margin  of  the  dorsum  of  the  pronotum  is  usually 
darkened  so  as  to  be  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  lighter  color  of 
the  elytra. 

ARPHIA  Stal. 

frigida  Scudd.  We  have  taken  this  species  at  altitudes  ranging  be¬ 
tween  5500  feet  in  Rist  Canon  near  Ft.  Collhi3  and  12,000 
feet  on  Marshall  Pass. 

This  yellow- winged  species  has  also  been  taken  at  West- 
lake,  Little  Beaver,  North  Park,  Glendevy  and  Home.  It 
seems  to  be  distinctly  a  mountain  species.  We  have  not 
taken  it  outside  of  the  foothills. 

*pseudonietana  Thom.  This  large  species  with  bright  red  under  wings 
heavily  bordered  with  black  is  quite  abundant  in  northern 
'  Colorado  and  especially  along  the  eastern  foothills  in  the 
most  barren  places.  It  so  imitates  the  ground  upon  which  it 
rests  that  it  can  hardly  be  seen  until  it  moves.  It  occurs  to 
the  New  Mexico  line  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  Our 
specimens  come  from  the  following  points:  Ft.  Collins,  La- 
porte,  Dutch  George’s,  Livermore,  Sterling,  Home,  Windsor, 
Greeley,  Orchard,  Merino,  Pinewood,  Denver,  Boulder,  Pal¬ 
mer  Lake,  Colorado  Springs,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Las  Animas, 
and  Lamar. 

The  earliest  capture  was  at  Lamar,  May  7,  1892,  and  the 
latest  at  Palmer  Lake,  Oct.  9th,  1898. 


*1  am  following  A.  N.  Caudell  in  calling  this  species  pseudonietana  Thomas,  instead  of 
tenebrosa  Scudder. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  3 1 

teporata  Scudd.  This  species,  which  may  be  only  a  red-winged  va¬ 
riety  of  frigida ,  is  very  common  upon  the  plains  in  the  vicin¬ 
ity  of  the  foothills  in  northern  Colorado.  Onr  dates  of  cap¬ 
ture  range  between  March  31  and  July  12  (Ft.  Collins). 

Onr  specimens  have  been  taken  at  the  following  points 
within  the  State:  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Greeley,  Pueblo,  and 
a  single  specimen  from  Silverton  which  may  be  a  different 
species.  We  also  have  a  pair  of  what  seem  identical  with 
this  form  from  Dunkley. 

CHORTQPHAGA  San  ssure. 

viridifasciata  DeGeer.  A  common  species  in  northern  Colorado  in  the 
vicinity  of  Ft.  Collins  and  occuring  a  short  distance  in  the 
foothills.  Adults  have  been  taken  as  early  as  Apr.  23,  and  as 
late  as  July  2.  The  species  winters  as  a  nymph.  The  males 
(17)  in  the  college  collection  are  all  brown.  Out  of  the  25 
females,  11  have  the  sides  of  the  elytra  and  pronotum  decidedly 
brown.  Our  specimens  all  came  from  the  plains  and  foothills 
near  Ft.  Collins. 

ENCGPTQLOPHUS  Scudder. 

coloradensis  Bruner.  See  description  in  article  following  this. 

costalis  Scudd.  Not  uncommon  near  the  foothills  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ft.  Collins,  also  occuring  some  distance  within  the  hills.  Our 
specimens  came  mostly  from  near  Ft.  Collins,  a  few  are  from 
Greeley  and  one  from  Antonito. 

CAMNULA  Stal. 

pellucida  Scudd.  A  common  species  in  open  areas  throughout  the 
mountainous  portions  of  the  State.  We  have  not  taken  it 
east  of  the  foothills.  More  than  100  specimens  in  the  College 
collection  were  taken  at  the  following  points:  Home,  North 
Park,  Va.  Dale,  Dutch  George’s,  Little  Beaver,  Pike’s  Peak 
at  10,000  ft.  (Cockerell),  Walden,  Westlake,  Sterling,  Liver¬ 
more,  Stove  Prairie,  Cameron  Pass,  Leadville,  Marshall  Pass, 
Salida,  Ward,  Estes  Park,  Gunnison,  Grand  Junction,  Rico, 
Hamilton,  Steamboat  Springs,  Dolores,  andGlenwood  Springs. 
From  outside  the  State,  we  have  taken  this  species  at  Chey¬ 
enne,  Wyo.,  and  at  Chama,  N.  M. 

KIPPiSGUS  Sau ssure. 

conspicuus  Scudd.  A  fairly  common  species  over  the  plains  of  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  State  and  in  the  lower  altitudes  through 
the  mountains  of  the  southern  portion.  Specimens  in  the 
collection  are  from  PT.  Collins,  Snyder,  Sterling,  Lamar,  Pu¬ 
eblo,  Trinidad,  Antonito,  and  Gunnison. 


32 


BULLETIN  94. 

The  dates  of  capture  range  between  May  9th  and  August 
28  at  Ft.  Collins. 

montanus  Thom.  Specimens  determined  for  us  by  Prof.  Bruner  as 
this  species  were  taken  by  Prof.  E.  D.  Ball  at  Lamar,  Colo., 
on  three  different  dates,  June  17,  July  10,  and  July  18;  and  at 
Wray,  Colo.,  July  13.  It  is  one  of  the  very  largest  and  is  the 
lightest  colored  species  we  have  taken.  The  largest  females 
measure  48  mm.  in  length.  The  hind  femora  and  tibiae  be¬ 
neath  and  on  the  inner  sides  are  bright  coral  red  and  the  met¬ 
azone  of  the  pronotum  is  long  and  acute  angled  posteriorly. 

neglectus  Thom.  This  seems  to  be  strictly  a  mountain  species.  A 
single  specimen  has  been  taken  on  the  first  line  of  foothills 
west  of  Fort  Collins  at  an  altitude  of  about  5,500  feet,  and  at 
about  6,500  feet  it  becomes  fairly  common.  Over  80  speci¬ 
mens  in  the  College  collection  came  from  the  following  points: 
Ft.  Collins  (foothills),  Livermore,  Va.  Dale,  Westlake,  Dutch 
George’s,  Estes  Park,  Home,  North  Park,  Pike’s  Peak,  Alder, 
Gunnison,  Dolores,  Steamboat  Springs  and  Walden.  Dates 
range  between  June  16  and  Aug.  29. 

paradoxus  Thom,  One  male  from  Antonito,  Aug.  5,  ’00  (Ball,)  is 
all  we  have  taken  of  this  species.  Determined  by  Prof.  Bruner. 

variegatus  Scudd.  Two  males  and  two  females  taken  by  Prof.  E.  D. 
Ball  at  Holly,  Colo.,  Sept.  8,  1898. 

zapotecus  Sauss.  A  few  specimens  of  this  species  have  been  taken 
from  the  following  points:  Ft.  Collins  (foothills),  Livermore, 
Westlake,  Palmer  Lake,  Steamboat  Springs,  Eddy  and  Dunk- 
ley.  1 

LEPRUS.  Sau  ssure. 

cyaneus  Ckll.  Occuring  in  the  most  barren  situations  across  the 
southern  portion  of  the  State.  Our  specimens  came  from  Ne- 
pesta,  Pueblo,  Trinidad,  Delta  and  Grand  Junction.  Deter¬ 
mined  by  Prof.  Cockerell.  The  hind  wings  of  all  the  speci¬ 
mens  are  deep  blue  bordered  with  black  and  correspond  ex¬ 
actly  to  Cockerell’s  description  (Ent.  News,  1902,  p.  305.) 
The  closely  allied  species,  zvheeleri ,  we  have  not  taken  in  the 
State.  1 

DSSS0STE1RA  Scudder. 

Carolina  Linn.  Generally  distributed  over  the  State  up  to  an  alti¬ 
tude  of  about  8,000  feet.  Adults  taken  from  July  8th  (Pali¬ 
sades)  to  Sep.  25  (Pueblo).  Locations  of  capture:  Ft.  Collins, 
Laporte,  Va.  Dale,  Dutch  George’s,  Greeley,  Orchard,  Boul¬ 
der,  Pueblo,  Lajunta,  Lamar,  Holly,  Alamosa,  Durango,  Me- 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  33 

Elmo,  Antoni  to,  Cortez,  Grand  Junction,  Delta,  Hotchkiss, 
Paonia,  Glenwood  Springs,  and  Estes  Park. 

longipennis  Thom.  A  common  species  east  of  the  foothills,  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  where  it  extends 
west  into  the  foothills.  It  is  very  rarely  that  a  specimen  is 
seen  at  Ft.  Collins.  It  is  a  common  insect  at  the  electric 
lights-in  Denver  and  at  Colo.  Springs.  The  college  specimens 
are  from  Fort  Collins,  Greeley,  Snyder,  Sterling,  Ft.  Morgan, 
Denver,  Pueblo,  Canon  City,  Rockyford,  Fas  Animas,  Lajun- 
ta,  Lamar,  and  Holly. 

1 

SPHARAGEM0N  Scudd. 

atquale  Say.  A  fairly  common  species  in  eastern  Colorado  and  ex¬ 
tending  a  short  distance  into  the  foothills.  Our  specimens 
come  from  Ft.  Collins,  PT.  Morgan,  Boulder,  Colorado  Springs, 
Rockyford  and  Lajnnta.  The  dates  of  capture  are  from  July 
8th  to  Sep.  14th.  Large  females  have  a  striking  resemblance 
to  Hadrotettix  trifasciatus . 

eollara  Scndd.  Our  specimens,  few  in  number,  have  been  taken  at 
Ft.  Collins,  Greeley,  Orchard  and  Pueblo.  A  few  of  the  Ft. 
Collins  specimens  were  taken  a  mile  or  two  back  in  the  foot¬ 
hills.  The  dates  range  between  July  iotli  and  Oct.  3d. 

cristatum  Scudd.  We  have  but  few  captures  of  this  species,  coming 
mostly  from  the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  State. 
The  localities  are  Ft.  Collins,  Wray,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  La¬ 
mar,  and  from  Stratton  in  Nebraska. 

humll*  Morse.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common  species  in  the  north¬ 
ern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  State.  According  to  our  col¬ 
lections  it  extends  into  the  mountains  to  an  altitude  of  about 
9,000  feet.  The  captures  are  from  the  following  points:  Ft. 
Collins  (both  plains  and  foothills),  Livermore,  Dutch  George’s, 
Sterling,  Ft.  Morgan,  Snyder,  Wray,  Orchard,  Denver,  Pine- 
wood  and  Buena  Vista.  The  dates  of  capture  range  between 
July  8th  (Ft.  Collins)  and  Sep.  19th  (Buena  Vista).  The 
specimens  that  I  am  referring  to  this  species  seem  hardly  to  be 
specifically  distinct  from  cequale. 

pallidum  Morse.  Along  with  the  typical  light  colored  specimens  be¬ 
longing  to  this  species  as  determined  for  me  by  Prof.  Bruner 
and  Prof.  Morse  I  have  included  a  number  of  darker  color 
that  seem  in  every  other  way  to  be  identical.  The  specimens 
before  me  came  from  the  following  points:  Ft.  Collins,  La- 
porte,  Greeley,  Julesburg,  Orchard,  Denver,  Pueblo,  Lajnnta, 
Lamar,  Rifle  and  Delta. 


34  BULLETIN  94. 

DEROTMEMA  Scudder. 

haydeni  Thos.  This  is  a  very  common  species  throughout  the  State 
up  to  an  altitude  of  about  9,000  feet,  Light  colored  speci¬ 
mens  that  seem  to  be  the  true  ciipidineiim  of  Scudder  seem  to 
me  to  grade  insensibly  into  true  haydeni ,  so  I  am  including  all 
under  this  name.  Mr.  Caudell  distinguished  cnpidineum  by 
the  narrower  black  band  of  the  wings  which  does  not  seem  to 
hold  true  in  all  the  spread  specimens  I  have  examined. 

The  100  and  more  specimens  of  the  College  collection 
come  from  the  following  localities:  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte, 
Livermore,  Dutch  George’s,  Julesburg,  Ft.  Morgan,  Orchard, 
Sterling,  Greeley,  LaSalle,  Lafayette,  Denver,  Boulder,  Palmer 
Lake, Colorado  Springs,  Glenwood  Springs,  Pueblo,  Rockyford, 
Las  Animas,  Lajunta,  Lamar,  Trinidad,  Canon  City,  Salida, 
Buena  Vista,  Rifle,  Colorado  Springs,  Gunnison,  Antonito,  Du¬ 
rango,  Dolores,  Delta  and  Grand  Junction. 

MESTOBREGMA  Scudder. 

thomasi  Caud.  ( cinctum  Thos.)  Eight  specimens  collected  from  the 
following  points:  Colo.  Springs,  Pueblo  and  Nepesta.  Dates 
range  from  July  19th  to  Sep.  25th. 

kiowa  Thom.  A  very  common  species  on  native  grasses  over  the 
State  generally,  occuring  in  the  mountains  up  to  an  altitude 
of  fully  10,000  feet.  Caudell  reports  having  taken  this  spe¬ 
cies  on  the  summit  of  Pike’s  Peak.  The  College  collection  of 
over  200  specimens  came  from  Ft.  Collins,  Livermore,  Dutch 
George’s,  Va.  Dale,  Julesburg,  Sterling,  Merino,  Wray,  Gree¬ 
ley,  Windsor,  Boulder,  Denver,  Colo.  Springs,  Pueblo,  Palmer 
Lake,  Rockyford,  Las  Animas,  Trinidad,  Ridgway,  x\ntonito, 
Durango,  Gunnison,  Alma,  Rifle,  Estes  Park,  Steamboat 
Springs,  Dunkley,  Hamilton  and  Hayden.  Dates  of  capture 
July  2nd  to  Oct.  9th. 

mexicanum  Sauss.  Our  30  specimens  of  this  robust  species  came 
from  Ft.  Collins,  Dutch  George’s,  Palmer  Lake,  Pueblo  and 
Trinidad.  Dates,  Aug.  13th  to  Oct.  9th. 

plattei  Thom.  A  rather  common  species  over  the  plains  of  the  east¬ 
ern  portion  of  the  State  and  occuring  in  the  lower  regions  of 
the  eastern  slope  to  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet.  The  College 
specimens  are  from  Ft.  Collins,  Dutch  George’s,  Sterling, 
Wray,  Home,  Pinewood,  Boulder,  Colo.  Springs,  Pueblo, 
Rockyford,  Nepesta,  Las  Animas,  Lamar,  Trinidad  and  An¬ 
tonito.  The  dates  range  between  July  8th  and  Sep.  3. 

pulchella  Bruner.  (Determined  by  Prof.  Bruner).  Our  30  specimens 
of  this  beautiful  green  and  black  species  are  in  the  collection 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  35 

from  Ft.  Collins  and  Va.  Dale  and  one  from  Kimball,  Neb. 
Dates,  July  17  to  August  16. 

METATOR. 

pardalinus  Sauss.  This  is  a  common  species  in  the  vicinity  of  Ft. 
Collins.  The  College  specimens  are  from  Ft.  Collins,  Va. 
Dale,  Dutch  George’s,  Sterling,  Steamboat  Springs  and  Boul¬ 
der.  Dates  range  between  Julie  28th  and  Sep.  12th. 

There  are  14  females  and  6  males  with  red  wings,  and 
14  females  and  16  males  with  yellow  wings. 

C0N0Z0A  Saussure. 

gracilis  Thos.  The  55  specimens  of  this  species  in  the  College  col¬ 
lection  are  all  from  the  mountains  except  a  specimen  from 
Greeley  and  one  from  Pueblo.  The  localities  of  the  captures 
are  Greeley,  North  Park,  Pueblo,  Alder,  Alamosa,  Durango, 
Cortez,  Dolores,  Gunnison,  Rifle,  Paonia,  Grand  Junction, 
Steamboat  Springs,  Walden,  May  bell,  Hamilton,  Glendevy,. 
Lay,  Dunkley  and  Craig. 

TRIMEROTROPIS  Stal. 

azurescens  Brim.  A  few  specimens  of  this  blue-winged  species  have 
been  taken  at  Rifle,  Paonia,  Delta,  Steamboat  Springs  and 
Hamilton,  on  the  most  barren  hill-sides.  July  25th  to  Sep.  23d. 

agrestis  McNeill.  Specimens  of  this  species  as  determined  for  me  by 
Prof.  Bruner  come  Irom  Julesburg,  Orchard,  Greeley,  Rocky- 
ford,  Lajunta  and  Lamar. 

bruneri  McNeill.  This  is  a  common  species  on  the  northern  plains 
of  the  State.  In  general  appearance  and  markings  it  is  won¬ 
derfully  like  Hadrotettix  trifasciatus.  The  females  are  about 
the  size  of  the  males  of  that  species.  Specimens  in  the  Col¬ 
lege  collection  are  from  Ft.  Collins,  Greeley,  Ft.  Morgan, 
Sterling,  Pueblo,  Lajunta  and  Antonito. 

cincta  Thom.  There  are  36  females  and  59  males  of  this  species  in 
the  collection  and  all  came  from  the  mountains  or  foothills  of 
the  State.  Without  exception  the  hind  tibiae  are  bluish  or 
yellowish  with  a  dusky  patch  a  little  beneath  the  knees  in  just 
the  position  to  meet  the  black  spot  in  the  sulcus  of  the  under 
surface  of  the  femur.  There  are  several  specimens  marked 
Ft.  Collins  in  the  collection  but  all  came  from  Horse-Tooth 
mountain,  a  high  foothill  about  8  miles  south-west  of  town. 
Our  specimens  have  been  taken  at  altitudes  ranging  between 
6,000  and  10,000  feet  and  from  both  slopes. 

citrina  Scudd.  A  common  and  one  of  the  very  largest  species  that 
we  have  taken.  I  am  including  under  this  name  forms  that 


36 


BULLETIN  94. 

seem  to  go  well  under  laticincta  and  latifasciata  but  for  which 
I  am  unable  to  find  specific  characters  different  from  what  I  am 
calling  citrini.  Our  specimens  have  been  taken  at  the  follow¬ 
ing  places:  Ft.  Collins,  Greeley,  Va.  Dale,  Dutch  George’s, 
Ft.  Morgan,  Livermore,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Lajunta,  Lamar, 
Dolores  and  Durango.  June  16  (Rockyford)  to  Oct.  6  (Ft. 
Collins.) 

inconspteua  Bruner.  (See  description  in  article  following  this). 

monticola  Sauss.  A  common  species  along  the  eastern  foothills  and 
extending  across  the  plains  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
State.  It  also  occurs  in  the  mountains  of  the  central  portion 
of  the  State  to  an  altitude  of  9,000  feet.  Specimens  taken  at 
PA.  Collins,  Livermore,  Dutch  George’s,  Va.  Dale,  Estes  Park, 
North  Park,  Greeley,  LaSalle,  Colo.  Springs,  Ft.  Morgan,  Pal¬ 
mer  Lake,  Trinidad,  Alder,  Canon  City,  Buena  Vista,  and  from 
Tie-Siding  in  Wyoming.  Dates  of  capture,  June  18  (Palmer 
Lake)  to  Sep.  18  (Palmer  Lake). 

montana  McNeill.  Ffive  specimens  of  this  species  came  from  Durango, 
Grand  Junction  and  Delta.  July  28th  to  Sep.  23d.  (Deter¬ 
mined  by  Prof.  Bruner  and  by  Prof.  Morse). 

obsoura  Scudd.  A  few  examples  of  this  species  all  from  mountain¬ 
ous  districts:  Palmer  Lake,  Salida,  Antonito,  Silverton  (12,- 
000  ft.),  Pike’s  Peak  at  11,000  ft.  (Cockerell),  Steamboat 
Springs,  Pagoda,  Hamilton,  Hebron  and  Lav. 

vinculata  Scudd.  A  common  species  across  the  southern  portion  of 
the  State  and  occuring  as  far  north,  at  least,  as  Ft.  Collins. 
The  localities  of  our  captures  are:  Ft.  Collins,  Greeley,  Pu¬ 
eblo,  Colo.  Springs,  Lajunta,  Nepesta,  Lamar,  Durango,  Cor¬ 
tez,  Dolores,  Antonito,  Alamosa,  Palisades,  Delta,  Steamboat 
Springs,  Craig,  Maybell  and  Hamilton.  Dates  of  capture  are 
between  June  15th  (Pueblo)  and  Oct.  8th  (Salida). 

In  this  lot  are  a  few  specimens  that  I  kept  separate  for  a 
time  as  similis ,  but  as  the  number  of  specimens  increased 
the  two  forms  seemed  to  run  together.  (Since  writing  the 
above  the  examples  supposed  to  be  similis  have  been  deter¬ 
mined  for  me  by  Prof.  Morse  as  a  form  of  vinculata). 

CIRCOTETTIX  Scudder. 

carlinianus  Thom.  The  specimens  in  the  College  collection  are  most¬ 
ly  from  the  vicinity  of  Ft.  Collins.  Other  localities  of  cap¬ 
ture  are:  Livermore,  North  Park,  Dunkley,  Palmer  Lake, 
Colo.  Springs,  Durango,  Grand  Junction  and  Gunnison.  Dates, 
June  26th  to  Oct.  4th  at  Ft.  Collins. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


37 

suffusus  Scudd.  This  very  dark  slender  species  we  have  taken  in 
the  foothills  only,  chiefly  of  the  western  slope,  and  in  alti¬ 
tudes  ranging  between  7,000  and  8,000  feet.  The  males  are 
very  noisy  with  their  wings.  Rather  common.  Points  of 
capture:  Walden,  Steamboat  Springs,  Dunkley,  Estes  Park, 
Palmer  Lake,  Durango,  Hamilton  and  Pagoda. 

undulatu*  Thom.  Our  examples  of  this  species  are  from  Ft.  Collins, 
Dutch  George’s,  Wray,  Pueblo,  Hague’s  Peak,  Manitou, 
and  Rifle;  July  13th  to  Sep.  10th. 

verruculatus  Kirb.  A  mountain  species  which  we  have  found  more 
common  in  the  middle  and  southern  portions  of  the  State. 
Our  specimens  are  from  Ft.  Collins  (foothills),  Estes  Park, 
Golden,  Ward,  Palmer  Fake,  Salida,  Marshall  Pass,  Pike’s 
Peak,  Buena  Vista,  Paonia,  Delta,  Durango,  Dolores,  Rico, 
Steamboat  Springs,  Pagoda,  Dunkley  and  Hamilton.  Dates 
of  capture,  July  13th  (Palmer  Lake)  to  Oct.  8th  (Salida). 

H&BR3TE7TIX  Scudder. 

trifasciatus  Say.  A  common  species  over  the  native  grass  lands  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  State  and  extending  some  distance 
within  the  foothills.  Some  of  the  College  specimens  came 
from  fully  8,000  feet  altitude.  Localities:  PV.  Collins,  Dutch 
George’s,  Livermore,  Pinewood,  Greeley,  Wray,  LaSalle,  Sterl¬ 
ing,  Golden,  Pueblo,  Canon  City,  Rockyford,  Lajunta,  Lamar, 
Holly,  Antonito  and  Salida.  Dates,  July  10th  to  Oct.  10th 
(Ft.  Collins). 

PARAP9MAU  Scudder. 

cylindrica  Brun.  This  species  probably  occurs  over  the  greater  por¬ 
tion  of  the  eastern  plains  of  the  State  and  in  the  lower  foot¬ 
hills,  where  blue-grass,  Agropyrum  glaucum  grows,  which 
seems  to  be  the  chief  food-plant.  Localities  of  capture:  Ft. 
Collins,  (plains  and  foot-hills),  Windsor,  Orchard,  Snyder, 
Julesburg,  LaSalle,  Rockyford,  Las  Animas  and  Lamar. 
Adults  June  16th  to  Sep.  14th  at  Rockyford.  We  also  have 
specimens  from  Stratton,  Neb.  (Ball). 

Both  green  and  brown  forms  occur  throughout  the  range. 
I  see  no  way  to  distinguish  this  species  from  wyomingensis 
Thos. 

BRACHYSTOLA  Scudder. 

magna  Gir.  This  very  large  species,  commonly  known  as  the  “lub¬ 
ber”  is  quite  common  over  the  eastern  plains  to  the  foothills. 
It  also  occurs  some  little  distance  inside  the  hills  in  open 
grass}'  areas.  We  have  noted  it  feeding  upon  American  laurel, 
Kalmia  glauca,  and  upon  groundsel,  Senecio  sp.  (Ball).  The 


38 


bulletin  94. 

males  in  the  collection  measure  between  43  mm.  and  61  mm., 
and  the  females  between  45  mm.  and  61  mm.  in  length. 

The  earliest  we  have  found  adults  at  Ft.  Collins  was  July 
10, 1901,  and  then  only  a  single  specimen  could  be  found.  On 
the  2 2d  of  the  month  adults  were  common  and  mating  had 
begun.  On  Aug  1st  of  the  same  year  some  had  begun  to  lay 
eggs  and  on  Sep.  5th  adults  were  common  and  several  pairs 
were  seen  in  coitu  (Ball).  Egg-laying  begins  about  Aug.  1st. 

In  the  males  of  this  species  the  short  wings  are  approx¬ 
imate  or  even  overlapping  on  the  back  while  in  the  females 
they  are  always  widely  separated. 

SCHiSTOCEBCA  Stal. 

albolineata  Thomas.  What  I  am  considering  as  this  species  are  very 
closely  related  to  the  preceding,  the  only  striking  difference 
being  the  coral  red  hind  tibiae.  There  are  specimens  from 
Ft.  Collins,  Windsor,  Timnath,  Greeley,  Merino,  Orchard, 
Sterling,  Julesburg,  Nepesta,  Rockyford,  Lamar,  Holly,  Glen- 
wood  Springs,  Grand  Junction,  Delta  and  Durango  in  the  col¬ 
lection.  The  examples  from  the  last  four  places  named  lack 
the  black  spots  on  the  hind  margins  of  the  abdominal  seg¬ 
ments  and  have  the  hind  tibiae  lighter  red  in  color.  The  ely¬ 
tra  are  not  noticably  darker  bordering  the  yellow  stripe  and 
the  notch  in  the  subgenital  plate  of  the  male  is  U-shaped,  be¬ 
ing  broader  than  deep.  Specimens  from  Delta  and  Grand 
Junction  were  taken  from  willows  and  from  apple  and  peach 
trees.  When  disturbed  they  would  take  wing  and  fly  from 
tree  to  tree.  It  is  very  likely  these  belong  to  a  different  spec¬ 
ies  than  the  specimens  from  the  eastern  slope. 

lintata  Thom.  This  species  occurs  entirely  across  the  State  from 
north  to  south,  east  of  the  mountains.  It  occurs  along  water 
courses  and  seems  to  he  arboreal  in  habit. 

The  males  vary  between  30  mm.  and  35  mm.  in  length 
to  tip  of  abdomen,  and  between  36  mm.  and  43  mm.  to  tips  of 
elytra.  The  females  vary  between  35  mm.  and  48111m.  to  tip 
of  abdomen  and  between  42  mm.  and  57  111111.  to  the  tips  of 
the  wings. 

The  species  varies  very  much  in  coloration;  some  are  very 
pale  yellow,  others  are  yellowish  green,  and  still  others  are  of 
a  rusty  yellow.  All  have  the  hind  tibice  black  behind  and 
yellow  before. 

The  earliest  we  have  taken  adults  at  Ft.  Collins  was  July 
10,  1899.  Specimens  have  been  taken  as  late  as  Sep.  5th  at 
the  same  place  and  as  late  as  Sep.  14,  1898  at  Rockyford. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


39 

Specimens  have  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Windsor,  Gree¬ 
ley,  Merino,  Jnlesburg,  Orchard,  Manitou,  Nepesta,  Rockyford, 
Lamar,  Holly  and  Trinidad. 

HYPOCHLORA  Bru  n  ner. 

alba  Dodge.  This  is  a  common  species  over  the  plains  region  of 
Colorado  where  its  food  plants  occur.  The  two  species  upon 
which  it  chiefly  occurs  are  Artemisia  frig ida  and  A.  ludovi- 
ciana  (white  sage).  It  is  not  readily  seen  among  the  leaves 
of  these  plants  which  it  closely  imitates  in  color.  The  colors 
vary  from  a  pale  yellowish  green  to  a  rusty  brown. 

A  large  number  of  specimens  in  the  College  collection 
vary  between  15  mm.  and  19  mm.  in  length  in  the  males,  and 
between  21  mm.  and  25  mm.  in  length  in  the  females.  The 
short  pointed  elytra  measure  between  4  mm.  and  5  mm.  in 
length  in  the  males  and  between  5  mm.  and  6^2  mm.  in  the 
females.  So  far  as  known  this  insect  attacks  no  cultivated 
plant. 

Adults  have  been  taken  as  early  as  July  8,  1898,  at  Ft. 
Collins  and  as  late  as  Oct.  14th,  1901,  at  the  same  place.  It 
has  also  been  taken  at  Denver,  Boulder  and  Jnlesburg,  Colo¬ 
rado,  and  at  Kimball,  Nebraska. 

CAMPYLACANTHA  Scudder. 

olivacea  Scudd.,  seems  to  occur  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
State  only.  Several  specimens  were  taken  Sep.  8,  1898,  at 
Holly,  and  othersat  Trinidad  four  days  later,  all  by  E.  D.  Ball. 

This  grasshopper  is  said  to  be  partial  to  sunflower  (Hc/i- 
anthus ),  and  to  lamb’s  cpiarter  ( Che  nopod  in  w),  and  Bruner 
suspects  it  of  feeding  upon  beets  also. 

The  21  males  in  the  College  collection  vary  -between  18 
mm.  and  22  mm.  in  length  and  the  tegmina  vary  between  5 
mm.  and  7  mm.  The  28  females  vary  between  22  mm.  and  29 
mm.  in  length  and  the  tegmina  vary  between  5  mm.  and  8 
mm. 

HESPEROTETTIX  Scudder. 

coloradensis  Brun.  (See  description  in  article  following  this). 

gillettei  Brun.  (See  description  in  article  following  this).  This  seems 
to  be  a  rare  species  in  Colorado.  After  considerable  searching 
I  took  five  specimens  from  Gutierrezia  euthcimiee  at  Glenwood 
Springs  Sep.  15th,  1903.  The  collection  also  contains  speci¬ 
mens  from  Delta,  Grand  Junction  and  Rifle,  all  points  upon 
the  west  slope.  July  13th  to  Sep.  16th. 


40  BULLETIN  94. 

pratensis  Scudd.  This  is  a  fairly  common,  though  not  an  abundant 
species  over  the  plains  and  lower  foothills  of  eastern  Colorado. 
It  seems  to  be  of  110  economic  importance  as  we  have  only 
recorded  it  feeding  upon  sunflower  ( Helianthus ). 

Our  earliest  were  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  July  6th,  1901, 
and  our  latest  were  taken  at  Greeley,  Oct.  3,  1902.  At 

Rockyford,  July  16,  1901,  this  species  was  just  becoming  adult 
upon  sunflowers.  (Ball).  At  Ft.  Collins  on  June  26  of  the  same 
year  the  nymphs  were  noted  as  being  one-third  grown  (Ball). 

We  have  made  captures  of  this  insect  at  the  following 
points  in  the  State:  Ft.  Collins,  Livermore,  Dutch  George’s, 
Home,  Julesburg,  Merino,  Wray,  Bald*Mt.,  Boulder,  Golden, 
Palmer  Lake,  Colorado  Springs,  Lamar  and  Holly;  also  at 
Kimball  and  Stratton,  Nebraska  (Ball). 

The  greatest  altitude  at  which  we  have  taken  this  species 
is  between  7,000  and  8,000  feet. 

speciosus  Scudd.  This  species  occupies  the  same  regions,  practical¬ 
ly  as  pratensis.  It  extends  over  the  entire  eastern  portion  of 
the  State  to  the  foothills  and  we  have  taken  specimens  at  an 
elevation  of  somewhat  over  6,000  feet  in  the  hills. 

The  native  food-plants  of  this  species  are  sunflower  ( He - 
lianthus )  and  a  closely  related  composite,  Iva  xanthifolia . 
It  is  a  much  more  abundant  grasshopper  than  pratensis. 

This  species  has  been  taken  at  the  following  places:  Ft. 
Collins,  Livermore,  Dutch  George’s,  Sterling,  Julesburg,  Or¬ 
chard,  Wray,  Greeley,  Merino,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Las  Ani¬ 
mas,  Nepesta,  Lamar  and  Holly. 

The  34  males  in  the  collection  vary  between  20  mm.  and 
26  mm.  in  length,  and  the  66  females  vary  between  25  mm. 
and  34  mm.  The  wings  are  variable  in  length  but  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  they  fall  a  little  short  of  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen  in  both  sexes.  Sometimes  they  are  considerably 
shorter  than  the  abdomen  and  occasionally  they  are  slighlty 
longer.  The  males  above  mentioned  have  wings  varying 
between  20  mm.  and  26  mm.  and  the  females  have  wings 
between  13  mm.  and  24  mm.  in  length. 

As  this  grasshopper  feeds  entirely  upon  native  weeds  it 
can  not  be  considered  of  economic  importance. 

viridis  Thom.  This  is  one  of  the  handsomest  and  most  common  of 
the  plains  species  and  occurs  over  all  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  State  up  to  the  base  of  the  foothills,  where  it  is  as  abun- 


*West  of  Loveland  on  Estes  Park  road. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


41 

dant  as  anywhere.  It  extends  into  the  foothills  for  ten  or  fif¬ 
teen  miles  in  places  and  occurs  as  high  as  7,000  feet  in  altitude, 
at  least. 

The  native  food  plants  are  Bigclovia  (rayless  goldenrod) 
and  Gutierrezia  eat  ham  ice. 

We  have  records  of  this  species  in  the  following  places 
within  the  State:  Ft.  Collins,  Dutch  George’s,  Windsor, 
Greeley,  Sterling,  Wray,  Boulder,  Denver,  Colo.  Springs,  Pu¬ 
eblo,  Rockvford,  Das  Animas,  Lamar,  Nepesta  and  Holly. 

Adults  have  been  taken  as  early  as  July  2,  1901,  at  Ft.  Col¬ 
lins  and  they  were  still  abundant  and  mating  freely  at  the  foot¬ 
hills  west  of  the  town  as  late  as  Oct.  8,  1902  (Ball). 

This  species  has  not  acquired,  an  appetite  for  cultivated 
plants  and  its  native  food-plants  are  not  of  economic  value. 

PODISMA  Latreille. 

cfodgei  Thom.  This  is  distinctly  a  mountain  species.  We  have 
taken  it  from  just  inside  the  first  foothills  at  an  altitude  of 
5,500  feet  to  12,000  feet  altitude  upon  the  mountains.  From 
8,000  to  10,000  feet  it  is  a  rather  abundant  species.  Food- 
plants  unknown. 

We  have  taken  this  species  at  the  following  Colorado 
points:  Ft.  Collins  (foothills),  Livermore,  Dutch  George’s, 
Home,  Ward,  North  Park,  Lizard  Head,  Pike’s  Peak  12,000 
feet  (Cockerell)  and  Rico,  as  well  as  at  several  intermediate 
mountain  points. 

We  have  taken  adults  as  early  as  June  i  2,  1900,  near  Ft. 
Collins  and  as  late  as  Sep.  28th,  1898  in  the  same  locality. 

The  75  males  in  the  collection  vary  between  14  mm.  and 
19  mm.  in  length  and  the  95  females  between  21  mm.  and  32 
mm.  The  wings  of  the  males  vary  between  4.5  111111.  and  6.5 
mm.  and  those  of  the  females  vary  between  6  111111.  and  8.5  111m. 

stupefacta  Scudd.  Seventy-three  males  and  80  females  of  this  spe¬ 
cies  were  taken  by  Mr.  Charles  Jones  above  timberline  near 
Silverton,  Colo.,  during  August,  1903.  He  found  this  by  far 
the  most  abundant  grasshopper  above  12,000  feet  altitude  in 
that  vicinitv.  The  hind  tibiae  are  universal lv  red. 

•  j 

AEOLOPLUS  Scudder. 

chtnopodii  Brun.  Taken  at  Grand  Junction  July  7,  1901,  July  29, 
1901,  and  Aug.  29,  1899;  Palisades  July  8,  1901,  and  Delta 
Sept.  23,  1901.  The  food-plant  is  a  common  species  of  A  tri¬ 
plex  that  is  native  upon  the  unirrigated  ground  in  the  neigh- 


42 


BULLETIN  94. 

borhoods  where  the  grasshoppers  were  taken.  This  species  has 
been  found  fairly  common  about  its  food-plant.  Upon  being 
disturbed  the  hoppers  jump  in  among  the  bunches  of 
weeds  and  fall  to  the  ground  where  they  remain  motionless 
for  a  time  and  are  found  with  some  difficulty  as  their  color 
blends  readily  either  with  the  food-plant  or  the  ground. 

The  males  vary  between  14  mm.  and  16  mm.  and  the 
females  between  16  mm.  and  22  mm.  in  length.  The  short 
elytra  of  the  males  vary  little  from  2  ]/2  mm.  and  those  of  the 
females  vary  little  from  3  ^  mm.  in  length.  Twenty-five 
males  and  32  females  examined. 

minor  Brun.  (See  description  following  this  article). 

plagosus  Scudd.  A  few  specimens  of  this  species  were  taken  at 
Delta,  Colo.,  July  13,  ’oi.  They  were  fairly  common  on 
Sarcobatus  sp.  (greasewood),  which  was  growing  abundantly 
on  seepage  ground  about  the  town.  (Gillette.) 

turnbulli  Brun.  This  is  a  common  Species  over  the  plains  region  of 
Colorado  east  of  the  foothills.  Its  chief  food-plants  are  species 
of  Atriplex  and  Russian  thistle.  It  has  been  seen  feeding 
upon  Cleomc  where  its  common  food-plants  were  very  scarce. 
Atriplex  expans a)  A.  canescens  and  white  sage,  Eurotia  lan a /a , 
have  been  specially  noted  as  food  plants  of  this  insect. 

We  have  taken  this  species  at  the  following  points  in 
Colorado:  Ft.  Collins,  Livermore,  Julesburg,  Sterling,  Gree¬ 
ley,  Ft.  Morgan,  Pueblo,  Nepesta,  Rockyford,  Las  Animas 
and  Salida.  The  last  named  point  is  the  only  one  any  dis¬ 
tance  within  the  foothills  where  we  have  taken  this  species 
and  only  occasional  specimens  could  be  found  there. 

The  Colorado  specimens  range  rather  larger  in  size  than 
the  types  described  by  Prof.  Bruner.  The  large  number  of 
specimens  in  the  College  collection  measure  as  follows:  Males 
between  17  nun.  and  20  mm.;  females  between  17  mm.  and 
25  mm.  The  elytra  vary  somewhat  in  length  but  in  nearly 
all  cases  they  exceed  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  in  both  sexes. 
We  have  taken  several  females  with  short  elytra,  about  7  mm. 
in  length,  but  have  taken  no  short-winged  males. 

Adults  have  been  taken  from  June  16  (Rockyford)  to 
October  8  (Ft.  Collins).  The  earliest  that  adults  have  been 
taken  at  Ft.  Collins  is  June  26. 

At  the  latest  date  mentioned,  Oct.  8,  many  of  the  females 
still  had  immature  ova  of  the  second  crop.  (Ball.)  Fourteen 
females  were  dissected  Aug.  19th  and  only  three  seemed  to 
have  deposited  their  first  batch  of  eggs.  (Ball.) 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


43 

This  species,  feeding  almost  exclusively  upon  weeds,  can 
not  be  considered  injurious  at  present  and  is  not  likely  to  be¬ 
come  so  unless  it  turns  its  attention  to  sugar  beets  which  are 
closely  related  to  the  weeds  upon  which  the  hopper  feeds. 

MELANOPLUS  Stal. 

alpinus  Brun.  Taken  between  North  Park  and  Cameron  Pass,  Aug. 
20,  1899.  (Ball.) 

angustipennis  Dodge.  A  single  male  answering  the  description  of  this 
species  has  been  taken  at  Colorado  Springs,  Colo.  It  is  indis¬ 
tinguishable  from  numerous  specimens  of  M.  coccineipes  ex¬ 
cept  for  the  blue  hind  tibiae.  It  seems  probable  that  coccineipes 
is  a  red-legged  var.  of  angustipennis. 

atlanis  Riley.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  generally  distributed 
species  of  locust  in  Colorado.  It  may  almost  be  said  to  occur 
everywhere  up  to  an  altitude  of  8,500  feet.  Adults  may  be 
seen  from  about  the  20th  of  June  until  after  there  have  been 
several  heavy  frosts  in  the  fall.  This  species  is  extremely 
variable  in  size  and  coloration.  The  lighter  colored  individ¬ 
uals  have  head,  body  and  legs,  except  hind  tibiae,  pale  yel¬ 
lowish  to  rusty  brown  in  color  and  even  the  elytra  may  par¬ 
take  of  the  color  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  latter  may  be 
conspicuously  flecked  with  dusky  spots  or  the  dark  spots  may 
be  entirely  wanting.  The  light  colored  specimens  are  more 
prevalent  in  the  lower  warmer  areas  and  early  in  the  season 
and  it  is  in  the  lower  altitudes  that  the  species  attains  its 
largest  size.  Specimens  taken  at  7,000  feet  altitude  and 
higher  are  nearly  all  small,  dark-colored  and  without  distinct 
markings.  A  common  range  in  size  between  the  small  dark 
males  of  high  altitudes  and  the  larger  ones  of  the  eastern  por¬ 
tion  of  the  State  is  from  16.5  mm.  to  26  111111.,  and  the  females 
range  between  22  mm.  and  27  mm.  This  insect  does  its  injur¬ 
ies  very  largely  to  the  native  pastures  though  it  is  not  averse 
to  feeding  upon  various  cultivated  crops.  It  is  certainly  one  of 
the  most  destructive  grasshoppers  to  the  native  range  pastures 
of  the  State. 

At  Ft.  Collins,  adults  have  been  taken  from  June  22nd 
to  November  nth.  Many  of  the  females  taken  011  the 
latter  date,  1902,  still  contained  their  second  pod  of  eggs  un¬ 
deposited  (Gillette).  On  July  26,  1901,  a  number  of  females 
were  dissected  at  Ft.  Collins  and  none  of  them  had  the  first 
pod  of  eggs  sufficiently  matured  for  deposition  (Ball).  This 
species  is  evidently  single  brooded. 

We  have  taken  this  species  at  the  following  points  with¬ 
in  the  State:  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Dutch  George’s,  Diver- 


44 


BULLETIN  94. 

more,  Stove  Prairie,  North  Park,  Pike’s  Peak  at  1,000  feet 
(Cockerell),  Windsor,  Greeley,  Merino,  Wray,  Ft.  Morgan 
Jnlesbnrg,  Boulder,  Lafayette,  Denver,  Palmer  Lake,  Canon 
City,  Nepesta,  Rockyford,  Lamar,  Holly,  Trinidad,  Colorado 
Springs,  Salida,  Bnena  Vista,  Gunnison,  Delta,  Paonia,  Grand 
Junction,  Palisades,  Durango  and  Steamboat  Springs. 

It  seems  probable  that  some  of  the  reported  occurrences 
of  Melanoplus  spretus  should  have  been  referred  to  this  species. 

bivittatus  Say.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  injurious  grasshopper 
in  Colorado.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  insect  causes  heavier  annual 
loss  to  the  State.  It  is  nearly,  and  perhaps  quite  as  widely 
distributed  as  femur-}  ubrum.  Its  large  size  and  great  num¬ 
bers  and  its  appetite  for  cultivated  plants  of  nearly  every  kind, 
make  it  very  destructive.  It  is  especially  numerous  in  the 
alfalfa  fields  of  the  irrigated  region  near  the  foothills.  To¬ 
wards  the  eastern  border  of  the  State  it  is  often  out  numbered 
by  differ  entialis.  It  is  also  abundant  in  the  alfalfa  and  grain 
fields  of  the  western  slope  and  sometimes  defoliates  fruit  trees 
when  orchards  are  not  kept  cultivated  or  when  they  are  along¬ 
side  of  alfalfa  or  pasture  land. 

This  species  is  capable  of  subsisting  upon  almost  any 
cultivated  crop.  We  have  noted  the  following  food  plants: 
Alfalfa,  red  clover,  grass,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  fruit  trees 
in  general,  cabbages,  beets,  potatoes  and  onions. 

It  has  a  strong  tendency  to  climb  tall  plants  and  fence 
posts  to  rest  for  the  night.  The  injuries  are  usually  worst 
about  the  borders  of  fields. 

There  is  comparatively  little  variation  in  the  coloration 
of  this  species.  The  two  yellow  lines  upon  the  elytra  seem 
always  to  be  present  as  a  distinguishing  characteristic;  the 
head  and  pronotum  are  occasionally  almost  entirely  pale  yel¬ 
low  in  color.  In  size  and  in  wing-length  this  species  varies 
widely.  Males  of  long  winged  specimens  vary  between  21 
mm.  and  33  mm.  in  length  and  the  females  between  27  mm. 
and  41  mm.  The  majority  of  the  specimens  have  elytra  ex¬ 
ceeding  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  but  individuals  with  abbre¬ 
viated  wings  are  common  and  it  is  not  very  infrequent  that 
they  do  not  cover  more  that  two-thirds  of  the  abdomen. 
There  are  small  males  in  the  collection  with  elytra  only  7.5 
mm.  long.  As  in  femur-rubrum ,  the  short  winged  individ¬ 
uals  average  smaller  than  those  having  long  wings. 

The  earliest  we  have  taken  adults  at  Ft.  Collins  was  June 
12,  1900.  June  21,  1901,  a  single  male  was  found,  and  on 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


45 

the  26th  of  the  same  month  adnlt  males  were  quite  common 
(Ball).  There  is  but  one  brood,  as  with  all  our  Melanopli,  but 
many  of  the  eggs  hatch  late  so  that  small  nymphs  are  seen  af¬ 
ter  many  are  adults.  November  1 1,  1902,  numerous  females 
were  seen  at  Ft.  Collins  and  some  of  these  had  ova  that  were 
still  immature  (Gillette).  Sept.  2,  1902,  at  Ft.  Collins,  occa¬ 
sional  nymphs  were  seen  and  dissection  of  adult  females 
showed  that  only  about  half  of  them  had  deposited  the  first 
pod  of  eggs.  (Ball.) 

We  have  recorded  the  species  from  the  following  places: 
Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Livermore,  Steamboat  Springs,  Eddy, 
Greeley,  Sterling,  Merino,  Julesburg,  Denver,  Golden,  Colo¬ 
rado  Springs,  Pueblo,  Canon  City,  Lajunta,  Rockyford, 
Lamar,  Salida,  Alder,  Antonito,  Delta,  Grand  Junction  and 
Palmer  Lake. 

All  the  specimens  in  the  collection  have  blue  hind  tibiae 
and  I  do  not  remember  certainly  to  have  seen  the  form  (or 
species)  with  red  hind  tibiae  in  Colorado.  It  seems  to  me  I 
have,  but  if  so,  the  red-legged  ones  are  only  of  occasional  oc¬ 
currence. 

bowditchi  Scudd.  A  common  species  in  the  southern  portion  of 
Colorado  east  of  the  foothills,  and  occurring  in  small  numbers 
in  the  northern  portion  also.  In  the  north  it  is  largely  re¬ 
placed  by  a  closely  allied  species  M.  flavidus.  It  is  distinc¬ 
tively  a  plains  species,  and,  so  far  as  is  known,  confines  its  in¬ 
juries  to  the  native  plants.  We  have  found  this  species  spe¬ 
cially  abundant  along  the  Arkansas  valley.  Our  dates  of 
capture  range  between  June  17th,  1900,  at  Lamar  and  Sept. 
10th,  1898,  in  the  same  place  (Ball).  PLod-plants  unknown. 

The  males  vary  between  22  nun.  and  25  111111.  and  the 
large  females  measure  30  mm.  This  species  is  readily  sepa¬ 
rated  from  flavidus  by  its  shorter  antennae(  only  1 1  mm. long  in 
the  males)  and  by  the  presence  of  the  black  post-ocular  band. 
It  is  also  smaller  and  less  robust  as  taken  in  Colorado.  The 
fucula  vary  much  in  form  at  their  tips.  They  may  be  trun¬ 
cate,  cut  diagonally,  rounded,  or  slightly  hooked,  and  two  of 
these  forms  may  occur  on  the  same  grasshopper. 

Taken  at  the  following  places:  PL  Collins,  LaSalle, 
Greeley,  Timnath,  Rockyford,  Lamar  and  Colorado  Springs, 
also  at  Kimball  and  Stratton  in  Nebraska.  (Ball.) 

coccineipes  Scudd.  This  species  occurs  in  moderate  numbers  over 
the  entire  plains  region  of  Colorado  and  extends  for  some 
distance  into  the  foothills.  It  varies  in  color  from  a  dark 


46 


bulletin  94. 

fuscous  brown  to  almost  a  uniform  and  rather  light  rust-yel¬ 
low.  The  lighter  colored  specimens  occur  mostly  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  State.  The  post-ocular  stripe  varies 
from  a  broad  and  distinct  black  band  to  none.  The  subgeni¬ 
tal  plate  is  usually  notched  but  in  some  specimens  it  is  trun¬ 
cate.  It  seems  quite  probable  to  me  that  this  species  is  noth¬ 
ing  more  than  a  form  of  cingustipennis  having  red  hind  tibiae. 

The  males  we  have  taken  vary  between  19  mm.  and  24 
mm.  in  length.  The  females  resemble  allied  species  so  closely 
that  it  is  difficult  or  even  impossible  to  distinguish  them. 

The  only  native  food-plant  we  have  recorded  for  this 
species  is  Artemisia  jilifolia.  We  have  also  taken  it  common 
on  alfalfa  and  on  young  apple  and  plum  trees. 

Specimens  have  been  taken  at  the  following  places:  Ft. 
Collins  (common),  Laporte,  Livermore,  Dutch  George’s,  Tim- 
nath,  Greeley,  Orchard,  Julesburg,  LaSalle,  Boulder,  Pueblo, 
Colorado  Springs,  Canon  City,  Lamar  and  Holly.  Adult 
males  and  females  have  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins  as  early  a* 
July  10,  1901,  and  as  late  as  October  12,  1898. 

comptus  Scudd.  We  have  a  half  dozen  specimens  of  what  seem  to 
be  M .  coccineipes  except  that  the  furcula  are  nearly  straight 
and  but  little  diverging.  So,  while  I  should  consider  these 
as  varieties  of  coccineipes  I  list  them  here  because  they  seem 
to  correspond  better  with  the  form  that  has  been  described  as 
comptus .  The  specimens  were  all  taken  near  Ft.  Collins 
where  we  have  done  most  of  our  collecting  for  M.  coccineipes . 

conspersus  Scudd.  This  species  occurs  over  the  eastern  plains  and 
in  the  mountain  parks  of  the  eastern  slope  to  an  elevation  of 
something  over  8,000  feet.  The  species  was  found  fairly 
common,  for  example,  near  Alder  at  an  altitude  of  8,500  feet 
on  native  grass  land.  It  occurs  most  abundantly,  however, 
on  the  grassy  slopes  of  the  foothills  and  upon  the  plains  just 
outside  the  hills.  While  this  locust  has  been  found  chiefly 
upon  native  grass-pasture  land  it  has  also  been  noted  as  feed¬ 
ing  upon  cabbages  and  alfalfa  in  moderate  numbers.  So  the 
species  is  doubtless  capable  of  adapting  itself  to  a  diet  of  cul¬ 
tivated  plants  if  its  supply  of  native  food-plants  should  run 
short.  It  probably  causes  considerable  damage  where  abund¬ 
ant  upon  native  pasture  land. 

Our  earliest  capture  of  an  adult  of  this  species  was  at 
Greeley,  July  13,  1898.  But  very  few  adults  have  been  taken 
before  Aug.  5th.  Our  latest  capture  was  at  Julesburg,  Nov. 
8,  1902. 


bulletin  94.  47 

We  have  taken  specimens  at  the  following  points:  Ft. Col¬ 
lins,  Livermore,  Windsor,  Greeley,  Julesburg,  Boulder,  Den¬ 
ver,  Palmer  Lake,  Pueblo,  Trinidad,  Antonito,  Alder,  Salida 
and  Buena  Vista;  and  at  altitudes  varying  between  4,500  and 
8,500  feet.  The  high  altitude  specimens  are  smaller  in  size, 
darker  in  color  and  could  easily  be  taken  for  a  different  spe¬ 
cies  from  the  brownish  testaceous  form  found  in  the  lower 
altitudes. 

The  small  males  from  high  altitudes  measure  as  small  as 
16  mm.  in  length  while  the  largest  from  lower  altitudes  meas¬ 
ure  as  high  as  24  mm.  The  females  measure  between  18 
mm.  and  27  mm. 

cuneatus  Bruner.  See  Melanoplus  occidehtalis . 

dawsoni  Scudd.  Our  collections  indicate  that  this  species  is  con¬ 
fined  to  the  foothills  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains. 
It  is  not  an  abundant  species  but  we  have  taken  it  from  the 
border  of  the  plains  next  the  first  foothills  to  an  altitude  of 
8,000  feet.  Specimens  have  been  taken  as  far  south  as  Palm¬ 
er  Lake.  It  is  most  common  on  the  dry  slopes  of  the  lower 
foothills.  The  long  winged  form  has  not  been  taken. 

Males  vary  in  length  between  14  mm.  and  17  mm.  and 
their  elytra  between  4.5  mm.  and  6  mm.  The  females  vary 
in  length  between  18  mm.  and  20  mm.  and  their  elytra  be¬ 
tween  5  mm.  and  7  mm.  Measurements  upon  25  males  and 
31  females. 

Specimens  have  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins  (at  foothills), 
Dutch  George’s,  Steamboat  Springs,  Pinewood,  Boulder  and 
Palmer  Lake. 

devastator  Scudd.  Two  locusts  taken  at  Steamboat  Springs  July 
26th,  1891,  were  determined  by  Dr.  Scudder  as  belonging  to 
this  species  with  a  question  mark  attached.  Altitude  about 
7,000  feet. 

differentialis  Uhl.  This  is  an  abundant  and  very  destructive  species 
in  the  lower  altitudes  of  the  State,  especially  where  there  is 
plenty  of  moisture.  Plxcept  for  the  black  markings  of  the 
posterior  femora  this  species  has  no  conspicuous  markings 
but  it  varies  much  in  color.  I11  the  warmer  portions  of  the 
State  the  prevailing  color  is  a  light  yellowish  brown  while  in 
the  higher  and  cooler  portion  the  prevailing  color  is  very 
much  darker.  In  all  places  where  the  species  occurs  in  the 
State  there  are  occasional  or  frequent  individuals  that  are 
black,  except  for  yellow  bands  upon  the  legs,  and  sometimes 
light  posterior  lateral  margins' to  the  pronotum. 


48 


bulletin  94. 

This  locust  is  a  very  general  feeder,  particularly  upon 
cultivated  plants.  Those  we  have  noted  are:  alfalfa,  corn, 
Kaffir  corn,  wheat,  oats,  leaves  of  apple,  peach  and  plum  and 
sugar  beets. 

The  males  taken  vary  between  27  mm.  and  35  mm,  and 
the  females  vary  between  31  mm.  and  42  mm.  We  have  re¬ 
corded  'lie  species  from  the  following  places:  Ft.  Collins, 
Windsor,  Greeley,  Merino,  Julesburg,  Loveland,  Sterling,  La- 
porte,  Boulder,  Pueblo,  Colorado  Springs,  Canon  City,  Las- 
Animas,  Rockyford,  Lamar,  Delta  and  Grand  Junction.  This 
species  has  been  most  abundant  along  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  State  and  at  Grand  Junction.  We  have  not  taken  speci¬ 
mens  above  5,500  feet ’altitude. 

This  species  is  rather  late  in  maturing.  A  few  adults 
were  seen  at  Pueblo  July  15th,  1901,  and  a  few  at  Rockyford 
July  1 6th  1901  (Ball).  The  earliest  adults  at  Ft. Collins  were 
taken  July  21,  1901.  At  Merino  Aug.  8,  1902,  females 
were  not  ready  to  oviposit.  Females  taken  Nov.  11,  1902, 
still  contained  immature  ova. 

dimidipennis  Brun.  (See  description  following  this  article). 

fasciatus  Barnst.  This  species  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  moun¬ 
tains  and  chiefly  to  high  altitudes.  Our  specimens  have  come 
from  twol  ocations, Marshall  Pass  and  Ward,  at  altitudes  vary¬ 
ing  between  10,000  and  11,000  feet,  except  a  single  specimen 
taken  in  the  foothills  a  few  miles  west  of  Ft.  Collins  at  an 
altitude  of  8,000  feet.  I  wonder  if  this  mountain  species  can 
be  identical  with  the  fasciatus  of  the  New  England  states. 
It  is  certainly  a  native  of  the  high  mountain  ranges  in  Colo¬ 
rado  where  it  occurs  very  sparingly. 

The  males  vary  between  15.5  mm.  and  18  mm.  in  length 
and  the  females  between  18  mm.  and  21  mm. 

All  the  specimens  taken  are  short-winged,  belonging  to 
variety  curtus. 

fcmur-rubrum  DeGeer.  This  is,  next  to  atlanis ,  the  most  generally 
destributed  of  any  species  of  Melanoplus  in  Colorado.  Next 
to  bivittatus ,  it  is  probably  the  most  injurious  species  though 
dijferentialis  is  more  injurious  where  it  is  most  abundant.  It 
occurs  on  both  the  eastern  and  the  western  slopes  and  in  the 
mountains  to  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet.  The  species  is  ex- 
tremelv  variable  in  color.  The  almost  unicolorous  fuscous- 

j 

brown  form  that  is  common  in  the  eastern  states  is  not  the 
prevailing  form  here.  The  abdomen  and  all  of  the  under 
surface  is  usually  distinctly  yellow.  The  lower  part  of  the 


BULLETIN  94.  49 

face,  an  area  at  the  base  of  each  antenna,  a  patch  beneath  and 
posterior  to  the  compound  eyes  and  a  narrow  line  above  each 
black  post-ocular  stripe,  and  often  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
occiput, also, are  yellow.  Sometimes  the  entire  head, except  the 
compound  eyes, the  vertex  and  the  post-ocular  stripes, is  yellow. 
The  pronotum  may  be  entirely  dark  fuscous  with  a  broad  black 
band  on  the  prozona  on  either  side,  or  the  sides  of  the  prono¬ 
tum  may  be  partly  or  entirely  yellow  outside  of  the  black 
band  of  the  prozona.  The  disk  of  the  pronotum  may  be  en¬ 
tirely  yellow,  or  entirely  rufous  or  it  may  be  dark  at  the  sides 
with  a  yellow  or  rufous  median  stripe  of  varying  breadth. 
The  femora  may  be  yellowish  shaded  with  dusky  or  they  may 
be  distinctly  tinged  with  red.  The  hind  femora  may  be 
dusky  brown  above  with  the  lower  half  of  the  outer  face  yel¬ 
low,  or  the  outer  face  may  be  dusky  brown  throughout.  In 
others  the  outer  face  is  dusky  brown  with  a  vellow  or  even  a 

w  w 

reddish  margin.  In  still  others,  and  these  are  not  uncommon, 
the  dark  parts  of  the  femora  are  blue  or  bluish-green  in  color. 
In  some  the  color  is  a  deep  steel  ‘blue.  When  these  blue 
colors  occur  on  the  femora,  the  dark  parts  of  head, thorax  and 
elytra  partake  of  the  same  tint.  Those  most  highly  colored 
with  the  blue  often  have  the  hind  tibiae  tinted  with  the  same 
color.  These  highly  colored  forms  are  among  our  handsom¬ 
est  grasshoppers  and  seem  at  first  quite  unlike  the  somber 
colored  femur-rubrum  as  commonly  described  and  seen  in  the 
east  and  yet  there  is  so  complete  a  gradation  of  forms  between 
the  extremes  of  coloration  that  I  have  not  been  able  to  sepa¬ 
rate  out  a  distinct  variety.  It  seems  probable  that  these  blue 
colored  forms  are  what  Dodge  described  as  plumbeus.  In 
fact  he  suggests  that  plumbeus  may  be  only  a  local  variety  of 
femur-rubrum.  At  least  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  char¬ 
acters  that  will  hold  to  separate  typical  form  of  plumbeus 
from  these  highly  colored  forms  of  femur-rubrum. 

The  males  we  have  taken  vary  between  17  mm.  and  26 
mm.  in  length  and  the  females  between  20  mm.  and  26  mm. 
These  are  common  variations.  Occasionally  a  specimen  is 
taken  that  seems  abnormally  small.  This  is  especially  true 
of  occasional  short-winged  specimens  that  we  have  taken. 

Shorl-winged  form .  We  have  taken  specimens  of  a  short¬ 
winged  form  of  this  species,  mostly  in  shaded  places.  The 
elytra  in  these  have  been  between  6  •mm.  and  7  mm.  in  length 
and  reach  a  little  beyond  the  middle  of  the  abdomen.  The 
males  of  this  form  have  measured  between  12  mm.  and  16 
mm.  in  length  and  the  females  about  18  mm.  These  were 
mostly  taken  by  Prof.  Ball. 


50 


bulletin  94. 

The  above  is  written  up  from  190  males  and  100  females 
of  the  lonof-wiimed  form  and  seven  males  and  one  female  of 

o  o 

the  short-winged  form. 

The  food-plants  we  have  recorded  for  this  species  are: 
alfalfa,  wheat,  oats,  corn,  potatoes,  beets,  foliage  of  fruit  trees 
and  cabbage. 

We  have  taken  specimens  at  the  following  places:  Ft. 
Collins,  Laporte,  Livermore,  Virginia  Dale,  Windsor,  Greeley, 
Merino,  Ft.  Morgan,  Julesburg,  Snyder,  Orchard,  Boulder, 
Denver,  Palmer  Lake,  Pueblo,  Canon  City,  Colorado  Springs, 
Las  Animas,  Rocky  ford,  Lamar,  Antonito,  Salida,  Gunnison, 
Ridgway,  Delta,  Paonia,  Grand  Junction,  Palisades  and  Hay¬ 
den. 

The  earliest  that  an  adult  has  been  found  at  Ft.  Collins 
was  June  26,  1901,  (Ball).  Ordinary  years  very  few  adults 
can  be  found  before  the  15th  of  July.  Females  taken  Nov. 
11,  1902,  still  contained  immature  ova. 

flabelUfer  Scudd.  See  Occident  alis. 

flabellifer  var.  brevipennis .  See  description  in  following  article. 

flavldus  Scudd.  This  is  also  a  plains  species  and  occurs  sparingly 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State.  It  is  abundant  upon 
grass  pastures  along  the  foothills  and  upon  the  plains  near 
Ft.  Collins  and  has  been  taken  feeding  upon  alfalfa,  cabbages, 
leaves  of  plum  and  cherry  trees  and  upon  Artemisia  trifolia , 
so  that,  whenever  a  food  supply  of  native  plants  becomes 
scarce,  this  species  is  likely  to  become  seriously  injurious  to 
cultivated  crops. 

This  species  is  somewhat  larger  than  bowditchi ,  the  males 
ranging  from  23  mm.  to  26  mm.  in  length  and  the  larger  fe¬ 
males  measure  as  much  as  32  mm.  The  antennae  of  the  males 
measure  14  mm.  These  dimensions  are  somewhat  greater 
than  those  given  for  the  types.  We  have  taken  adults  at  Ft. 
Collins  from  July  19th,  1902,  till  Sept.  19th,  1898. 

Taken  at  the  following  points:  Ft.  Collins,  Timnath, 
Greeley,  Julesburg,  and  a  single  specimen  at  Lamar. 

The  furculae  of  the  male  vary  about  the  same  as  in  bow¬ 
ditchi. 

gillettei  Scudd.  Marshall  Pass,  Aug.  23,  1896  (Ac.  2260),  and  Aug. 
27,  1899;  Cameron  Pass,  Aug.  19  and  20,1899;  Little  Beaver, 
July  1 7,  1898. 

This  species  has  been  found  at  high  altitudes  only.  It 
was  fairly  common  Aug.  27th  on  Marshall  Pass  between 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  5 1 

11,000  and  12,000  feet  altitude  and  was  taken  between  10,500 
and  12,500  feet  in  altitude.  Food-plants  not  known. 

glaucipes  Scudd.  The  collection  contains  16  males  and  22  females 
taken  at  Wray,  Pueblo  and  Nepesta.  The  males  vary  be¬ 
tween  1 7  and  20  min.,  and  the  females  between  20  and  27 
mm.  in  length.  See  Melanoplus  simplex. 

infantilis  Scudd.  This  is  the  smallest  of  our  Melanopli  and  is  a 
mountain  and  high  plains  species  in  this  State.  It  seems  to 
prefer  grassy  areas  in  exposed  places  and  may  commonly  be 
found  in  the  grassy  mountain  parks  to  an  altitude  of  8,000 
feet  at  least.  We  have  not  seen  the  species  much  higher  than 
this.  The  earliest  adults  at  PAt.  Collins  were  taken  June  21st, 
1901  (Ball).  The  latest  we  have  taken  the  species  is  Oct. 

1 2th,  1898. 

Our  specimens  vary  in  size  as  follows:  Males  from  13 
mm.  to  19  mm.  and  females  from  15  mm.  to  21  mm. 

We  have  taken  specimens  at  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Liver¬ 
more,  Dunkley,  Idlewild,  Dutch  George’s,  Virginia  Dale, 
North  Park,  Denver,  Palmer  Lake,  Pneblo,  Alder,  Estes  Park, 
Durango  and  Gunnison,  and  at  Kimball,  Neb.  It  doubtless 
occurs  east  across  the  plains  of  the  northern  portion  of  the 
State. 

It  is  hardly  abundant  enough  to  be  considered  an  injur¬ 
ious  species  in  Colorado. 

kennicotfii  Scudd.  Marshall  Pass,  Aug.  27,  1899;  Durango,  Aug.  7, 
1899;  Chama  (N.  M.),  Aug.  8,  1899;  Ward,  Aug.  30,  1899. 
The  lowest  we  have  taken  this  species  was  at  about  6,500  feet 
feet  at  Durango.  At  Chama, (N.M.), it  was  taken  at  the  station, 
7,863  feet,  while  at  Ward  and  at  Marshall  Pass  specimens 
were  taken  between  10,000  and  11,000  feet  altitude.  The 
species  has  not  been  found  abundant  anywhere. 

lakinus  Scudd.  This  is  distinctly  a  plains  species  occurring  all  over 
the  eastern  portions  of  the  State  to  the  first  foothills.  It  is 
common  on  ground  covered  by  native  grasses  upon  which  it 
is  supposed  to  feed  though  we  have  no  positive  evidence  upon 
this  point.  It  has  been  noted  as  feeding  upon  sugar  beets 
and  Russian  thistle  (Ball)  and  is  usually  common  where  tum¬ 
ble-weeds  grow. 

The  species  occurs  in  both  long-and  short-winged  forms, 
the  latter  being  by  far,  more  common.  Out  of  the  225  speci¬ 
mens  in  the  College  collection  there  are  12  macropterous  males 
and  7  macropterous  females. 


52 


bulletin  94. 

The  males  vary  in  length  between  14  mm.  and  23  mm. 
and  the  females  between  20  mm.  and  26  mm.  The  elytra  in 
the  brachypterons  forms  vary  between  4  mm.  and  7  mm.  in 
length  in  both  sexes. 

The  maeropterous  form  has  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins, 
Jnlesbnrg,  Holly  and  Pueblo.  The  short-winged  form  has 
been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins,  Jnlesbnrg,  Wray,  Sterling,  Greeley, 
Colorado  Springs,  Pueblo,  Canon  City,  Trinidad,  Nepesta, 
Rockyford,  Lajunta,  Lamar  and  Holly. 

This  species  varies  widely  in  size  and  coloration  in  Colo¬ 
rado.  In  some  the  yellowish-brown  prevails,  even  upon  the 
elytra  and  pronotnm ;  in  others  a  decided  greenish-yellow  tint 
occurs  011  the  same  parts.  At  the  other  extreme  there  are 
those  that  are  quite  uniformly  dark  fuscous  so  that  even  the 
dark  bands  of  the  femora  are  hardly  discernable.  I  am  unable 
to  find  any  constant  characters  separating  this  species  from 
type  specimens  of  M.  marculentus  from  Mexico  that  are  in 
the  College  collection. 

luridus  Dodge.  An  abundant  species  in  northern  Colorado  east  of 
the  mountains.  It  seems  to  be  most  numerous  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  foothills  but  does  not  extend  far  into  the  hills.  The 
native  food-plant  is  Artemisia  dracu ncu loides .  The  nymphs 
with  their  genae  and  sides  of  the  pronotum  (except  a  white 
median  line  on  the  latter)  black,  make  conspicuous  objects 
upon  the  stems  of  the  food-plant.  This  species  takes  readily 
to  some  of  the  cultivated  plants  also.  We  have  noted  it  feed¬ 
ing  upon  alfalfa,  cabbages  and  leaves  of  plum  and  apple  trees. 

In  size  the  males  vary  between  19  mm.  and  21  mm.  and 
the  females  between  20  mm.  and  26  mm.  Measurements  from 
61  males  and  24  females. 

Adult  males  were  just  beginning  to  appear  July  22  at  Ft. 
Collins  in  1901  (Ball).  They  were  abundant  at  Laporte  Sep. 
30,  1899,  and  specimens  have  been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins  as  late 
as  Oct.  23,  1901. 

This  species  has  also  been  noted  as  feeding  upon  Aige- 
loz'ia  (Ball). 

But  few  females  were  ready  to  lay  eggs  Sep.  8,  1902 (Ball). 

We  have  taken  this  species  at  the  following  places:  Ft. 
Collins  (abundant  upon  dry  ground),  Laporte,  Livermore, 
Ft.  Morgan,  Colorado  Springs  and  Boulder. 

minor  Scudd.  This  is  not  an  abundant  species  in  Colorado  but  oc¬ 
curs  in  moderate  numbers  in  the  north-eastern  portion  over 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


53 

the  plains  and  for  a  considerable  distance  into  the  foothills. 
In  fact  it  seems  to  prefer  the  slopes  of  the  lower  foothills 
and  the  plains  near  them.  We  have  found  it  in  places 
rather  common  on  alfalfa  and  have  frequently  noted  the  species 
upon  blue-grass  (. Agropyrum  glaucum )  and  rush-grass  {Spo- 
robolus  crypt  andrus). 

This  is  also  the  earliest  of  the  Melanopli  to  mature.  We 
have  taken  adults  fairly  common  at  the  foothills  near  Ft.  Col- 
„  lins  on  June  6th,  1902  (Ball) .  The  latest  that  we  have  taken 
adults  is  Aug.  22,  1902  at  Ft.  Collins.  This  species  occurs 
as  far  south  as  Pueblo,  at  least.  It  has  been  taken  at  the  fol¬ 
lowing  points:  Ft.  Collins,  Laporte,  Livermore,  Julesburg, 
Wray,  Denver,  Palmer  Lakte  and  Pueblo. 

Our  males  vary  in  size  between  17  mm.  and  20  mm.  and 
the  females  between  23  mm.  and  26  mm. 

Specimens  have  been  taken  at  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet  in 
the  foothills. 

monticola  Bran.  Three  males  and  one  female  from  Windy  Point, 
Pike’s  Peak,  at  an  altitude  of  about  12,000  feet,  Sep.  17th, 
I9°3  (Cockerell). 

occidentals  Thom.  This  is  a  common  and  wide  spread  species.  It 
seems  to  occur  over  the  entire  plains  region  from  north  to 
south.  It  is  common  among  the  lower  foothills  and  upon 
grassy  areas  in  the  mountains  to  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet,  at 
least.  In  the  lower  altitudes  the  males  vary  commonly  between 
19  mm.  and  22  mm.  in  length  and  the  females  between  19 
mm.  and  24  mm.  Specimens  taken  at  higher  altitudes,  as  at 
Dolores,  Durango  and  Buena  Vista,  are  decidedly  smaller  and 
darker  in  color.  The  males  from  these  higher  altitudes  meas¬ 
ure  between  15  mm.  and  18  mm.  and  the  females  between  17 
mm.  and  19  mm. 

Adults  have  been  taken  as  early  as  June  17th  at  Ft.  Col¬ 
lins,  1898,  and  at  Lamar  1900  (Ball).  At  Ft.  Collins  there  is 
very  little  mating  before  the  first  of  August  and  males  have 
been  taken  as  late  as  September  12th.  There  is  but  one 
brood.  Food-plant  not  known. 

We  have  taken  this  species  at  Ft.  Collins,  Livermore, 
McCoy,  Dutch  George’s,  Wray,  Sterling,  Snyder,  Greeley, 
Denver,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Las  Animas,  Lamar,  Trinidad, 
Buena  Vista,  Durango,  Gunnison,  Antonito  and  Dolores,  and 
at  Kimball  and  Stratton  in  Nebraska. 

The  cerci  of  the  males  of  this  species  vary  consid¬ 
erably  in  form,  the  extremes  resembling  very  closely,  if  they 


54 


BULLETIN  94. 

are  not  identical,  with  the  forms  described  for  flabellifer  and 
cuneatus ,  but  with  such  imperceptible  gradations  that  I 
have  been  unable  to  recognize  either  of  these  species  as  sepa¬ 
rate  from  Occident alis  in  our  collections. 

The  pevailing  form  of  cercus  in  Colorado  is  that  shown 
in  Plate  X,  PAig.  6  of  Dr.  Scudder’s  “Revision  of  the  Melano- 
pli,”  and  this  is  the  form  that  agrees  with  Thomas’  original 
description  of  occidentals . 

Packard*;  Scudd.  This  is  a  common  species  over  all  the  eastern  por¬ 
tion  of  the  State  to  the  foothills  and  it  also  occurs  in  the 
grassy  glades  and  mountain  parks  of  the  eastern  slope  to  an 
altitude  of  8,000  feet  or  more.  It  would  be  difficult  to  say 
whether  the  species  is  more  abundant  on  the  level  prairie  or 
upon  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  low  hills.  It  seems  to  be 
everywhere  on  land  covered  with  native  grasses,  but  that  the 
grasses  are  its  food-plants  is  an  inference.  This  species  is  not 
uncommon  in  alfalfa  fields  and  has  been  noted  by  us  as  feeding 
upon  cabbages.  The  species  is  so  large  and  abundant  it  must 
do  considerable  damage  to  native  pasture  land. 

Males  were  just  beginning  to  mature  at  Ft.  Collins,  June 
29,  1901,  and  occasional  adults  were  noticed  in  the  same  lo¬ 
cality  Oct.  8,  1902.  (Ball.)  Our  adults  were  taken  at  Gree¬ 
ley  June  24,  1899. 

The  species  varies  in  Colorado  from  a  light  rusty  brown 
to  a  rather  dark  brown  with  more  or  less  distinct  lighter 
stripes  on  the  lateral  margins  of  the  dorsum  of  the  pronotum. 
In  some  of  the  darker  specimens  these  lines  are  obsolete. 

In  length,  the  males  vary  between  23  mm.  and  29  111m. 
and  the  females  between  23  mm.  and  33  mm.  Among  the 
127  specimens  in  the  College  collection  there  are  33  males 
and  21  females  with  blue  hind  tibiae  and  36  males  and  37  fe¬ 
males  with  red  hind  tibiae. 

This  grasshopper  has  been  taken  in  the  following  locali¬ 
ties  in  Colorado:  Ft.  Collins,  Dutch  George’s,  Livermore, 
Julesburg,  Sterling,  Orchard,  Wray,  Greeley,  Windsor,  Estes 
Park,  Boulder,  Lafayette,  Denver,  Palmer  Lake,  Pinewood, 
Durango,  Rocky  ford,  Lamar  and  Holly. 

regalis  Dodge.  A  few  specimens  of  this  species  were  all  taken  by 
Mr.  Ball.  One  specimen  from  Ft.  Collins,  August  14,  and 
specimens  from  Plolly,  Lamar  and  LasAnimas  bearing  dates 
July  18  and  September  8.  Specimens  determined  by  Prof. 
Bruner. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


55 


This  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  onr  Melanopli  and  is 
very  different  from  the  species  of  AeolopLus  that  has  been 
supposed  to  be  Dodge’s  re  gal  is . 

This  species  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  sanguineous 

Bruner. 

sanguineus  Brun.  (See  description  in  article  following  this).  A  few 
specimens  only  and  all  from  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
State.  The  localities  are  Holly,  Bamar,  Bas  Animas  and 
Rockyford.  Dates,  July  17th  to  Sep.  14th  (Ball).  In  general 
appearance  closely  resembling  r  eg  alls. 

simplex  Scudd.  Two  males  have  been  taken  in  the  Arkansas  Val¬ 
ley,  one  at  Holly,  Sep.  8,  1898,  and  one  at  Nepesta,  Aug.  6, 
1900  (Ball).  The  first  measures  17  mm.  and  the  second  19 
mm.  Tegmina  of  male  from  Holly  8  mm.  and  of  the  one 
from  Nepesta  13  mm.  The  latter  specimen  has  blue  hind 
tibiae  and  may  belong  to glaucipes,  but  aside  from  the  longer 
elytra  and  the  different  colors  of  the  tibiae,  and  the  difference 
in  size,  the  two  specimens  appear  to  be  identical.  This  spe¬ 
cies  seems  a  very  close  relative  of  glaucipes  but  in  general  ap¬ 
pearance,  as  we  have  them  determined,  glaucipes  is  more 
slender  and  with  the  male  abdomen  nearly  straight,  while 
in  simplex  the  male  abdomen  is  strongly  upturned  at  the  end. 

spretus  Uhl.  I  cannot  help  suspecting  that  some  of  the  reported 
occurences  of  this  species  have  been  from  specimens  of  atla- 
nis.  During  thirteen  years  of  collecting  in  Colorado,  and  we 
have  done  a  large  amount  of  it,  we  have  not  taken  a  single 
specimen  of  this  locust.  I  do  not  think  it  can  have  any  per¬ 
manent  breeding  ground  within  this  State  at  present. 

tristis  Bruner.  See  description  in  article  following  this. 

yarrowi  Thom.  A  single  pair  were  taken  at  Grand  Junction  Aug. 
28,  1894.  This  species  looks  very  much  like  M.  Uavidus 
with  hind  tibiae  red,  or  like  a  light  colored  specimen  of  M. 
pemoratus  without  the  pale  stripes  and  not  so  robust.  Bengtli 
of  male  25  mm.  and  of  female  35  mm. 

PHCETAUQTES  Scudder. 

nebrascensis  Thom.  Another  common  species  on  grass  land  on  the 
eastern  plains  of  the  State.  Its  food-plant, so  far  as  our  obser¬ 
vations  have  gone,  is  blue-grass  ( Agropyrum  glaucum). 
This  specicies  is  rather  late  in  maturing.  On  July  16,  1902 
at  Ft.  Collins  many  nymphs  but  no  adults  were  observed  up¬ 
on  Agropyrum .  On  July  30th  the  adults  were  common.  O11 
Aug.  1st,  1901  at  the  same  place  it  was  noted  that  there  were 
many  nymphs  and  a  few  adults  upon  blue-grass.  The  adults 


56  BULLETIN  94. 

were  still  common  Sep.  25th,  1898,  near  Ft. Collins  (notes  by 
Ball). 

The  males  in  the  collection  vary  between  19  mm.  and 
23  mm.  in  length  and  the  females  measure  from  23  mm.  to  29 
mm.  in  length.  The  elytra  of  the  short-winged  males  vary 
between  5  mm.  and  6.5  mm  in  length  and  those  of  the  females 
between  5.5  mm.  and  7.5  mm.  in  length. 

A  few  specimens  of  the  long-winged  form  ( volucris )  have 
been  taken  at  Ft.  Collins  and  one  specimen  was  taken  at  La¬ 
mar. 

We  have  taken  the  species  at  the  following  places:  Ft. 
Collins,  Greeley,  Julesburg,  Merino,  Pueblo,  Colorado  Springs, 
Rockyford,  Lamar  and  Holly. 

DACTYLOTUM  Charpenter. 

pictum  Thom.  A  fairly  common  species  on  the  plains  of  the  east¬ 
ern  portion  of  the  State  and  occuring  on  dry  exposed  areas 
for  some  distance  within  the  foothills  but  not  far.  Its  princi¬ 
ple  food-plant, according  to  Prof.  Ball’s  notes,  seems  to  be  As¬ 
ter  multiflora  though  he  has  several  times  noted  it  feeding 
upon  Kalmia  glauca  (American  laurel).  He  has  also  seen 
it  resting  upon  Senecio  Douglasi ,  apparently  as  a  food-plant, 
and  we  have  found  occasional  specimens  on  alfalfa. 

The  bright  coloration  is  very  constant;  males  vary  be¬ 
tween  20  mm.  and  24  mm.  in  length  and  the  females  between 
29  mm.  and  35  mm.  The  wings  of  the  males  vary  between  4 
mm.  and  5  mm.  and  those  of  the  females  between  5  mm.  and 
6  mm.  Taken  at  the  following  places:  FT  Collins,  Laporte, 
Livermore,  Wray,  Pueblo,  Rockyford,  Lamar  and  Holly. 

We  have  found  the  species  abundant  just  outside  the  first 
foothills  and  have  taken  adults  at  Ft.  Collins  from  July  26th 
to  Sep.  30th. 


Some  New  Colorado  Orthoptera 

BY  LAWRENCE  BRUNER. 


Nemobius  brevicaudus  new  species. 

A  medium  sized,  pale  colored  insect  in  which  the  female  has  an  ex¬ 
ceedingly  short  ovipositor,  not  much  more  than  one-half  as  long  as  that 
of  other  species  in  which  this  member  is  described  as  greatly  abbreviated. 
In  general  appearance  perhaps  most  closely  resembling  N.  mormonius 
Scudcl.  from  Utah. 

Pale  testaceous  with  a  few  darker  markings  on  head,  pronotum 
and  abdomen  above.  The  pronotum  a  little  narrower  in  front  thap  be¬ 
hind,  its  surface  sparsely  adorned  with  rather  stiff,  not  very  long,  dark 
colored  bristles.  Front  and  middle  femora,  as  well  as  the  front  between 
the  base  of  antennae,  likewise  adorned  with  similar  bristles.  Tegmina 
half  as  long  as  abdomen,  about  as  long  as  head  and  pronotum  combined 
(9),  or  nearly  reaching  its  apex  (tf)  pale  testaceous,  without  any  defi¬ 
nite  darker  markings.  Ovipositor  very  short,  straight,  the  apical  half 
moderately  coarsely  toothed  above,  the  extreme  apex  rather  blunt.  Anal 
stylets  pale,  slender,  a  little  longer  than  hind  tibiae..  Antennae  rather 
long  and  slender,  testaceous  basally,  darker  beyond. 

Length  of  body,  8  mm.,  9>  8.5  mm.;  of  hind  femora,  <3%  5  mm., 
9,  5.5  mm.,  of  ovipositor,  1.85  mm. 

Habitat.  1  1  9,  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  October  4,  1901. 

Ceuthophilus  aridus  new  species. 

Of  a  uniformly  pale  testaceous  color, a  trifle  darker  above  than  below, 
unadorned  by  darker  mottlings,  bands  or  blotches  of  any  kind,  a  moder¬ 
ately  slender  insect  with  relatively  smooth  body  and  limbs.  Eyes  very 
dark  brown  or  black,  pyriform,  the  apex  below.  Front  femora  about 
one-fourth  longer  than  pronotum,  their  front  edge  below  provided  with 
1-2  very  small  spines  in  addition  to  a  much  longer  preapical  one,  the 
lower  posterior  edge  ujiarmed;  anterior  lower  edge  of  middle  pair  armed 
with  3-4  and  the  posterior  with  2-3  minute  ones,  the  apex  of  the  latter 
edge  provided  with  an  apical  spine.  Hind  femora  rather  robust,  without 
any  decided  genicular  enlargments,  a  trifle  over  three  times  as  long  as 
greatest  width,  the  apical  half  provided  above  with  a  number  of  dark 
raised  points,  and  both  the  outer  and  inner  lower  carinse  furnished  with 
numerous  fine  serrations,  the  sulcus  rather  narrow  except  near  the 
apex.  Hind  tibiae  about  one-sixth  longer  than  femora,  nearly  straight 
and  provided  with  four  pairs  of  moderately  strong  gently  diverging  spines 


58  bulletin  94. 

in  addition  to  the  apical  ones  which  are  somewhat  longer  than  the  oth¬ 
ers  ;hind  tarsi  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  hind  tibise, joint  2  twice  as 
long  as  3.  Cerci  rather  slender,  in  length  less  than  the  greatest  width 
of  hind  femora  and  abruptly  bent  downwards  at  about  the  middle. 

Length  of  body,  12-25  mm.,  of  pronotum,  3.45  mm.,  of  fore  fem¬ 
ora,  4.2  mm.,  of  hind  femora.  9.65  mm.,  of  hind  tibiae,  10.5  mm. 

Habitat.  A  single  November  17,  at  Grand  Junction,  Colorado. 

On  account  of  its  uniform  pale  color  this  insect  reminds  one 
at  first  glance  of  all  three  of  the  following  named  species;  viz.,  C. 
alpinus  Scudd.,  C.  pallescens  Bruner,  and  C.  vinculatus  Scudd., 
from  all  of  which,  however,  it  differs  in  several  important  points 
as  indicated  in  the  description. 

Agensctaifix  aecidentalis  new  species. 

Very  similar  to  both  A.  scudcleri  and  A.  deorum ,  but  differing  from 
both  of  these  in  its  somewhat  slenderer  form  and  smaller  size,  as  well 
as  in  the  fewer  (9)  spines  on  the  outer  row  of  hind  tibiae,  and  in  its  nor¬ 
mally  somewhat  abbreviated  tegmina  and  wings. 

*  Length  of  body,  J1,  10.5-13  mm.,  9,  15-18  mm.;  of  pronotum,  $ 
1.95-2.10  mm.,  9?  2-2.15  mm. ;  of  tegmina,  7-9  mm.,  9>  9-10  mm.;  of 
hind  femora,  J\  7.25-9  mm.,  9)  P.5-10  mm. 

Habitat.  Various  localities  in  Colorado  west  of  the  main  range, 
during  the  months  of  July,  August  and  September  (Col¬ 
lection  Colorado  Agricultural  College). 

Whether  or  not  these,  are  distinct,  or  only  well  marked  geo¬ 
graphical  forms  of  a  single  rather  variable  species,  is  not  certain 
now.  However,  the  following  brief  synoptical  table  will  show  the 
main  differences  among  these  forms: 

A1.  Normally  with  somewhat  abbreviated  tegmina  and  wings  in 

both  sexes.  Hind  tibiae  nine  spined  in  outer  row  . occidentalis  n.  sp. 

A2.  Normally  with  tegmina  and  wings  hardly  ever  shorter  than  ab¬ 
domen.  Hind  tibiae  ten  or  eleven-spined  in  outer  row. 

Bl.  Smaller,  the  tegmina  and  wings  about  equalling  the  abdo¬ 
men  in  length  even  in  <p.  Fastigium  slightly  acute-angled  in 
male. . . . deorum  Scudd. 

B2.  Larger,  the  tegmina  and  wings  slightly  surpassing  tip  of  the 
abdomen  in  Fastigium  right  angled  or  even  more  obtuse  in 
male  as  well  as  in  female . scudderi  Bruner. 

Encoptolophus  csioradsnsis  new  species. 

Somewhat  resembling  E.  sordidus  in  general  form  but  differing  from 
it  in  a  number  of  respects.  The  chief  of  these  variations  are  a  lower 
median  carina  of  the  pronotum  in  which  the  two  sections  are  about  equal 
in  height,  glaucous  instead  of  fuliginous  hind  tibiae,  and  a  prevailingly 
pale  grayish  testaceous  color  with  decided  dark  markings  on  tegmina, 
hind  femora  and  posterior  half  of  pronotal  disc. 

Head  unusually  large  and  gross,  quite  distinctly  broader  than  the 
front  edge  of  the  pronotum  and  higher  than  the  general  depth  of  the 
body;the  vertex  between  the  eyes  about  as  wide  as  the  shortest  diameter 
of  the  latter,  the  scutellum  broadly  pyriform, rather  shallow  and  provided 
in  its  posterior  half  with  a  well  defined  longitudinal  carina  which  is 
continuous  over  the  occiput  to  the  front  edge  of  the  pronotum;  lateral 
foveolse  small,  triangular,  scarcely  sulcate;  frontal  costa  rather  promi¬ 
nent,  the  sides  evenly  diverging  downwards,  quite  deeply  sulcate  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  ocellus,  the  bounding  walls  heavy;  antennae  about  reach- 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


59 

ing  the  hind  edge  of  the  pronotum.  Pronotum  somewhat  strangulate  in 
advance  of  the  principal  sulcus,  the  lateral  carinae  not  much  interrupted 
though  bowed,  fairly  prominent;  the  median  carina  straight,  of  medium 
height,  cut  a  little  in  advance  of  its  middle;  hind  edge  of  the  disk  some¬ 
what  obtuse-angled.  Tegmina  and  wings  about  equalling  the  abdomen  in 
length,  the  apex  of  former  broadly  rounded.  Hind  femora  normal,  not 
quite  reaching  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 

General  color  pale  grayish  testaceous,  the  sides  of  pronotum  ob¬ 
scurely  banded  with  dull  black  or  brown,  the  disk  of  pronotum  with  the 
X-shaped  pale  marking  of  sordidus ,  costalis  and  parvus.  Tegmina  crossed 
with  four  heavy  dark  bands  and  marked  basaliy  with  irregular  small 
blotches.  Hind  femora  decidedly  trifasciate  with  fuscous  externally; 
hind  tibiae  largely  glaucous,  the  base  pale.  Sutures  of  abdomen  nar¬ 
rowly  black. 

Length  of  body,  19  mm.,  9, 28  mm.;  of  antennae,  7  mm.,  9? 
8  mm.;  of  pronotum,  A,  4  mm.,  9,5  mm.;  of  tegmina,  17,  9,20;  of 
hind  femora,  <5%  11  mm.,  9,  14  mm. 

Habitat.  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  August  14,  a  single  $  (C.  P. 
Gillette);  same  locality,  1  and  1  9  (L.  Bruner). 

TiHigroii'opSs  inconspisua  new  species. 

A  trifle  under  the  medium  size  for  the  vinculata  group  to  which  it 
belongs,  and  at  once  recognized  by  its  generally  light  color  and  compara¬ 
tively  narrow,  but  well  defined,  posteriorly  converging  tegmina  bars, 
together  with  the  pale  disk  of  pronotum. 

Head  of  moderate  size,  the  eyes  a  trifle  prominent  and  semiglobose. 
Vertex  longer  than  wide  and  provided  with  a  well-defined  longitudinal 
carina.  Antennae  dark  brown  annulated  with  testaceous, nearly  or  quite 
as  long  as  hind  femora.  Pronotum  rather  flat  on  disk  but  provided  with 
a  net-work  of  low,  smooth  ridges  which  gives  its  surface  a  granular  ap¬ 
pearance;  the  anterior  lobes  very  little  tumid  and  furnished  with  a  medi¬ 
an  carina  which  is  but  little  more  prominent  than  that  on  the  hind  lobe; 
posterior  edge  of  disk  right-angled  in  both  sexes.  Tegmina  extending 
nearly  one-third  (A)  or  only  about  one-fifth  (9)  of  their  length  beyond 
the  tip  of  abdomen,  the  veinlets  on  basal  half  or  two-thirds  very  numer¬ 
ous  and  a  trifle  coarse,  thereby  giving  to  that  portion  of  these  members 
a  sort  of  granular  appearance.'  Hind  femora  moderately  slender,  not 
quite  reaching  (9)  or  a  little  surpassing  (A)  the  tip  of  abdomen. 

General  color  very  light  cinero-ferruginous,  with  the  usual  dark- 
brown  or  blackish  markings  of  the  group  to  which  it  belongs.  In  some 
specimens  the  anterior  portion  of  pronotum  both  on  sides  and  disk  are 
marked  with  clusters  of  small  black  flecks,  but  in  others  this  portion  is 
entirely  pale— being  relieved  only  by  the  brownish  dots  which  adorn  the 
carinae  of  vertex,  front,  cheeks,  pronotum,  etc.  The  pale  ferruginous 
tint  which  pervades  the  whole  insect  is  due  chiefly  to  the  color  of  the 
bottom  of  punctuations  which  are  well  scattered  over  its  surface.  While 
the  bands  on  tegmina  are  not  solid  they  are  quite  prominent  and  made  up 
of  clusters  of  dark  dots  or  by  the  infuscation  of  certain  veinlets.  O11 
the  basal  portion  these  bands  are  narrower  than  usual  and  show  a  de¬ 
cided  tendency  towards  converging  posteriorly,  while  the  apical  portion 
is  nearly  destitute  of  markings  save  for  the  infuscation  here  and  there 
of  a  few  veinlets.  Wings  with  their  disks  very  pale  greenish-yellow, 
crossed  about  the  middle  by  a  narrow  fuliginous  band  which  sends  its 
anterior  spur  nearly  one-half  way  to  the  base,  the  apical  portion  beyond 
the  band  perfectly  transparent.  Hind  femora  with  lower  sulcus  yellow 
or  at  least  with  two  pale  bands.  Hind  tibiae,  except  011  extreme  base 
where  they  are  dark-brown,  pale  greenish-yellow,  a  little  infuscated  be¬ 
yond  the  subbasal  pale  annulus  and  apically.  F  ront  and  middle  legs 
with  well  marked  dusky  annulations. 

Length  of  body,  A,  17  mm.,  9, 24-26  mm.;  of  antennae,  A,  40  mm., 
9,  10.5  mm.;  of  pronotum,  A,  4  mm.,  9,  5.5  mm.;  of  tegmina,  18.5 
mm.,  9, 24-25 mm.;  of  hind  femora,  10-10.5  mm.,  9,  10.5-12  mm. 


60  bulletin  94. 

Habitat.  Paonia,  Palisades,  Rifle  and  Dolores,  Colorado,  during  the 
months  of  July  and  August. 

I11  the  McNeill  table  of  species  of  Trimerotropis  this  insect 
will  fall  into  the  vinculata  group  with  salina ,  similis  pallid  ipen- 
nis  and  longicornis  (The  latter  a  new  species  described  by  E.  M. 
Walker  in  Can.  Ent.  xxxiv,  4).  That  portion  of  the  table  may 
therefore  be  modified  as  follows: 

/'.  Lower  sulcus  of  posterior  femora  light,  with  one  preapical  black 
band,  or  black,  with  two  light  bands,  one  preapical  and  one  med¬ 
ian,  the  latter  not  merely  interrupting  the  black  on  the  edges  of  the 
sulcus,  but  in  the  bottom  as  well. 

•p1.  Fuscous  band  in  its  usual  position  in  the  middle  of  the  wing. 
Spur  extending  less  than  half  way  to  the  base. 
hl.  General  color  light  cinereo-ferruginous.  The  bands  of 
tegmina  well  marked  and  rather  strongly  converging  to¬ 
wards  the  posterior  edge . .  inconspicua  n.  sp. 

h2.  General  color  dark  fuscous  brown,  permitting  little  con¬ 
trast  in  the  bands  of  tegmina,  the  latter  not  markedly  con- 
converging  towards  posterior  edge. 

11.  Metazona  scarcely  more  than  one  and  one-half  times 
as  long  as  prozona.  Fuscous  band  variable. 

j1.  Fuscous  bands  of  wings  very  broad,  occupying 
nearly  one  third  the  length  of  the  wings,  apical  por¬ 
tion  with  only  a  few  fuscous  dots . salina  McNeill. 

j2.  Fuscous  bands  of  wings  narrower,  occupying  less 
than  a  fifth  of  the  lenght  of  the  wings,  apical  portion 
rather  strongly  infuscated .  longicornis  Walk. 

12.  Metazona  twice  as  long  as  the  prozona.  Fuscous 

band  rather  narrow,  occupying  no  more  than  a  sixth  or 
seventh  of  the  length  of  the  wings.. . similis  Scudd. 

g2.  Fuscous  band  entirely  beyond  the  middle  of  the  wing,  mak¬ 
ing  the  length  of  the  disk  equal  to  the  width.  Fuscous  spur  ex¬ 
tending  more  than  half  way  to  the  base . pallidipennis  Burm. 

Z2.  Lower  sulcus  of  the  posterior  femora  black,  with  but  one  preapi¬ 
cal  light  band . vinculata ,  huroniana,  collaris,  fratercula ,  saxa- 

tilis,  and  sordida. 

Aeoloplus  minor  new  species. 

A  small,  slender,  short-winged  insect  with  pinkish  or  light  purplish 
hind  tibiae,  in  which  the  supraanal  plate  of  male  resembles  quite  closely 
that  of  the  longer-winged  Ae.  tenuipennis  Scudder,  from  Arizona. 

Head  a  little  longer  than  the  front  edge  of  pronotum,  the  occiput 
somewhat  ascending;  eyes  only  moderately  prominent,  the  vertex  be¬ 
tween  them  a  little  narrower  than  the  frontal  costa  between  the  antennae 
and  deeply  sulcate  to  upper  end  of  costa,  in  both  sexes;  the  latter 
scarcely  sulcate  even  at  the  ocellus;  antennae  short  and  slender,  scarcely 
reaching  hind  edge  of  pronotum  in  either  sex.  Pronotum  with  the  ante¬ 
rior  lobes  about  equal,  the  disk  smooth  and  evenly  rounded,  without  a 
perceptible  median  carina;  hind  lobe  slightly  expanding  posteriorly,  the 
the  surface  punctulate  and  with  a  slight  median  carina,  the  hind  edge 
broadly  angulate.  Tegmina  and  wings  abbreviated,  rather  narrow  and 
evenly  tapering,  reaching  from  the  middle  to  three-fourths  the  length  of 
abdomen.  Hind  femora  robust  and  furnished  at  base  with  a  large  down¬ 
ward  projecting  tooth,  reaching  beyond  the  tip  of  abdomen  in  both  sexes. 
Apical  segments  of  male  abdomen  only  slightly  enlarged,  the  last  ven¬ 
tral  segment  ending  in  a  short,  blunt,  upward  projecting  point;  cerci 
nearly  as  long  as  supraanal  plate, evenly  tapering  on  basal  three-fourths, 
equal  beyond,  the  apical  portion  gently  bent  inwards;  supraanal  plate 
subtriangular,  the  sides  sinuose  and  having  the  apex  produced  and 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  6l 

rounded,  the  surface  practically  as  descibed  for  .4e.  tenuipennis.  Valves 
of  ovipositor  slender,  short. 

General  color  testaceous,  varied  with  the  usual  brown  markings, 
in  some  specimens  with  an  olivaceous  tinge,  especialy  on  tegmina  and 
hind  femora.  Sides  of  basal  abdominal  segments  and  about  base  of 
supraanal  plate  and  cerci  dark  brown  or  piceous.  Posterior  femora  with 
the  usual  dusky  bands  which  are  some  shade  of  olive  or  brownish  olive, 
the  genicular  lobes  and  base  of  tibiae  a  little  darker,  the  latter  decidedly 
pinkish  or  pale  lilac,  in  some  specimens  changing  to  glaucous  apically. 

Length  of  body,  12  to  14  mm.,  9, 14  to  15  mm.;  of  pronotum,  (J1, 
3.1mm.,  9,3.85  mm.;  of  antenae,  J',  6  mm.,  9?  5  mm.;  of  tegmina,  <J\ 
6-7.5  mm.,  9>  6. 5-7. 5  mm.;  of  hind  femora,  6  mm,,  9,  8  mm. 

Habitat.  3s  and  $s,  Delta,  Colorado,  July  13,  1901. 

The  annexed  portion  of  Scudder’s  table  will  show  the  affinities  of 
the  present  species: 

d2.  Cerci  of  male  tapering  almost  uniformly  through  the  basal 

three-fourths,  only  the  apical  half  or  less  equal. 
el.  Larger.  The  tegmina  and  wings  almost  as  long  as  abdomen. 

Hind  tibiae  pale  glaucous . plagosus  Scudd. 

e2.  Smaller.  Tegmina  and  wings  from  one-half  to  three-fourths 
as  long  as  abdomen.  Hind  tibiae  pinkish  or  pale  purplish. 

minor  n.  sp. 

Hesperotettix  Gillettei  new  species. 

The  distinguishing  characters  of  the  present  species  are  the  non¬ 
ob  scured  transverse  sulci  of  pronotum,  the  very  narrow  tegmina  and 
bright  salmon-colored  anterior  and  middle,  as  well  as  the  entire  upper 
edge  and  pregenicular  annulations  of  hind  femora. 

A  bright  grass-green  locust  with  prominent  white  lines  on  thorax 
and  along  humeral  angles  of  tegmina.  In  comparison  with  Hesp.  viridis 
it  is  a  somewhat  slenderer  insect  of  a  more  subdued  and  uniform  color 
in  which  the  pronotum  is  less  expanded  posteriorly  and  the  tegmina  and 
wings  are  decidedly  narrower  and  show  a  variation  in  length  from  about 
one-half  as  long  to  a  trifle  exceeding  that  of  the  abdomen, a  little  longest 
in  the  males.  It  differs  from  its  nearest  ally,  Hesp.  festivus, in  being  of  a 
much  more  uniformly  cylindrical  form  and  greenish  color,  in  its  more 
cylindrical  pronotum  and  the  heavier  hind  femora,  the  shorter  and  heav¬ 
ier  cerci  and  the  slightly  more  elevated  and  blunter  apex  of  subanal 
plate  of  male  abdomen. 

Length  of  abdomen,  (J*,  15  mm.,  9?  21  mm.;  of  pronotum,  3.5 
mm.,  9, 5  mm.;  of  antennae,  7.5  mm.,  9,  6.5  mm.;  of  tegmina,  (J',  6 
to  11.5  mm.,  9,  7.5  to  16  mm.;  of  hind  femora,  9  mm.,  9»  12  mm. 

Habitat.  Rifle,  Colorado,  July  25,  js  and  9s;  Gleuwood  Springs, 
September  15;  Delta,  July  13  and  Grand  Junction,  July 
29,  September  16. 

Hesperotettix  coloradensis  new  species. 

A  short-winged  moderately  robust  insect  which  is  quite  closely 
related  to  H.  curtipennis ,  but  differing  from  it  by  its  somewhat  slenderer 
form,  slenderer  and  shorter  hind  femora,  the  much  shallower  and  less 
prominent  transverse  sulci  of  pronotum,  the  slenderer  and  longer  valves 
of  the  ovipositor,  and  in  lacking  the  pale  border  above  dusky  band  on 
sides  of  pronotum.  Otherwise  the  two  forms  are  quite  similar  in  gen¬ 
eral  appearance. 

Head  small,  eyes  rather  prominent;  the  vertex  narrow,  about  as 
wide  as  basal  (9)  or  as  second  (cJ)  joint  of  antennse,  rather  deeply  sul- 
cate  in  male,  less  so  in  female;  frontal  costa  moderately  broad,  the  sides 
nearly  parallel,  profoundly  silicate  throughout.  Antennse  with  the  joints 
somewhat  depressed  and  heavier  tnan  usual  in  the  male,  in  female  nor- 


62 


bulletin  94. 

mal.  Pronotum  subcylindrical,  only  gently  widening  behind,  the  ante¬ 
rior  lobes  smooth,  only  weakly  punctate,  and  with  ill-defined  median  Car¬ 
ina;  the  hind  lobe  coarsely  and  rather  closely  punctate, its  median  carina 
quite  evident,  hind  margin  angulate.  Tegmina  lobate,  lateral, their  dor¬ 
sal  edges  not  touching.  Hind  femora  slender,  not  quite  reaching  (  9  )  or 
gently  surpassing  (<9)  the  tip  of  abdomen.  Apical  portion  of  male  abdo¬ 
men  slightly  broadened,  the  extreme  tip  of  last  ventral  segment  gently 
raised  above  the  level  of  apex;  supraanal  plate  elongate,  its  sides  up¬ 
turned,  the  apex  rounded  and  provided  in  middle  with  two  rather  coarse, 
blunt  carinee  which  begin  near  the  base  just  in  advance  of  the  furculse 
which  are  mere  protuberances  and  meet  a  little  before  tip;  cerci  moder¬ 
ately  long,  about  reaching  the  tip  of  supraanal  plate,  their  apex  atten¬ 
uate  and  gently  curved  inward;  valves  of  ovipositor  slender,  somewhat 
exserted. 

General  color  grass-green  varied  with  pale  testaceous  and  dirty 
white.  The  sides  of  pronotum  back  of  eyes  streaked  longitudinally  with 
piceous  bordered  below  by  dirty  white.  Dorsum  of  thorax  and  abdomen 
with  the  usual  light  colored  streak  which  frequently  widens  in  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  anterior  lobe  of  pronotum  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  a  diamond-shaped 
patch— a  little  interrupted  just  before  reaching  the  hind  edge.  Hind 
femora  internally  and  below  testaceous,  with  scarcely  any  indication  of 
the  pregenicular  ruddy  annulation  or  tinge  along  upper  edge. 

Length  of  body, "(9,  16.5mm.,  9,  24  mm.;  of  pronotum,  <9,  4  mm., 
9, 4.85  mm.;  of  antennae,  (9  and  9>  7  mm.;  of  hind  femora,  <9,  9.5  mm., 
9 ,  10.5  mm. 

Hahitaf.  1  9,  Durango,  Colorado,  Aug.  7;  1  $,  Dolores,  Colo.,  Aug. 
2.  (Collection  Colo.  Agr.  College). 

With  the  addition  of  these  two,  and  a  third  species  from  Flor¬ 
ida,  to  those  known  to  Scudder,  we  have  his  table  of  species  con¬ 
siderably  modified.  .  This  modified  table  is  as  follows: 

ANALYTICAL  KEY  TO  THE  SPECIES  OF  HESPEROTETTIX. 

A1.  Metazona  of  pronotum  distinctly  punctate  on  dorsum;  prozona 
smooth,  except  sometimes  feebly  punctate  on  dorsum;  nowhere 
rugulose. 

b1.  Pronotum  highly  and  irregularly  diversified  in  color,  or  else 
nearly  devoid  of  markings  of  any  kind,  the  dorsum  nearly 
plane ;  tegmina  in  the  diversified  species  marked  with  a  white 
or  pallid  stripe  on  the  division  line  between  the  discoidal  and 
anal  areas. 

c1.  Transverse  sulci  of  pronotum  distinctly  marked  in  black; 
hind  femora  with  a  distinct  preginicular  annulation. 
dl.  Relatively  slender-bodied,  with  slender  femora;  teg¬ 
mina  rarely  as  short  as  the  body  and  then  only  in  male; 
antennae  of  male  slender,  distinctly  longer  than  the  head 

and  pronotum  together... . . viridis  Thom. 

d2.  Relatively  stout-bodied,  with  stout  femora;  tegmina 
surpassing  the  body  only  in  the  males  and  then  but 
slightly;  antennae  of  male  coarse,  scarcely  longer  than 

the  head  of  pronotum  together .  meridionalis  Scudd. 

c2.  Transverse  sulci  of  pronotum  not  marked  in  strong 
colored  contrast  to  surroundings. 
dl.  Tegmina  not  abbreviate,  about  as  long  as  the  abdo¬ 
men.  Hind  femora  without  red  pregenicular  annula¬ 
tion  or  only  faint  signs  of  one . . festivus  Scudd. 

d2.  Tegmina  one-half  or  even  a  trifle  longer  than  abdo¬ 
men.  Hind  femora  with  a  decided  pregenicular  annula¬ 
tion . gillettei  n.  sp. 


RErORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


63 

b 2.  Pronotum  diversified  in  color  only  by  longitudinal  stripes, 
the  dorsum  distinctly  tectiform;  tegmina  without  pale  stripes 
(though  they  are  occasionally  indicated). 
c1.  Tegmina  lobiform,  little  or  no  longer  than  the  pronotum, 
their  upper  edges  not  attingent. 
dl.  General  color  dark  brown, occasionally  with  a  tinge  of 
green;  tegmina  short  ovate,  distinctly  shorter  than  the 

pronotum . pacificus  Scudd. 

d2.  General  color  grass-green;  tegmina  long  oval,  scarce¬ 
ly  shorter  than  the  pronotum. 
e1.  Slender.  Pronotum  decidedly  angulate  behind, 
very  preceptibly  widening  posteriorly. 

coloradensis  n.  sp. 

e2.  More  robust.  Pronotum  with  hind  margin  broad¬ 
ly  rounded,  of  nearly  equal  width  throughout. 

curtipennis  Scudd. 

c2.  Tegmina  fully  developed  or  abbreviate,  when  the  latter 
nearly  or  fully  twice  as  long  as  pronotum,  their  upper  edges 
overlapping. 

dl.  Tegmina  and  wings  abbreviate,  much  shorter  than 

the  body. . brevipennis  Thom. 

d2.  Tegmina  and  wings  distinctly  surpassing  the  abdo¬ 
men,  or  sometimes  in  the  female  only  equalling  it. 

pratensis  Scudd. 

A2.  Pronotum  decidedly  tectiform;  both  prozona  and  metazona,  both 
on  dorsum  and  lateral  lobes,  equally  and  distinctly  rugulose. 
b1.  Tegmina  elongate,  two  to  five  times  as  long  as  broad,  round¬ 
ly  acuminate  at  tip . . . . . speciosus  Scudd. 

b2.  Tegmina  ovate,  at  most  one  and  one-half  times  as  long  as 
wide . floridensis  Morse. 

Melanoplus  sanguinsus  new  species. 

Rather  above  the  medium  in  size,  a  moderately  robust  insect  hav¬ 
ing  the  general  color  aspect  of  M.  atlanis  and  its  allies,  but  differingfrom 
these  species  by  its  more  robust  hind  femora  which  are  rich  blood-red 
inside  and  below,  and  in  having  the  hind  tibiae  very  decidedly  bluish- 
green  as  in  M.  occidentalis  and  some  other  species  like  M.  glaucipes 
Scudder  and  M.  regalis  Dodge. 

Head  a  little  wider  than  the  front  edge  of  pronotum;  occiput  some¬ 
what  elevated  above  the  plane  of  its  disk,  eyes  fairly  large  but  not  very 
prominent  even  in  the  males;  vertex  a  very  little  wider  (tf),  or  about 
twice  as  wide  (  9 )  as  diameter  of  basal  antennal  joint;  the  fastigium 
roundly  depressed  and  rather  broadly  and  deeply  sulcate;  frontal  costa 
about  as  wide  above  as  vertex,  broadening  a  trifle  below  and  reaching 
the  clypeus,  punctuate  above,  gently  sulcate  at  ocellus  and  below;  an¬ 
tennae  a  trifle  longer  than  head  and  pronotum  together.  Pronotum  with 
the  sides  of  anterior  lobes  about  parallel,  hind  lobe  considerably  expand¬ 
ing  towards  the  rear,  transverse  sulci  profound,  the  last  about  the  mid¬ 
dle;  median  carina  faint  on  anterior  lobes  but  prominent  on  posterior, 
the  latter  wiih  its  hind  edge  angulate.  Anterior  portion  of  male  meso- 
sternum  provided  with  a  large  blunt  protuberance.  Tegmina  rather  nar¬ 
row,  tapering  but  little  apically,  reaching  beyond  the  tips  of  hind  femora 
in  both  sexes.  Anterior  and  middle  femora  not  greatly  enlarged  in 
male,  the  hind  pair  moderately  robust,  a  little  surpassing  the  abdomen 
in  both  sexes.  Extremity  of  male  abdomen  neither  clavate  nor  recurved, 
the  subgenital  plate  short,  the  apex  but  little  produced  and  not  notched. 
Supraanal  plate  broadly  triangular,  the  sides  rounded  and  the  apex  a 
little  produced,  the  middle  furnished  with  a  rather  deep  narrow  groove 
which  runs  from  the  base  nearly  to  the  apex,  a  little  wider  and  shallower 
near  its  termination,  the  sides  undulate  near  base  and  projecting  over 
the  cerci.  The  latter  nearly  equal  throughout,  a  little  more  than  twice 
as  long  as  greatest  width,  the  apical  half  bent  inwards  and  with  their 
outer  face  slightly  indented,  the  lower  corner  of  apex  obliquely  docked. 


64  bulletin  94. 

Furcula  consisting  of  a  pair  of  moderately  depressed,  slender,  parallel 
fingers  equal  and  attingent  on  basal  half,  tapering  for  a  short  distance 
and  slender  and  equal  in  outer  third,  slightly  less  than  half  as  long  as 
the  supraanal  plate. 

General  color  varying  from  a  pale  testaceous  to  a  dull  wood  brown, 
in  the  lighter  individuals  tinged  above  with  ferruginous.  Sides  of  head 
back  of  the  eyes,  and  pronotum  to  last  transverse  incision  provided  with 
a  well  defined  piceous  band,  in  some  specimens  a  trifle  interrupted  by 
light  patches.  Occiput  usually  provided  with  a  similar  dark  band  that 
begins  at  the  vertex  and  extends  backward  to  front  edge  of  pronotum. 
Disk  of  latter  usually  pale,  but  sometimes  becoming  a  little  infuscated 
in  middle.  Tegmina  provided  with  a  discal  row  of  fuscous  dots  in  a  pale 
field,  beyond  the  basal  half  these  also  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  wing. 
Hind  femora  provided  above  and  on  upper  half  of  outer  face  with  three 
dusky  bands,  the  apex  black  preceded  by  a  pale  annulus,  inner  face  and 
lower  outer  edge,  together  with  lower  sulcus,  bright  blood  red;  hind  tib¬ 
iae  bluish-green,  the  knees  and  genicular  lobes  of  femora  bluish-white. 

Length  of  body,  <6\  22.5  mm.,  9>  25  mm.;  of  antennae,  9.5  mm., 
9  10  mm.;  of  pronotum,  J4  5.1  mm.,  9»  5.5  mm.;  tegmina,  20  mm., 
9,  21  mm.;  of  hind  femora  <6\  13  mm.,  9?  14  mm. 

Habitat,  3s  and  9s  Lamar  and  Las  Animas,  Colorado. 

This  insect  would  fall  in  Scndder’s  table  for  the  separation  of 
our  species  of  Melanoplus  near  bruneri ,  excelsus  and  utahensis. 
The  table  would  have  to  be  modified  for  its  reception  as  follows. 
(Bottom  page  131): 

g2.  Apical  margin  of  subgenital  plate  of  male  conspicuously  eleva¬ 
ted  above  the  lateral  margins  and  sometimes  greatly  prolonged 
posteriorly;  mesosternum  of  male  in  front  of  lobes  with  a  central 
swelling,  forming  a  blunt  tubercle  (5.  Utahensis  series). 
hl.  Apical  margin  of  subgenital  plate  of  male  entire;  lobes  of 
furcula  not  exceptionally  broad. 

11.  Subgenital  plate  only  moderately  prolonged. 

sanguineus  n.  sp. 

12.  Subgenital  plate  greatly  but  not  excessively  prolonged. 
j1.  Interval  between  mesosternal  lobes  of  male  more  than 

twice  as  long  as  broad,  of  female  a  little  longer  than 
broad;  male  cerci  more  than  twice  as  long  as  broad; 
apical  margin  of  subgenital  plate  of  male,  as  seen  from 

behind,  subtruncate . bruneri  Scudd. 

j2.  Interval  between  mesosternal  lobes  of  male  much  less 
than  twice  as  long  as  broad;  of  female  transverse;  male 
cerci  less  than  twice  as  long  as  broad;  apical  margin  of 
subgenital  plate  of  male,  as  seen  from  behind,  rounded. 

excelsus  Scudd. 

h2.  Apical  margin  of  subgenital  plate  of  male  deeply  notched  on 
either  side  of  middle;  lobes  of  furcula  exceptionally  broad,  sub¬ 
equal  throughout;  subgenital  plate  excessively  prolonged. 

utahensis  Scudd. 


Melanoplus  tristis  new  species. 

A  rather  small,  slender,  short-winged  insect  that  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  M.  artemisiae  but  which  more  properly  belongs  to  the 
Aridus  series  since  it  has  the  cerci  and  furcula  of  the  male  as  found  in 
the  last  named  species.  Entire  insect  quite  strongly  hirsute  or  pilose. 

General  color  dark  reddish  brown,,  varied  with  darker  brown  and 
piceous.  Head  about  as  wide  (  9 )  or  a  little  wider  (tf1)  than  the  front 
edge  of  the  pronotum,  the  occiput  a  little  raised  above  the  plane  of  the 
latter;  eyes  large  and  quite  prominent,  sub-globular  in  the  male,  consid¬ 
erably  less  prominent  and  with  the  anterior  edge  decidedly  straight  in 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


65 

female;  vertex  a  trifle  narrower  (tf)  or  somewhat  wider  (9)  than  the 
basal  antennal  joint,  roundly  depressed  and  quite  deeply  sulcate  with 
the  lateral  carinae  rather  coarse;  frontal  costa  prominent,  plain,  the  sides 
nearly  parallel,  a  little  wider  than  the  vertex  between  the  eyes  in  both 
sexes  and  reaching  the  clypeus.  Antennae  slender,  of  moderate  length, 
about  reaching,  9>  or  somewhat  surpassing,  J',  the  tip  of  prono- 
tum.  The  latter  with  the  sides  of  anterior  lobes  somewhat  tumescent  in 
cf,  smooth  in  9,  no  wider  at  last  transverse  incision  than  in  front, 
the  dusky  band  at  sides  furnished  near  the  center  above  with  a  light 
patch,  the  posterior  lobe  a  little  the  shorter,  expanding  and  broadly 
rounded  behind,  its  entire  surface  quite  profusely  punctate;  median  Car¬ 
ina  nearly  equally  prominent  throughout.  Prosternal  spine  coarse, 
conical,  moderately  long,  directed  a  little  to  the  rear  and  with  the  apex 
blunt.  Tegmina  lateral,  elongate  oval,  reaching  to  or  a  little  beyond  the 
apex  of  the  first  abdominal  segment.  Abdomen  with  the  sides  strongly 
piceous,  especially  in  the  (J's.  Hind  femora  rather  slender,  not  quite 
reaching  (9)  or  a  little  surpassing  (tf)  tip  of  abdomen,  flavous  inside 
and  below,  crossed  on  upper  half  by  two  dusky  bands,  the  apex  also 
dark  ;middle  and  front  femora  only  moderately  swollen  or  obese  in  males ; 
hind  tibiae  dull  plumbeous,  profusely  hirsute.  Apical  portion  of  male 
abdomen  only  gently  club-shaped,  the  tip  very  little  upturned,  the  sub- 
anal  plate  entire  at  apex,  in  nowise  notched  or  produced;  supraanal  plate 
triangular,  about  equally  long  and  broad,  the  sides  straight,  the  tip  an- 
gulate;  the  furcula  as  described  and  figured  for  M.  aridus  Scudd.  (PI.  xiv, 
fig.  3);  cerci  also  as  in  that  species,  except,  perhaps,  that  they  may  be 
slightly  longer  in  proportion  and  a  little  more  bent  inwards  on  their  out¬ 
er  half. 

Length  of  body,  13.5  mm.,  9  >  18-20  mm. ;  of  antennae,  7  mm., 
9 , 6.5  mm. ;  of  pronotum,  (^,  3.1  mm.,  9  ,  4  mm.;  of  tegmina,  <3\  2.6  mm., 
9 ,  3  mm. ;  of  hind  femora,  8  mm.,  9  >  9  mm. ;. 

Habitat.  Antonita,  Dolores  and  Durango,  Colo.,  3  and  5  $s  Aug¬ 
ust  (Collection  Colo.  Agr.  College). 

In  order  that  the  position  of  this  species  may  be  more  clearly 
indicated  the  following  portion  of  Scudder’s  table  is  modified  so 
as  to  include  it  and  is  here  appended: 

g1.  Cerci  of  male  long  and  very  slender,  in  the  middle  not  one-half 
the  width  of  the  frontal  costa,  last  dorsal  segment  of  male  with  a 
pair  of  strongly  oblique  submedian  sulci  outside  the  furcula;  sub¬ 
genital  plate  not  elevated  apically  (3.  Aridus  series). 
hl.  Hind  margin  of  pronotum  truncato-emarginate;  disk  of  met- 
azona  fully  twice  as  broad  as  long;  tegmina  relatively  slender, 
widely  distant. 

41.  Disk  of  pronotum  coarsely  and  uniformly  punctate;  cerci 
of  male  apically’enlarged  and  inferiorly  accuminate  at  apex. 

Humphrey sii  Thom. 

i2.  Disk  of  prozona  coarsely  punctate  only  along  anterior 
margin;  cerci  of  male  apically  equal,  round  at  tip. 

nitidus  Scudd. 

h2.  Hind  margin  of  pronotum  obtuse  angulate  or  broadly  round¬ 
ed;  disk  of  metazona  less  than  twice  as  broad  as  long;  tegmina 
variable. 

41.  Larger  (d1  17.5  mm.);  tegmina  relatively  broad,  approx¬ 


imate,  at  least  in  the  male . aridus  Scudd. 

i2.  Smaller  (13.5  mm.) ;  tegmina  quite  slender,  lateral,  and 
greatly  separated  above  in  both  sexes . tristis  n.  sp. 


Melanoplus  flabellifer  brevipennis  new  variety. 

The  specimens  before  me,  eight  in  number,  and  coming  from  Pao- 
nia  and  Palisades  in  western  Colorado  agree  quite  well  with  the  general 


66 


bulletin  94. 

description  of  M.  flabellifer, only  that  all  of  them  lack  the  fully  developed 
tegmina  and  wings  of  that  insect.  The  specimens  from  Palisades  are  de¬ 
cidedly  tinged  with  rufous,  while  those  collected  at  Paonia  are  cinero- 
plumbeous  as  indicated  for  the  normally  long-winged  form. 

Length  of  body,  <J\  14-16  mm.,  9 , 21  mm. ;  of  antennae,  7.5  mm., 
?,  7  mm.;  of  tegmina,  <6\  5.5  mm.,  9?  7  mm.;  of  hind  femora,  J',  8.5-9 
mm.,  9)  10-11  mm. 

Habitat.  4  and  1  9,  Palisades,  Colorado,  July  8,  1901;  2  ^s  and 
1  $,  Paonia,  Colorado,  September  20,  1903,  (Collection 
Colorado  Agricultural  College). 

The  following  synoptic  table  which  has  been  somewhat  mod¬ 
ified  from  Scudder’s  (Revis.  Melanopli,  pp.  124  and  130,  and 
Suppl.  p.  160)  will  give  at  a  glance  the  characters  separating  the 
various  recognized  forms  belonging  to  the  series: 

d1.  Cerci  of  male  very  broad  and  short,  not  more  than  twice  as  long 
as  the  middle  breadth,  and  broadly  rounded  at  apex.  (2.  Flabelli¬ 
fer  series.) 

e1.  Tegmina  fully  developed. 

p.  Cerci  of  male  twice  as  broad  in  broadest  as  in  narrowest 
portion. 

gl.  Subgenital  plate  of  male  with  a  distinct  though  mi¬ 


nute  independent  apical  tubercle . occidentalis  Thom. 

g 2.  Subgenital  plate  of  male  with  only  one  obscure  trace 
of  apical  tubercle . cuneatus  Scudd. 


p.  Cerci  of  male  with  no  striking  inequality  in  breadth. 

flabellifer  Scudd. 

e2.  Tegmina  more  or  less  abbreviated. 

p.  Tegmina  about  half  as  long  as  the  abdomen  and  much 
longer  than  the  pronotum. 

gl.  Cerci  of  male  broadly  longitudinally  sulcate  apically, 

as  in  flabellifer . flabellifer  brevipennis  n.  var. 

g2.  Cerci  of  male  not  longitudinally  sulcate  apically. 

h1.  Interval  between  mesosternal  lobes  of  male  twice 
as  broad  posteriorly  as  anteriorly,  the  inner  mar¬ 
gins  of  the  lobes  regularly  divergent;  interval  in  fe¬ 
male  longer  than  broad ;  cerci  of  male  but  little  longer 

than  broad . discolor  Scudd. 

h 2  Interval  between  mesosternal  lobes  of  male  near¬ 
ly  equal  breadth  in  front  and  behind,  the  inner  mar¬ 
gins  of  the  lobes  convex;  interval  in  female  trans¬ 
verse;  cerci  of  male  nearly  twice  as  long  as  broad. 

simplex  Scudd. 

f2.  Tegmina  shorter  than  pronotum. 

g1.  Furcula  of  male  only  as  long  as  the  last  dorsal  seg¬ 
ment;  cerci  in  apical  half  equal  and  deeply  sulcate  longi¬ 
tudinally,  so  as  to  appear  bent  at  right  angles. 

rileyanus  Scudd. 

g2.  Furcula  one-fifth  as  long  as  supraanal  plate;  cerci  in 
apical  half  tapering,  not  sulcate . blandus  Scudd. 

Melanoplus  dimidipennis  new  species. 

A  brachypterous  insect  the  size  of  which  is  slightly  below  the 
medium  and  in  which  the  tegmina  and  wings  reach  a  trifle  beyond  the 
middle  of  the  abdomen.  Legs,  under  parts,  and  abdomen  very  light 
colored,  the  latter  almost  white  except  the  two  basal  segments  which  for 
the  most  part  are  black  on  sides  and  above.  Pleurae  and  upper  half  of 
sides  of  front  lobe  of  pronotum  also  very  strongly  marked  with  fuscous, 
their  ground  color  along  with  greater  portion  of  head  light  plumbeous. 
Hind  tibiae  dirty  yellowish-white  with  a  greenish  tinge. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


67 

,  Entire  insect  sparsely  clothed  with  rather  long  erect  light-colored 

hairs.  Head  a  little  wider  than  front  edge  of  pronotum,  the  eyes  only 
moderately  prominent,  a  trifle  longer  than  the  cheeks  below  them;  ver¬ 
tex  rather  broad,  nearly  twice  the  diameter  of  basal  joint  of  antennae, 
the  fastigium  shallowly  but  broadly  sulcate,  depressed  and  roundly  unit¬ 
ing  with  upper  extremity  of  the  broad  prominent  frontal  costa,  the  latter 
with  straight  edges  and  expanding  but  little  below  where  it  reaches  the 
clypeus,  broadly  sulcate  at  ocellus  and  below  and  with  a  few  scattered 
punctures  above.  Antennae  a  little  longer  than  combined  length  of  head 
and  pronotum.  Pronotum  with  the  anterior  lobes  a  very  little  longer 
than  the  hind  lobe,  smooth  and  shining,  the  sides  parallel;  hind  lobe  di¬ 
verging  posteriorly,  the  surface  profusely  punctate,  the  hind  margins 
of  disk  broadly  angulate;  median  carina  quite  conspicuous  on  posterior 
lobe,  almost  obliterated  on  anterior  lobes;  transverse  sulcus  rather 
prominent,  especially  the  posterior  one  which  is  profound  and  nearly 
straight.  Prosternal  spine  rather  long,  fairly  stout,  regularly  pyrami¬ 
dal,  straight  and  with  the  apex  rounded.  Space  between  mesosternal 
lobes  about  half  again  as  long  as  broad,  divergent  behind.  Anterior  and 
middle  femora  not  especially  heavy;  the  hind  pair  somewhat  robust. 
Apical  portion  of  abdomen  very  little  or  not  at  all  enlarged ;  subgenital 
plate  longer  than  wide, directed  backward  and  gently  upward, the  extreme 
apex  a  little  produced, entire  but  with  the  surface  just  before  it  depressed 
so  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  being  notched  as  in  atlanis  and  allies; 
supraanal  plate  broadly  triangular,  the  sides  sinuate  and  with  the  edges 
on  basal  half  raised,  the  middle  provided  with  two  'rather  prominent 
nearly  parallel  carinae  inclosing  a  profound  longitudinal  channel  which 
reaches  from  the  base  nearly  to  the  apex,  but  which  is  interrupted  a 
little  beyond  the  middle  by  a  low  cross  ridge  joining  the  bounding  walls. 
Marginal  apophyses  a  little  longer  than  width  of  preceeding  segment, 
evenly  tapering  to  a  point,  their  bases  touching,  directed  backwards  and 
outwards  so  that  their  tips  cross  beyond  the  outer  edge  of  the  walls  of 
central  fovea  of  plate.  Cerci  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  of  nearly 
equal  width,  their  lower  outer  edge  gently  truncate  and  the  apex  rounded, 
directed  backward  and  inward. 

Length  of  body,  <3%  18  mm.;  of  pronotum,  3.4  mm.;  of  antennas, 
7  mm.;  of  tegmina,  8  mm.;  of  hind  femora,  10.25  mm. 

Habitat.  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  a  single  $  on  August  16th. 

By  the  use  of  Scudder’s  table  for  separating  the  species  of 
Melanoplus  as  published  in  his  “Revision  of  the  Melanopli”  this 
insect  seems  to  come  near  M.  dowsoni.  In  the  characters  of 
the  tip  of  male  abdomen  it  reminds  one  a  little  of  M.  intermedins, 
but  other  characteristics  throw  it  out  of  the  atlanis  group. 


The  Bees  of  the  Genus  Nomada 
Found  in  Colorado, 

With  a  Table  to  Separate  All  the  Species 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


BY  T.  D.  A.  COCKERELL. 

When  I  undertook  to  work  up  the  species  of  Nomada  con¬ 
tained  in  the  collection  of  the  Colorado  Agricultural  College,  I 
supposed  that  I  should  find  a  few  new  ones,  but  that  the  great 
majority  would  be  well-known  forms  long  ago  discovered  by  Morri¬ 
son,  Ridings,  and  others.  I  find  that  the  collection  contains  29 
species  and  varieties,  and  of  these  no  less  that  15  are  new.  Two 
others  represent  undescribed  sexes  of-  species  previously  known. 
This  result  serves  to  indicate  the  richness  of  the  Agricultural  Col¬ 
lege  collection  in  rare  and  new  forms,  and  the  great  value  of  the 
material  gathered  together  by  Professor  Gillette  and  his  associates. 
I  have  included  in  the  table  of  species  all  those  known  to  occur  in 
Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  Some  synonyms 
and  doubtful  records  have  been  omitted.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
more  northern  species,  from  Wyoming  and  Montana,  is  exceeding¬ 
ly  incomplete,  but  it  is  perhaps  not  without  significance  that  the 
few  species  known  from  these  states  all  range  eastward.  The  spe¬ 
cies  of  Colorado,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  to  represent  a  largely 
endemic  fauna,  though  some  eastern  elements  appear,  particularly 
in  the  north.  It  is  possible  to  separate  the  species  into  three 
groups,  those  which  belong  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  fauna  proper, 


70  BULLETIN  94. 

those  which  are  modified  representatives  of  eastern  species,  and 
have  probably  reached  Colorado  in  comparatively  recent  times, 
and  those  which  are  identical  with  species  found  east  of  the  plains. 
Examples  are  as  follows: 

(1.)  Rocky  Mountain  Fauna. — TV.  rubrella ,  schwarzi ,  mar  ti¬ 
lt  ell  a,  sc  it  a,  grandis ,  civilis ,  etc. 

(2.)  Modified  eastern  types. — TV.  lepida ,  dacotana ,  vegana , 
zebrata ,  luteopicta. 

(3.)  Typical  eastern  species. — TV.  bella ,  albofasciata ,  cuneata 
superb  a ,  •  vincta. 

A  few  appear  to  be  modifications  of  northwestern  types;  such 
are  taraxacella ,  pecosensis ,  and  possibly  a  few  others.  How  far 
the  species  extend  westward  through  Utah,  etc.,  cannot  be  stated, 
owing  to  our  almost  complete  ignorance  of  the  Nomadce  of  that 
region;  but  the  California TVfl;«#ato-fauna  is  very  distinct  from  that 
of  Colorado,  and  the  comparatively  few  species  seen  from  Nevada 
indicate  the  extension  of  the  Californian  fauna, at  least  in  part,  into 
that  state.  The  same  indications  exist  for  Idaho. 

The  Nomadce  of  the  mountains  of  northern  New  Mexico 
naturally  resemble  those  of  Colorado  to  a  considerable  extent,  but 
our  present  lists  show  a  rather  surprising  amount  of  difference, 
perhaps  mainly  the  result  of  inadequate  collecting.  The  species 
of  southern  New  Mexico  are  different,  and  belong  to  a  southwest¬ 
ern  fauna  which  no  doubt  extends  into  Arizona  and  northern 
Mexico,  though  no  knowledge  of  the  Nomadce  of  those  regions  ex¬ 
ists,  excepting  a  single  record  from  Juarez  in  Chihuahua. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  present  paper  will  facilitate  the  study  of 
Nomada  in  Colorado.  The  genus  offers  a  very  excellent  field  for 
research,  and  I  venture  to  hope  that  some  advanced  student  of  the 
Agricultural  College  will  interest  himself  in  it.  Undoubtedly 
more  new  species  await  discovery,  while  the  habits  of  none  of  the 
species  have  been  investigated.  Very  many  species  are  known 
only  in  one  sex,  and  there  are  probably  some  cases  in  which  the 
opposite  sexes  of  the  same  species  have  been  described  as  distinct. 

As  is  well  known,  Notnada  is  parasitic  in  the  nests  of  other 
bees,  principally  Andrena  and  Halictus.  This  parasitism  should 
be  carefully  studied,  and  it  is  necessary  to  breed  the  bees  from  the 
nests  in  order  to  fully  establish  it.  It  is  difficult  for  me  to  believe 
that  the  same  species  of  Nomada  can  be  parasitic  in  nests  of  both 
Andrena  and  Eucera ,  as  has  been  reported  of  TV.  alter nata  and  TV. 
agrestis ;  or  in  nests  of  both  Halidas  and  Collet es  as  is  recorded 
of  TV.  fare  a. 

TABLE  FOR  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  SPECIES. 

Vertex  and  mesothorax  smooth  and  shining;  male  entirely 


black,  females  with  a  red  abdomen  (Montana) . grimJsJfS  Ckll. 

Not  so,  never  entirely  black .  1. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


71 


Normally  with  only  two  submarginal  cells;  abdomen  red  with 
yellow  bands,  first  segment  red  without  a  band  (Mon¬ 


tana) . oblifierata  Cress. 

Normally  with  three  submarginal  cells . 2 

Very  large  and  robust,  over  13  mm.  long,  red  with  abundant 

yellow  markings . 3. 

Smaller,  usually  much  smaller . 4. 

Basal  nervure  considerably  basad  of  transverse  medial 

(Colo.) . grandis  Cress. 

Basal  nervure  meeting  transverse  medial  (Colo.) . magnifica  Ckll. 

Mandibles  bidentate  .  .5. 

Mandibles  simple . 14. 


Males .  6. 

Females . 12. 

Tegulae  more  or  less  yellow;  scutellum  usually  with  yellow 

spots;  abdomen  with  yellow  bands  (Colo.) . lepida  Cress. 

Tegulae  red;  scutellum  black  or  red . 7. 

Thorax  red  marked  with  black . 8. 

Thorax  black,  with  or  without  red  spot  on  the  scutellum . 10. 

Length  about  7  mm. ;  light  markings  creamy  white;  meta¬ 
thorax  red  with  a  central  black  mark.  (Colo.) . rubrella  Ckll. 

Size  larger;  abdominal  markings  strongly  yellow;  metathorax 

entirely  black . 9. 

Third  antennal  joint  long;  second  submarginal  cell  broad 

above.  (Colo.)  . . schwarzi  Ckll. 

Third  antennal  joint  shorter;  second  submarginal  cell  narrow 

above  (N.  M.) . schwarzi  contractula  Ckll. 

Size  larger,  length  9  to  10  mm.,  abdomen  with  yellow  bands. 

(Colo.) . bella  Cress. 

Size  smaller . 11. 

Abdomen  with  white  bands.  (Colo.) . albofasciata  Smith. 

Abdomen  with  yellow  spots  or  bands.  (Colo.) . cuneata  (Rob.) 

Larger,  10  mm.  long  or  over.  (Colo.) . bella  Cress. 

Smaller,  8  or  9  mm.  long . 13. 

Red  of  abdomen  dark.  (Colo.) . cuneata  (Rob.) 

Red  of  abdomen  light.  (Colo.)  . lepida  Cress. 

Anterior  coxae  strongly  spined;  abdomen  strongly  punctured . 15. 

Anterior  coxae  not  or  hardly  spined;  abdomen  usually  very 

minutely  or  not  distinctly  punctured . . 35. 

Males .  16. 

Females . 26. 

Apex  of  abdomen  entire;  supraclypeal  mark  surrounded  by 

black.  (N.  M.) . lippiae  Ckll. 

Apex  of  abdomen  notched,  though  sometines  feebly . 17. 

Flagellum  with  a  light  median  area,  on  each  side  of  which 

is  black . 18. 

Flagellum  ordinary,  not  so  colored . 21. 

Tegulae  pale  yellow  or  whitish;  supraclypeal  mark  present . 19. 

Tegulae  deep  ferruginous ;  ground-color  of  abdomen  nearly 

all  red.  (Colo.,  Mont.) . americana  dacotana  Ckll. 

First  abdominal  segment  largely  red,  without  light  mark¬ 
ings.  (N.  MJ . sophiarum  Ckll. 

First  abdominal  segment  black  or  almost,  with  a  narrowly 

interrupted  cream-colored  band . 20 

Abdomen  comparatively  narrow;  legs  clear  light  red. 

(Colo.) . scita  Cress. 

Abdomen  broad;  legs  darker.  (Colo.) . martinella  Ckll. 

Metathorax  with  yellow  marks.  (Colo.,  N.  M.) . vegana  (Ckll.) 

Metathorax  without  yellow  marks . 22 

Mesothorax  reddish,  size  rather  large;  wings  dark.  (Colo.) 

. lamarensis  Ckll. 

Mesothorax  entirely  black,  size  smaller . 23 


72 


BULLETIN  94. 


23.  Labrum  entirely  light  red;  light  markings  primrose-yellow; 

wings  clear,  strongly  clouded  at  apex.  (Colo.) . uhleri  Ckll. 

Labrum  yellowish-white.  (Colo.) . snowi  Cress. 

Labrum  blackish,  or  with  a  large  black  spot . 24 

24.  Light  markings  white;  flies  in  spring.  (N.  M.) . vierecki  Ckll. 

Light  markings  yellow;  fly  in  middle  and  late  summer  . 25 

25.  Ventral  surface  of  abdomen  with  two  light  bands.  (N.  M.)  crucis  Ckll. 
Ventral  surface  of  abdomen  dark  with  only  minute  light 

marks  (N.  M.) . neomexicana  Ckll. 

26.  Abdomen  red,  without  light  bands . 27. 

Abdomen  with  light  bands .  . 28. 

27.  Flagellum  clear  red.  (N.  M.,  Colo.) . mariinelia  Ckll. 

Flagellum  strongly  dusky.  (Colo.,  Mont.) - americana  dacotana  Ckll. 

28.  Mesothorax  reddish  (here  expect  the  unknown  9  of  lamaranais  Ckll.) 

Mesothorax  black,  with  little  if  any  red . 29. 

29.  Abdomen  red  with  white  bands  . 30. 

Not  so,  ground-color  of  abdomen  mainly  or  wholly  black . 31. 

30.  Mesothorax  densely  punctured.  (Colo.) .  . . ridingsii  Cress. 

Mesothorax  with  well-separated  punctures  on  a  shining 

ground.  (N.  M.) . vierecki  Ckll.  var. 

31.  Lateral  face-markings  white  or  yellowish  white . 32. 

Lateral  face-markings  yellow .  33. 

32.  Mesothorax  densely  punctured  (Colo.) . snowi  Cress. 

Mesothorax  sparcely  punctured  on  a  shining  ground  (N. 

M.)  . vierecki  Ckll. 

33.  Mesothorax  with  well  separated  punctures  on  a  shining 

ground;  ground  color  of  first  abdominal  segment  red 

(Colo.) . vegana  nitescens  Ckll. 

Mesothorax  densely  punctured . 34. 

34.  Metathorax  with  yellow  spots  (Colo.,  N.  M.) . vegana  Ckll. 

Metathorax  without  yellow  spots  (N.  M.)  . neomexioana  Ckll. 

35.  Abdomen  with  numerous  entire  (or  some  slightly  interrupted) 

light  bands . 36. 

Abdomen  with  light  bands,  more  or  less  widely  interrupted, 

at  least  on  some  of  the  segments . 59. 

Abdomen  red,  with  small  yellow  spots  (sometimes  bands  on 

apical  segments)  or  no  light  markings .  66. 

36.  Abdominal  bands  white  or  yellowish-white;  no  light  mark¬ 

ings  on  head  or  thorax;  venter  of  abdomen  ferruginous, 

immaculate . 37. 

Abdominal  bands  yellow . 38. 

37.  Scutellum  strongly  bilobate;  wings  paler  (Colo.) . paraia  Cress. 

Scutellum  not  strongly  bilobate;  wings  darker  (Colo.),  .tminda  Cress. 

38.  Legs  yellow  and  black,  without  very  much  red . 39. 

Legs  wholly  or  mainly  red,  or  red  and  yellow .  40. 

39.  Smaller;  third  antennal  joint  shorter  than  fourth  on  the  un¬ 

der  (light)  side  (Colo.) . civilis  Cress. 

Larger;  third  antennal  joint  longer  than  fourth  on  the  under 

side  (N.  M.) . peccsensis  (Ckll.) 

40.  First  abdominal  segment  without  yellow;  rfs . 41. 

First  abdominal  segment  with  yellow . 43. 

41.  First  abdominal  segment  black; scutellum  black(N.M.)ruidosensis  Ckll. 

First  abdominal  segment  red  and  black . 42. 

42.  Size  larger,  scutellum  red  (Colo.) . eoloradensis  Ckll. 

Size  small,  scutellum  black  with  small  light  spots  (Colo.) 

. coloradella  Ckll. 

43.  First  abdominal  segment  black  and  red,  with  a  yellow  spot 

on  each  extreme  lateral  margin;  flagellum  stout,  third  an¬ 
tennal  joint  shorter  than  fourth;  basal  nervure  basad  of 

transverse-medial . 44. 

First  abdominal  segment  with  a  yellow  band,  entire  or  inter¬ 
rupted  . 45. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  73 

44.  Flies  in  June;  a  good  deal  of  yellow  on  head  and  thorax 

(Colo.) . crawfontf  Ckll. 

Flies  in  May;  no  yellow  on  head  and  thorax  (Colo.). .  eoHinslana  Ckll. 

45.  Metathorax  ferruginous  and  black,  without  any  yellow;  cJ's . ..46. 

Metathorax  entirely  black . . 47. 

Metathorax  black  with  rather  small  light  spots;  lateral  face- 

marks  broad,  but  not  or  hardly  going  above  level  of  an¬ 
tennae;  apical  plate  of  abdomen  more  or  less  notched;  tfs . 51. 

Metathorax  with  two  large  yellow  (or  yellow  and  red)  spots . 52. 

46.  Metathorax  black  without  much  ferruginous;  scutellum  and 

postscutellum  yellow;  apical  plate  of  abdomen  entire;  flies 


yellowish;  size  smaller;  apical  plate  of  abdomen  deeply 


47.  Size  larger;  tegulae  yellow;  apical  plate  of  <9  abdomen  en¬ 

tire  (Colo.,  Wyo.) . superba  Cress. 

Size  much  smaller . 48. 

48.  Tegulse  yellow  (Colo  ) . lutsopieta  Ckll. 

Tegulse  ferruginous . 49. 

49.  Head  and  thorax  with  much  red;  larger;  flies  in  sping;  9  (N. 

M.) . placiiensis  Ckll. 

Head  and  thorax  without  red;  smaller;  apical  plate  of  abdo¬ 
men  notched;  c?s . 50. 

50.  Antennae  very  long,  denticulate  beneath;  fourth  joint  very 


long,  at  least  twice  as  long  as  third  on  upper  side  (N.  M., 

Colo.) . fragilis  Cress. 

Antennae  not  so  long,  not  denticulate  beneath ;  fourth  joint 

not  nearly  twice  length  of  third  on  upper  side  (Colo. )pa!lid©Ha  Ckll. 

51.  Supraclypeal  mark  present;  metathorax  with  four  reddish  or 

yellowish  spots,  two  being  on  the  enclosure  (Mont.)  . .  eSrosSi  Ckll. 
Supraclypeal  mark  absent;  metathorax  with  two  small  oval 

yellow  spots  (Colo.) . giifettei  Ckll. 

52.  Basal  nervure  meeting  transverse-medial  or  falling  short  of 

it;  species  (at  least  vincta  and  zebrata)  flying  in  late  summer 

and  early  fall  . 53. 

Basal  nervure  beginning  decidedly  (often  greatly)  basad  of 

transverse-medial . 54. 

53.  Apical  plate  of  ^  abdomen  entire;  mesothorax  of  <$  wholly 

black,  or  with  very  narrow  reddish  lateral  margins,  of  V 

black  or  red  and  black  (Colo.) . vincta  Say. 

Apical  plate  of  $  abdomen  slightly  notched;  mesothorax  of 

cT  with  yellow  lateral  margins, of  9  red  ( Colo., N.  M.)  zebrata  Cress, 
unknown;  mesothorax  of  9  black  with  yellow  lateral  mar- 
gins;thorax  narrower  than  in  zebrata;  yellow  of  metathorax 
intruding  on  enclosure  (which  is  not  the  case  in  vincta  or 
zebrata);  third  antennal  joint  considerably  shorter  than 
fourth  (it  is  considerably  longer  than  fourth  in  zebrata  and 
vincta)  (Colo.) . perivincta  Ckll. 

54.  Mesothorax  black,  with  the  anterior  lateral  corners  red;  api¬ 

cal  plate  of  abdomen  truncate,  not  appreciably  emargin- 
ate;  sides  of  metathoracic  enclosure  yellowish;  $  (Colo.) 

. agynia  Ckll. 

Mesothorax  red,  with  or  without  a  black  band ;  9  s . .  55. 

55.  Flagellum  strongly  blackened  at  end,  mesothorax  with  a 

broad  median  black  band;  scutellum  yellow  without  a 
median  dark  stripe  or  shade;  basal  nervure  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  basad  of  transverse-medial;  third  antennal  joint  a 

little  shorter  than  fourth  (Colo.) . perivincta  var.  semirufula  Ckll. 

Flagellum  red,  not  blackened  at  end . 56. 

56.  Ventral  surface  of  abdomen  yellow,  with  narrow  red  bands; 

scutellum  at  least  mostly  yellow . 57. 


74 


bulletin  94. 

Ventral  surface  of  abdomen  red  banded  with  yellow;  third 

antennal  joint  shorter  than  fourth . 58. 

57.  Third  antennal  joint  long-;  fourth  considerably  longer  than 

fifth  (Colo.) . morrisoni  var.  flageilaris  Ckll. 

Third  antennal  joint  shorter;  fourth  scarcely  longer  than 

fifth  (Colo.).' . morrisoni  Cress. 

58.  Scutellum  prominent,  entirely  red;  tegulae  strongly  punc¬ 

tured;  third  antennal  joint  much  shorter  than  fourth 

(Colo.) . * . rhodoxantha  Ckll. 

Scutellum  not  prominent,  with  a  yellow  band  at  base;  tegulae 
smooth  and  shining;  third  antennal  joint  a  little  shorter 
than  fourth  (Colo.) . dilucida  Cress. 

59.  Markings  white  or  cream-color .  . 60. 

Markings  yellow . 62, 

60.  Ferruginous  species;  third  antennal  joint  much  longer  than 

fourth  (N.  M.) . gutierrezis  Ckll. 

Black  or  red  and  black  species  . 61. 

61.  Scutellum  black  with  two  cream-colored  spots;  head  and 

thorax  without  red;  third  antennal  joint  slightly  longer 

than  fourth;  (N.  M.) . aquilarum  Ckll. 

Scutellum  ferruginous;  thorax  witli  much  red  in  both  sexes, 

third  antennal  joint  much  shorter  than  fourth  (Colo.)  acoepta  Cress. 

62.  rfs;  head  and  thorax  black . 63. 

9s;  head  and  thorax  red,  usually  marked  with  black . 64. 

63.  Smaller,  length  not  over  8  mm.;  scutellum  black;  upper  half 

of  clypeus  black  (N.  M.)  . . . beulahensis  Ckll. 

Larger,  length  10  mm.;  scutellum  red;  clypeus  yellow  (Colo  ) 

. vicinalis  Cress. 

64.  Tubercles  and  postscutellum  yellow;  venter  of  abdomen  large¬ 

ly  yellow  (Colo.) . alpha  Ckll. 

Tubercles  and  postscutellum  red;  venter  of  abdomen  red 

without  yellow . 65. 

65.  Front  marked  with  black;  a  black  stripe  on  mesothorax; 

apex  of  flagellum  fuscous;  second  abdominal  segment 
with  yellow  lateral  spots,  third  and  fourth  with  bands 

(Colo.)  . libata  Cress. 

Front  wholly  red;  no  black  stripe  on  mesothorax;  flagellum 
wholly  red;  second  and  third  abdominal  segments  with 
large  wedge-shaped  yellow  marks,  fourth  with  a  band  in¬ 
terrupted  on  each  side  (Colo.) . coioradensis  Ckll. 

66.  Head  and  thorax  black,  abdomen  black  and  rufous . 67. 

Head  red  marked  with  black;  thorax  black,  a  large  mark  on 

each  side  of  mesothorax,  the  scutellums  and  most  of 
pleura,  red;  clypeus  vellow;  abdomen  without  yellow; 

(Colo.) . adductaCress. 

Head  and  thorax  red;  clypeus  red . 68. 

67.  Clypeus  reddish;  legs  rufous;  basal  nervure  a  short  distance 

basad  of  transverse-medial;  third  antennal  joint  a  little 

longer  than  fourth  (N.  M.) . pentiigera  Ckll. 

Clypeus  black;  legs  black  (N.  M.) . sidsfloris  (Ckll.) 

68.  Larger,  about  7  or  8  mm.  long;  second  abdominal  segment 

with  yellow  spots . 69. 

Smaller,  about  6  mm.  long .  . 71. 

69.  Lower  anterior  orbits  very  narrowly  yellow;  third  antennal 

joint  very  much  shorter  than  fourth  (N.  M.).. . . . . taraxacella  (Ckll.) 

Lower  anterior  orbits  not  yellow . 70. 

70.  Fourth  and  fifth  abdominal  segments  with  yellow  bands,  not 

nearly  reaching  lateral  margins;  third  antennal  joint 

nearly  as  long  as  fourth  (Colo.) . luteopicta  Ckll. 

Fourth  and  fifth  abdominal  segments  without  yellow  bands; 

third  antennal  joint  much  shorter  than  fourth  (Colo.) _ sayi  Rob. 

71.  Abdomen  red  without  yellow  spots;  scape  stouter  andlighter; 

metathorax  without  a  black  band  (Colo.) . rhodosomella  (Ckll.) 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  75 

Abdomen  with  spots;  scape  darker  and  more  slender;  meta¬ 
thorax  with  a  black  band  (Colo.) . coloradelSa  Ckll. 


.  In  addition rto  the  species  recorded  in  the  table,  Nomada  (Micronomada)  putna- 
rtn.  Cress.,  N.  (Holonomada)  ciffabilis,  Cress.,  N.  ( Xanthidium)  citrina,  Cress.,  and  N. 
(Nomada  s.  str .)  pygmcea,  Cress.,  have  been  recorded  from  Colorado,  but  the  records 
appear  to  require  confirmation.  The  first  three  are  indicated  in  comparison  with 
Rocky  Mountain  species  in  tables  in  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  8ci.  Phila.,  1903,  pp.  581,  582  and  009. 
For  N.  affabilis  also  see  Robertson,  Canadian  Entomologist,  1903,  p.  177.  N.pygmsea 
( cf )  is  about  six  mm.  long,  mandibles  simple;  clypeus,  a  spot  above  it,  labrum,  mandi¬ 
bles  and  face  narrowly  on  each  side  of  clypeus,  yellow;  orbits  ferruginous;  abdomen 
granular. 

DESCRIPTIONS  AND  NOTES. 

Nomada  (Gnathias)  iefssda,  Cresson. 

Evidently  very  common  at  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  numerous 
specimens  of  both  sexes  sent  by  Prof.  Gillette.  The  dates  are  from 
May  8  to  17. 

The  insect  which  I  described  (Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1903  p. 
000)  as  the  probable  9  of  N.  schwarzi ,  is  really  the  9  of  lepida. 

Nomada  (Gnaihias)  cuneata,  (Robertson). 

A  $  (sent  by  Prof.  Gillette)  was  collected  at  Fort  Collins,  foot” 
hills,  May  10,  1900,  by  E.  S.  G.  Titus.  Others  seem  intermediate 
between  lepida  and  cuneata ,  and  I  rather  expect  that  it  will  be¬ 
come  necessary  to  regard  the  latter  as  a  subspecies  of  lepida.  At  the 
same  time,  numerous  eastern  specimens  of  cuneata  show  no  inter¬ 
gradation  with  lepida.  It  is  perhaps  a  case  like  that  of  the  bird- 
genus  Colaptes. 

Nomada  (Gnaihias)  albofasciaia,  Smith. 

Two  ^s  (sent  by  Prof.  Gillette);  one  Fort  Collins,  foothills, 
April  24,  1900,  by  Titus;  the  others  uColo.  1581”  taken  at  Fort 
Collins,  foothills,  May  6,  1904,  by  C.  F.  Baker. 

NcmacSa  (Gnaihias)  beSla,  Cresson. 

A  Colorado  9  without  locality  label  (sent  by  Prof.  Gillette). 

Nomada  (GnaiSiias)  rubreiia,  new  species. 

length  hardly  7  mm.;  closely  allied  to  N.  schwarzi ,  but  differing 
as  follows:  Smaller;  light  markings  creamy-white  instead  of  yellow; 
sides  of  front  narrowly,  sides  of  vertex  broadly  (and  enclosing  a  yellow 
spot),  a  band  behind  ocelli,  and  posterior  orbital  margins  ferruginous; 
mesothorax  dark  ferruginous  with  a  median  black  stripe;  most  of  pleura 
ferruginous;  metathorax  (all  black  in  schwarzi)  ferruginous  with  an 
elongate  black  mark ;  middle  femora  with  a  little  more  than  the  basal 
third  black  behind,  the  black  very  sharply  defined  from  the  red;  tegulae 
smaller  and  yellower;  first  abdominal  segment  (black  right  across  at 
base  in  schwarzi)  with  very  little  black,  only  forming  lateral  hook-shaped 
marks;  apical  portion  of  abdomen  not  blackish;  apical  plate  much  less 
strongly  notched.  In  both  there  is  a  yellowish  mark  at  the  apex  of  the 
abdomen  beneath. 

Habitat.  PAort  Collins,  Colorado,  May  18,  1901, near  foothills,  taken 
by  Mrs.  Laura  Titus  from  plum  blossoms. 

Nomada  (Nomadula)  americana  variety  dacotana,  Cockerell. 

$  (sent  by  Prof.  Gillette);  the  9s  are  not  distinguishable 
from  true  americana.  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  May  28  and  June 


j6  bulletin  94. 

1 7.  Also  Colorado  2562  (Fort  Collins,  June  n,  1893,  C.  P.  Gil¬ 
lette,  collector),  1170  (Fort  Collins,  June  13,  1893,  C.  P.  Gillette, 
collector)  and  623  (Fort  Collins,  July  5,  1903,  C.  P.  Gillette,  col¬ 
lector). 

Nomada  (Nknnadula)  mariinella,  Cockerell. 

Three  9s  (sent  by  Prof.  Gillette)  are  variable,  and  do  not  sup¬ 
port  the  idea  that  the  Colorado  form  is  distinct  from  that  of  New 
Mexico.  Two  are  from  Fort  Collins,  May  28  and  June  19;  the 
other  is  marked  Colorado  2521  (Fort  Collins,  May  28,  1897,  E.  S. 
G.  Titus,  collector). 

The  $  of  N. mar tinella  has  not  been  described,  but  I  find 
three  specimens  in  the  Colorado  collection.  They  are  closely  allied 
to  N.  scita ,  but  are  readily  separated  by  the  broader  abdomen  and 
darker  legs;  the  tegulse  are  bright  lemon  yellow  with  a  hyaline 
spot;  the  thorax  is  covered  with  coarse  hair  which  has  a  decided 
brownish  tint.  The  scape  is  more  swollen  than  in  scita,  and  the 
yellow  of  the  face  is  darker  and  stronger.  The  hind  femora  are 
stout  with  the  lower  edge  decidedly  concave.  The  scutellum  is 
black.  These  3s  are  marked  Fort  Collins,  May  20  and  21,  and 
Colorado  2521. 

Namada  (Micro  nomad  a)  vegana,  (Cockerell). 

This  was  described  as  a  variety  of  N.  mod^sta,  but  it  seems  to 
be  a  distinct  though  closely  allied  species.  The  ^s  are  like  true 
?nodcsta>  but  uniformly  small.  Prof.  Gillette  sends  five  ^s  and 
two  $s.  They  are  mostly  from  Fort  Collins,  July  4  to  20;  one  is 
marked  Colorado  1204  (Fort  Collins,  June  26,  1893,  attracted  to 
Heliantlius  leaves  by  their  secretions. — C.  F.  Baker,  collector). 

Nsmada  iMicronomatia)  vogana  variety  niisscons,  new  variety. 

9,  just  like  vegana,  except  that  the  mesothorax,  instead  of  being 
very  closely  punctured,  has  large  irregularly  scattered  punctures  on  a 
shining  ground.  The  ground-color  of  the  first  abdominal  segment  is  red, 
and  there  is  a  red  supraclvpeal  mark.  Perhaps  a  distinct  species. 

Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  August  8,  1899  (E.  S.  G.  Titus,  col¬ 
lector). 

Namada  (Micranomada)  Samarensis,  new  species. 

<3\  length  about  91  mm. ;  red,  yellow  and  black.  Markings  bright 
lemon  yellow,  the  pattern  as  in  N.  vegana ,  except  that  the  mark  on  the 
pleura  is  narrower,  the  marks  on  the  metathorax  are  wholly  absent,  and 
the  band  on  the  second  abdominal  segment  is  extremely  broad;  the 
ground-color  of  the  body  is  dark  red,  becoming  black  on  the  vertex,  the 
anterior  part  of  mesothorax, and  the  enclosure  of  metathorax, and  almost 
black  on  the  pleura  below  the  yellow  band;  the  fourth  abdominal  seg¬ 
ment  is  black  anteriorly  to  the  rather  narrow  yellow  band,  and  the 
fourth  ventral  segment  is  black  with  two  transverse  reddish  stripes,  one 
on  each  side.  The  insect  is  much  more  robust  than  vegana  (in  build  sim¬ 
ilar  to  wlieeleri ),  and  the  head  and  thorax  are  very,  coarsely  punctured; 
the  punctures  of  the  mesothorax  are  extremely  large,  and  many  of  them 
confluent.  Those  of  the  pleura  also  very  large.  Sides  of  vertex  with  the 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


77 

punctures  very  irregular,  but  leaving  a  good  deal  of  shining  surface;  an* 
tennas  red,  third  joint  longer  than  fourth,  flagellum  blackish  above;  teg 
ulae  yellow  with  a  ferruginous  spot  and  rim;  wings  dusky,  the  apex 
very  dark;  stigma  orange-ferruginous;  nervures  fuscous;  second  sub- 
marginal  cell  large  and  nearly  square,  receiving  the  recurrent  nervure 
just  beyond  the  middle  ;basal  nervure  meeting  transverse-medial;  ventral 
surface  of  abdomen  without  yellow  markings;  legs  red,  hind  coxae  with  a 
yellow  spot,  hind  tibiae  with  some  yellow;  anterior  coxae  with  red  spines. 
Apical  plate  deeply  notched. 

One  from  Lamar,  Colorado,  June  17,  1900,  (E.  D.  Ball,  col¬ 
lector).  This  cannot  be  the  $  of  N.  wheeleri ,  as  that  species  has 
the  submarginal  cells  quite  different;  in  wheeleri  the  third  sub¬ 
marginal  cell  is  at  least  as  broad  above  as  the  second,  in  lamaren¬ 
sis  the  second  is  rather  more  than  twice  as  broad  above  as  the 
third.  The  wings  are  much  darker  in  lamarensis  that  in  wheeleri . 
N.  lamarensis  resembles  N.  crassula  in  the  very  coarsely  punc¬ 
tured  mesothorax,  and  also  in  build,  but  differs  in  its  red  color, 
more  strongly  (indeed  very  strongly)  bilobed  scutellum,  presence 
of  a  supraclypeal  mark,  etc. 

Nomada  (Micronomaiia)  ulderi,  new  species. 

c?;  length  about  7  k  mm.;  similar  to  N.  vegana  but  more  robust,  the 
abdomen  of  spherical  form,  after  the  manner  of  N.  erigeronis ;  markings 
light  primrose-yellow  (deep  yellow  in  vegana ),  similar  to  those  of  vegana, 
but  the  labrum  is  entirely  light  red,  the  scape  has  only  a  yellow  shade, 
and  the  metathorax  is  wholly  without  yellow  marks;  the  mesothorax  is 
densely  punctured, more  densely  and  coarsely  than  in  vegana] ground-color 
of  head  and  thorax  black,  but  middle  of  mandibles  red,  a  small  red  spot 
beneath  the  wings,  and  a  red  patch  above  middle  and  hind  coxae;  anten¬ 
nae  red,  scape  and  basal  part  of  flagellum  blackened  above,  the  black  not 
ending  abruptly;  tegulae  primrose-yellow,  with  hyaline  spot  and  margins; 
wings  clear,  with  very  dark  apex;  stigma  ferruginous,  nervures  piceous, 
second  marginal  cell  nearly  square,  and  receiving  the  recurrent  nervure 
very  near  the  middle;  in  one  wing  of  the  type  the  first  recurrent  nervure 
is  divided  at  the  end, forming  an  areolet  under  the  second  submarginal  cell ; 
basal  nervure  meeting  transverse-medial,  and  third  antennal  joint  longer 
than  fourth,  as  usual  in  Micronomada',  spines  on  anterior  coxae  red  and 
very  long;  legs  red,  anterior  tibiae  with  alight  yellow  stripe  in  front,  hind 
coxae  with  a  yellow  mark;  there  is  a  yellowish  spot  at  the  apex  of  each 
femur,  and  at  the  end  of  the  hind  tibia;  abdomen  dark  brown  above,  clear 
red  on  first  segment,  beneath  dark  ferruginous,  with  linear  yellowish 
markings;  above,  the  first  segment  shows  abroad  primrose-yellow  band, 
the  second  an  extremely  broad  band,  narrower  in  the  middle,  and  the 
others  bands  which  are  hidden  by  the  retraction  of  the  segments;  apical 
plate  strongly  notched. 

One  from  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  August  18,  1900,  (E.  S.  G. 
Titus,  collector).  Named  after  Dr.  Uhler,  who  was  one  of  the  first 
to  collect  species  of  No  mad  a  in  Colorado. 

Nomada  (Holonomada)  grandis,  Cresson. 

One  marked  Colorado  2509,  taken  in  the  foothills  near  Fort 
Collins,  May  26,  by  C.  P.  Gillette.  This  differs  from  N.  magnidca 
in  the  venation,  but  otherwise  they  are  practically  the  same.  I 
do  not  know  whether  the  differential  character,  which  in  the  case  of 
Gnathias  is  certainly  subgeneric,  can  here  be  only  varietal. 


78  bulletin  94. 

Momaila  (Holonomada)  pecosensis,  (Cockerell). 

A  ^  from  Palisades,  Colorado,  May  7,  1901,  from  apple  bloom, 
(C.  P.  Gillette  collector).  It  differs  from  the  5  in  having  the 
pleura  with  a  comparatively  small  yellow  mark,  and  no  yellow  spot 
in  front  of  anterior  ocellus;  the  abdomen  also  is  more  inclined  to 
be  punctured.  The  species  is  the  Rocky  Mountain  representative 
of  N.  edwardsii ,  from  which  it  is  easily  known  by  the  red  color 
on  the  legs.  Except  as  to  the  abdomen,  the  $  N.  pecosensis  agrees 
with  the  description  of  N.  intercepta ,  Smith,  from  Vancouver  I., 
which  is  evidently  a  Holonomada. 

tenada  (Hdsnomada)  vincta,  Say. 

Perfectly  genuine  vincta ,  one  of  each  sex,  were  taken  by  F. 
C.  Bishopp,  at  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  September  4  and  12,  1903, 
from  sunflowers.  (Helianthus  sp.) 

Nomada  (Holonomada)  lebrata,  Cresson. 

A  5  collected  by  E.  S.  G.  Titus  at  Fort  Collins,  July  28,  1900. 
When  we  consider  N.  zcbrata ,  vincta ,  rnorrisoni ,  etc.,  the  distinc¬ 
tions  between  Holonomada  and  Xanthidium  appear  to  completely 
break  down.  Holonomada  might  possibly  be  restricted  to  superba , 
edwardsii,  pecosensis ,and  their  immediate  allies;  if  this  is  not  done, 
Xanthidium  must  I  think  be  given  up. 

Flomada  elivilis,  Cresson. 

Three  ^s;  Fort  Collins,  May  12,  1901,  from  plum  blossoms* 
(E.  S.  G.  Titus,  collector)  and  one  Denver,  May  2,  1902. 

Nom&da  (Xanthidium)  rhodoxantha,  new  species. 

9;  length  about  10  mm.,  head  and  thorax  ferruginous,  strongly 
and  closely  punctured;  scutellum  prominent,  bilobed;  antennae  long,  en¬ 
tirely  red,  third  joint  much  shorter  than  fourth,  flagellum  stout;  labrum 
with  a  minute  denticle;  extreme  lower  corners  of  face  yellow,  but  no  yel¬ 
low  on  clypeus  or  mandibles;  upper  border  of  prothorax  with  a  yellow 
stripe;  tubercles  and  tegulae  ferruginous,  the  latter  strongly  punctured; 
pleura  with  an  obscure  yellow  spot  posteriorly  ;metathorax  with  a  medi¬ 
an  black  band,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a  large  area  (including  the  sides 
of  the  enclosure)  variegated  with  red  and  yellow;  legs  red,  middle  femora 
at  base  beneath,  and  hind  femora  largely  blackish;  wings  clear  with  a 
brownish  stain  along  the  nervures,  tips  dusky;  stigma  bright  ferrugin¬ 
ous,  nervures  brown;  second  submarginal  cell  broad  above,  third  greatly 
narrowed  above,  its  outer  margin  strongly  angled;  basal  nervure  a  short 
distance  basad  of  transverse  medial;  abdomen  minutely  rugulose,  ferru¬ 
ginous,  with  broad  entire  yellow  bands  on  all  the  segments,  basal  half 
of  first  segment  black;  venter  ferruginous,  marked  with  yellow.  The 
mesothorax  has  a  strongly  marked  median  black  band. 

One  specimen,  Colorado,  without  other  locality  label. 

This  has  the  general  appearance  of  N.  rnorrisoni ,  luteoloides,  etc. 
From  luteoloides  it  is  easily  known  by  the  ferruginous,  densely  punc¬ 
tured  (minutely  cancellate)  scutellum.  From  rnorrisoni  it  differs  by  the 
much  narrower  mesothorax,  with  larger  and  much  more  distinct  punc¬ 
tures;  the  shape  of  the  third  submarginal  cell,  etc.  From  placitensis  it 
differs  by  the  much  longer  fourth  antennal  joint,  the  absence  of  the  con¬ 
spicuous  brown  hair  on  vertex  and  dorsum  of  thorax,  etc.  A  form  of 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  79 

N.  rhodoxantha  differing  in  some  slight  details  of  color,  has  been  taken 
by  Dr.  Graenicher  at  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  on  June  3. 

Nomada  (Xatifhidium)  crawfordi,  new  species. 

9  ;  length  about  11  mm.,  another  red  species  with  entire  and  broad 
bright  yellow  bands  on  the  abdomen,  similar  to  the  last,  but  the  first 
segment  has  a  round  yellow  spot  on  each  side,  instead  of  a  band.  The 
sides  of  the  face  broadly,  the  anterior  edge  of  the  clypeus,  the  labrum, 
the  upper  margin  of  prothorax,  the  tubercles,  two  spots  on  the  tegulae, 
and  four  spots  on  the  metathorax,  are  yellow.  The  ventral  surface  of 
the  abdomen  is  mainly  yellow  beyond  the  first  segment.  The  scape  is 
suffused  with  yellow  in  front,  the  flagellum  is  strongly  blackish  above 
towards  the  end,  but  the  extreme  tip  is  red;  the  third  antennal  joint  is  a 
little  shorter  than  the  fourth;  the  second  submarginal  cell  is  broad  above, 
the  third  much  narrowed  above,  its  outer  margin  strongly  angled;  the 
basal  nervure  is  a  short  distance  basad  of  the  transverso-medial. 

It  is  distinguished  from  the  various  similar  species  thus: 

From  N.  dilucida  by  the  mesothorax  being  entirely  red  except  the 
narrow  anterior  border  and  the  median  band, which  are  black;  by  the  scu¬ 
tellum  being  entirely  red;  by  the  metathorax  having  four  yellow  spots; 
by  the  strongly  punctured  tegulae ;  by  the  hind  femora  having  a  long- 
oval  red  mark  clean-cut  out  of  the  blackish  at  the  base  behind;  by  the 
hind  tibiae  being  entirely  red,  but  the  basal  joint  of  the  hind  tarsi  yel¬ 
low  behind;  and  by  the  first  abdominal  segment  being  red, with  a  yellow 
spot  on  each  side  between  two  black  spots.  From  N.  rhodoxantha  by  the 
broader  form,  longer  third  antennal  joint,  duskier  wings,  and  cpiite  dif¬ 
ferent  pattern  of  first  abdominal  segment.  From  N.  morrisoni  by  the 
longer  fourth  antennal  joint,  peculiar  color  of  flagellum,  red  scutellum, 
shape  of  third  submarginal  cell,  etc.  From  N.  placitensis  by  its  larger 
size,  yellow  on  face,  much  less  black  on  thorax,  etc.  From  N.  zebrata 
by  the  proportions  of  the  antennal  joints,  red  scutellum,  etc.  From  N. 
citrina  v.  rufula  by  the  red  pleura  and  scutellum,  the  color  of  the  flagel¬ 
lum,  the  absence  of  a  yellow  spot  at  the  apex  of  the  posterior  femora, 
etc.  The  yellow  of  the  legs  is  practically  confined  to  the  hind  tarsi  and 
front  knees. 

One  specimen;  Virginia  Dale,  Colorado,  June  20,  1901,  F.  C. 
Bishopp,  collector.  N.  crawfordi  is  named  after  Mr.  J.  C.  Craw¬ 
ford,  Jr.,  in  recognition  of  his  work  on  bees. 

Mcirsda  (Xanfhidium)  ccNinsiana,  new  species. 

Two  $s  taken  by  S.  A.  Johnson,  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  May 
11  and  20,  1903.  One  from  wild  plum.  I  had  at  first  considered 
this  a  variety  of  N.  crawfordi ,  but  it  may  be  kept  separate  for  the 
present,  at  any  rate.  It  differs  from  crawfordi  thus:  A  trifle 
smaller;  no  yellow  whatever  on  head  or  thorax;  middle  of  front 
black,  with  a  red  spot  in  front  of  anterior  ocellus;  flagellum  red; 
apical  part  not  blackened;  thorax  more  hairy;  tegulse  entirely  red; 
third  submarginal  cell  nearly  or  not  far  from  as  broad  above  as 
second;  basal  nervure  more  basad  of  transverso-medial;  legs  with¬ 
out  yellow,  except  a  small  obscure  spot  at  base  of  anterior  and 
middle  tibiae;  hind  femora  red,  with  a  broad  black  stripe  behind, 
not  reaching  either  end,  and  on  it  a  band  of  short  yellowish  hair; 
hind  coxae  with  much  black  (only  a  little  in  crawfordi );  base  and 
apical  margin  of  first  abdominal  segment  black;  pygidial  plate  nar¬ 
rower,  venter  ferruginous  marked  with  yellow  and  black. 

7  /  o  * 


8o 


BULLETIN  94. 

Nomatia  (Xanthidium)  psrivincta,  new  species. 

A  $  marked  Colorado,  without  definite  locality. 

Length  10L  mm.;  ground-color  of  head  and  thorax  black;  labrum 
yellow,  with  a  small  reddish  spine;  mandibles  pale  ferruginous,  with 
black  tips ;  face  below  antennae  yellow;  the  upper  part  of  clypeus,  and 
upper  part  of  supraclypeal  area,  ferruginous;  front  with  ferruginous 
bands  continued  from  the  lateral  face  marks,  strongly  curving  inwards; 
a  red  spot  before  middle  ocellus;  posterior  orbital  margins  rather  broad¬ 
ly  red;  scape  ferruginous  behind,  bright  yellow  in  front;  flagellum  ferru¬ 
ginous,  the  last  six  joints  strongly  blackened,  the  extreme  apex  red; 
fourth  antennal  joint  much  longer  than  third;  mesothorax  very  coarsely 
and  densely  rugoso-punctate,  its  lateral  margins  yellow  edged  with  fer¬ 
ruginous;  upper  border  of  prothorax,  tubercles,  scutellum,  a  spot  at 
each  anterior  corner,  postscutellum,  and  large  quadrate  marks  on  meta¬ 
thorax  encroaching  on  enclosure,  all  bright  yellow;  pleura  yellow,  with 
a  small  black  and  red  mark  above,  and  a  large  black  mark  surrounded 
by  red  below;  legs  a  lively  red;  hind  coxae  with  a  large  black  markbehind 
and  a  yellow  one  above;  anterior  femora  yellow  in  front  and  apically, 
middle  fomora  with  less  yellow  in  front,  but  a  large  mark  at  apex,,  hind 
femora  with  a  yellow  stripe  in  front  and  a  large  black  area  behind;  tibiae 
yellow  on  outer  side,  hind  tibiae  with  a  black  stripe  behind;  basal  joint 
of  hind  tarsi  mainly  yellow;  tegulae  shining  and  sparsely  punctured, 
ferruginous  with  a  yellow  spot  in  front;  wings  rather  yellowish,  apex 
clouded;  stigma  bright  ferruginous,  nervures  brown;  second  submarginal 
cell  very  broad  above,  not  far  from  square,  receiving  the  recurrent  ner- 
vure  well  beyond  its  middle;  third  a  little  broader  below  than  second, but 
very  greatly  narrowed  above,  its  outer  margin  strongly  angled;basal  ner- 
vure  meeting  transverso-medial;  abdomen  minutely  rugulose,  bright  yel¬ 
low,  with  the  base  of  first  segment,  and  three  broad  bands  at  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  segments,  black;  hind  margin  of  fourth  segment  reddish 
brown,  fifth  all  yellow;  venter  yellow  (reddish  on  sides  of  first  segment) 
with  three  black  bands  on  which  are  reddish  stripes. 

N.  perivincta  differs  from  N.  vincta  by  the  considerably  larger  punc¬ 
tures  of  the  mesothorax,  the  color  of  the  hind  legs,  the  yellow  of  meta¬ 
thorax  intruding  on  enclosure,  the  proportions  of  the  antennal  joints, 
etc.  From  N.  citrina  it  differs  by  the  narrower  face,  the  broad  third 
submarginal  cell,  etc.  From  N.  citrina  v.  rnfula  by  the  narrower  face, 
the  blackened  apical  part  of  flagellum,  etc.  From  N.  rhodoxantha  by  the 
yellow  scutellum,  color  of  legs,  etc.  From  N.  sulphurata  by  the  much 
narrower  first  segment  of  abdomen,  broad  third  submarginal  cell,  etc. 
From  N.  rivalis  by  the  markings  of  thorax  and  legs,  etc. 

Nornada  psri/insla  variety  samirufula,  new  variety. 

A  $  marked  Colorado,  without  definite  locality. 

Mesothorax  mainly  dark  red, with  a  broad  median  black  band, 
and  a  good  deal  of  black  011  the  anterior  and  posterior  margins;  an¬ 
terior  lateral  corners  only  yellow.  Lower  part  of  pleura  with  a  large 
red  patch  without  black;  yellow  marks  on  metathorax  margined 
with  red;  first  abdominal  segment  considerably  broader,  its  basal 
hal  fired  with  a  blackish  transverse  band ;_  venter  with  black  bands 
only  on  the  first  and  extreme  base  of  fourth  segments.  This  re¬ 
sembles  A7!  sulphurata  in  the  darkened  apical  part  of  flagellum,  etc., 
but  the  first  abdominal  segment  though  broader  than  in  the  type, 
is  by  no  means  so  broad  as  in  sulphurata ,  while  the  colors  of  the 
mesothorax  and  ventral  surface  of  abdomen,  and  the  shape  of  the 
third  submarginal  cell,  are  quite  different.  The  basal  nervure  in 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST.  8 1 

semirufula  begins  well  basad  of  the  transverso-medial,  as  in  sul¬ 
phur  at  a  and  not  as  in  perivincta. 

Fflorctasia  giilstlei,  new  species. 

Named  after  Professor  Gillette,  who  has  done  so  much  for 
Colorado  entomology.  The  type  is  a  $  marked  Colorado  2198. 
Taken  at  Golden,  July  3rd,  by  C.  P.  Gillette. 

Length  91  mm.;  head  and  thorax  black,  densely  and  coarsely  punc¬ 
tured;  facial  quadrangle  considerably  broader  than  long;  front  concave; 
labrum,  basal  half  of  mandibles,  clypeus,  very  broad  lateral  face  marks 
ending  at  level  of  antennae,  and  broad  marks  beneath  eyes,  all  chrome 
yellow;  antennae  lively  ferruginous,  fourth  joint  much  longer  than  third; 
scape  quite  swollen,  yellow  in  front,  and  with  a  black  dash  and  dot  be¬ 
hind;  hair  of  head  and  thorax  scanty,  white;  upper  border  of  prothorax, 
tubercles,  V-shaped  mark  beneath,  and  a  spot  on  each  side  of  the  lower 
part  of  metathorax,  all  yellow;  scuteilum  with  two  minute  red  spots;  legs 
a  lively  red,  extreme  base  of  anterior  and  middle  tibiae  with  an  obscure 
yellowish  spot;  middle  femora  with  a  small  black  spot  at  extreme  base; 
hind  femora  nearly  all  black  behind;  tegulae  punctured,  whitish  tinged 
with  red;  wings  clear,  yellowish  along  the  nervures;stigma  andnervures 
ferruginous;  second  submarginal  cell  broad  above,  receiving  the  recur¬ 
rent  nervure  a  little  beyond  its  middle;  third  at  least  as  broad  as  sec¬ 
ond  below,  but  narrowed  more  than  half  above,  its  outer  margin  bent; 
basalnervure  a  short  distance  basad  of  transverso-medial;  abdomen  yel¬ 
low,  the  bases  of  the  segments  black,  their  apical  margins  pale  ferrugin¬ 
ous;  the  yellow  band  on  the  first  segment  is  interrupted  in  the  middle  by 
a  reddish  triangle  pointing  posteriorly;  apical  plate  narrow,  feebly 
notched;  venter  yellow,  banded  with  dark  reddish  brown.  The  face  is 
bare,  without  the  beautiful  appressed  white  hair  seen  in  N.  elrodi.  The 
colors  of  the  abdomen  recall  N.  civilis. 

Nomatia  agynia,  new  species. 

One  £  sent  by  Prof.  Gillette,  marked  Colorado  2196,  Golden, 
July,  C.  P.  Gillette,  collector. 

Length  about  9  mm.:  black  with  yellow  markings;  head  broad,  fac¬ 
ial  quadrangle  about  square;  basal  two-thirds  of  mandibles,  labrum,  cly¬ 
peus,  lateral  face-marks  (broad  below,  gradually  narrowing  to  a  point  at 
top  of  eyes)  and  posterior  orbits  nearly  to  summit,  all  yellow;  clypeus 
with  the  usual  sutural  black  spots;  supraclypeal  mark  obscure  reddish, 
narrowly  surrounded  by  black;  antennae  not  very  long,  third  joint  much 
shorter  chan  fourth;  scape  stout,  heavily  marked  with  black  on  a  red 
field  above,  yellow  below  (in  front);  flagellum  dark  ferruginous,  blackish 
above,  especially  towards  base;  mesothorax  dull,  very  densely  and  quite 
coarsely  rugoso-punctate,tlie  anterior  lateral  corners,  and  a  few  marks 
on  lateral  margin,  red;  upper  border  of  prothorax,  tubercles,  scuteilum 
and  postscutellum,  yellow;  pleura  red  with  a  broad  curved  transverse 
yellow  band,  and  a  large  black  spot  beneath;  metathorax  black  in  the 
middle,  the  sides  (encroaching  on  the  enclosure)  variegated  with  red  and 
yellow;  tegulae  yellow, large, shining  and  rather  sparsely  punctured;  wings 
quite  long,  hyaline,  the  apex  blackened;  stigma  ferruginous,  nervures 
fuscous;  second  submarginal  cell  broad  below,  but  narrowed  above;  third 
broad  below,  and  narrowed  more  than  half  above;  basal  nervure  a  short 
distance  basad  of  transverso-medial;  legs  lively  ferruginous,  the  hind 
femora  and  tibiae  darker,  the  hind  femora  black  behind  except  at  base 
and  apex;  middle  femora  somewhat  swollen,  with  a  blackish  spot  on 
apical  hall  behind;  knees,  and  a  stripe  on  anterior  tibiae,  yellow;  abdo¬ 
men  rather  broad,  closely  and  minutely  punctured;  all  the  segments  yel¬ 
low  with  black  bases  and  ferruginous  apical  margins,  the  yellow  of  the 


82 


bulletin  94. 

first  segment  with  a  pair  of  small  reddish  sublateral  marks;  apical  plate 
narrow,  truncate,  with  the  faintest  suggestion  of  an  emargination ;  ven¬ 
ter  yellow  with  blackish  and  reddish  bands. 

This  is  possibly  the  of  some  described  species,  but  after  repeated 
comparisons,  I  cannot  satisfactorily  assign  it  to  any.  In  my  table  in 
Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1903,  p.  559,  it  runs  to  pascoensis,  which  it 
superfiicially  resembles,  but  it  is  easily  known  from  that  by  the  quite 
ordinary  last  antennal  joint,  the  light  marks  on  metathorax,  etc. 

Somalia  paiiitielSa,  new  species. 

One  £  marked  Colorado  566  (Montrose,  June  24,  1902,  C.  P 
Gillette,  collector). 

Length  about  7~k  mm.;  black,  marked  with  pale  yellow;  quite  hairy. 
Facial  quadrangle  about  square:  labrum,  mandibles  except  tips,  narrow 
stripe  beneath  eyes,  clypeus  and  lateral  face-marks,  yellow, lateral  face- 
marks  reduced  to  a  triangle  at  lower  corners  of  face,  which  sends  a  line 
upwards  along  orbital  margin  nearly  to  level  of  antennae;  antennae  long, 
scape  ordinary,  yellow  in  front;  third  joint  much  shorter  than  fourth; 
flagellum  dark  ferruginous,  blackened  above;  mesothorax  dull  and  very 
densely  rugoso-punctate;  tubercles,  a  small  mark  on  anterior  part  of 
pleura,  and  two  spots  on  scutellum,  yellow  or  yellowish  tinged  with 
reddish;  metathorax  entirely  black;  hair  of  dorsum  of  thorax  brownish; 
tegulae  ferruginous,  punctured;  wings  iridescent,  dusky  at  tips;  stigma 
ferruginous,  nervures  fuscous;  second  submarginal  cell  broad  above, 
third  greatly  narrowed  above;  basal  nervure  meeting  transverso-medial, 
but  a  little  on  the  basad  side;  legs  red  without  any  yellow;  basal  half  of 
anterior  femora  behind,  most  of  basal  two-thirds  of  middle  femora  be¬ 
hind  and  beneath,  and  all  of  the  hind  femora  except  apex,  black;  hind 
tibiae  with  a  blackish  dash  on  inner  side;  abdomen  minutely  roughened; 
light  yellow  bands  on  segments  two  to  six  not  interrupted,  but  those  on 
four  and  five  enclosing  laterally  a  dark  spot;  band  on  first  segment  with 
a  rather  broad  median  ferruginous  interruption,  the  area  posterior  to  the 
band  also  being  ferruginous,  with  two  blackish  dots;  otherwise,  the  dark 
parts  of  the  abdomen  are  black  or  almost  so;  apex  with  long  hairs;  apical 
plate  quite  broad,  deeply  notched;  venter  red-brown,  with  yellow  bands 
bent  in  the  middle  and  not  reaching  the  lateral  margins. 

From  Robertson’s  N.  scilicis  and  N.  simplex  (jj's)  this  is  readily 


separated  as  follows: 

Apex  of  abdomen  strongly  notched .  1. 

Apex  of  abdomen  slightly  notched;  scutellum  black . simplex. 

1.  Legs  marked  with  yellow . salicis. 

Legs  not  marked  with  yellow . pallidella. 


The  Californian  N.  subangustci ,  Okll.,  is  very  near  to  N.  pallidella , 
but  it  has  the  first  abdominal  segment  narrower;  the  abdomen,  where  not 
yellow,  mainly  red;  the  scutellum  entirely  black,  the  second  submarginal 
cell  narrower;  and  the  red  of  the  flagellum  much  brighter.  In  the  face- 
marks,  hairy  thorax,  etc.,  they  agree. 

From  N.  modocorum,  Ckll.,  N.  pallidella  is  easily  known  by  the 
much  narrower,  parallel-sided  abdomen,  with  much  paler  markings, 
those  of  modocorum  being  bright  yellow. 

rtocnada  sayi,  Robertson. 

One  $  collected  by  E.  S.  G.  Titus  at  Virginia  Dale,  Colorado, 
July  24,  1899,  from  wild  geranium.  The  date  seems  too  late  for 
sayi,  and  the  specimen  is  hardly  typical;  it  is  not  N.  lehighcnsis , 
which  flies  in  July.  Probably  when  we  have  a  good  series  of  the 
Colorado  insect,  including  both  sexes,  it  will  be  possible  to  separ¬ 
ate  it  subspecifically,  at  least. 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


83 


Nomada  coloradella,  new  species. 

A  pair;  39  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  June  18,  1900;  $,  Colorado 
633  (Dolores,  June  18,  ’92,  C.  P.  Gillette,  collector). 

(J';  length  5£  mm.;  head  and  thorax  black, with  abundant  white  hair; 
labrum,  mandibles  except  tips,  clypeus  and  lateral  face-marks,  bright 
yellow;  lateral  face-marks  consisting  of  triangles  occupying  the  lower 
corners  of  face,  sending  a  line  upwards  to  level  of  antennae;  facial  quad¬ 
rangle  somewhat  broader  than  long;  antennae  very  long;  scape  moderate¬ 
ly  stout,  yellow  in  front  and  black  behind;  third  joint  much  shorter  than 
fourth;  flagellum  submoniliform,  pointed  at  apex,  bright  light  yellowish- 
ferruginous,  the  first  four  joints  black  above;  tubercles  and  tegulae  red¬ 
dish-testaceous,  scutellum  with  two  reddish  spots,  thorax  otherwise  all 
black;  wings  clear,  dusky  at  apex;  nervures  and  stigma  yellowish-ferru¬ 
ginous,  marginal  cell  long;  second  submarginal  broad  above,  receiving 
the  recurrent  nervure  far  beyond  its  middle;  third  submarginal  very 
broad  below,  greatly  narrowed  above,  its  outer  margin  strongly  bent; 
basal  nervure  meeting  transverso-medial  (in  N.  sayi  it  is  a  long  distance 
basad  of  it) ;  legs  red,  the  femora  blackened  behind  and  beneath;  abdo¬ 
men  ferruginous,  basal  half  of  first  segment  black;  a  bright  yellow  band, 
interrupted  in  the  middle,  on  segments  2  and  3;  yellow  hardly  apparent 
on  4,  but  prominent  on  5  and  6;  apex  with  long  hairs;  apical  plate  moder¬ 
ately  notched;  venter  ferruginous. 

9  ;  length  about  6  mm.,  red,  mesothorax  and  metathorax  each  with 
a  single  black  band;  ocelli  on  a  black  patch,  but  front  all  red;  antennas 
red,  scape  with  a  blackish  apical  spot  on  inner  side;  third  antennal  joint 
about  as  long  as  fourth;  first  segment  of  abdomen  practically  without 
black;  basal  nervure  meeting  transverso-medial,  but  on  the  basad  side. 
The  (J1  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  type;  it  is  not  quite  certain  that  the  9 
belongs  to  it,  but  it  is  probable  enough  to  justify  the  association  for  the 
present.  The  in  its  color  and  markings,  is  like  N.  sayi ,  but  it  is  eas¬ 
ily  distinguished  by  the  venation.  It  differs  from  N.  rhodosoma  by  its 
smaller  size  and  much  lighter  antennae  and  stigma;  from  N.  oregonica  by 
its  light  orange  stigma,  and  apical  half  of  flagellum  not  black  above; 
from  N.  lehighensis  by  its  smaller  size,  and  quite  different  color  of  an¬ 
tennae  and  stigma;  from  N.  pygmeea  by  the  absence  of  supraclypeal  mark, 
and  orbits  not  ferruginous.  It  is  also  allied  to  N.  illinoiensis .  The  9 
resembles  N.  rhodosomella,  but  is  separatel  by  the  characters  given  in 
the  table. 

Nomada  luteopicta,  new  species. 

Two  and  a  $  collected  by  Prof.  Gillette;  all  Palisades,  Col¬ 
orado,  May  7,  1901,  from  apple  blossoms. 

cG  length  about  61  mm. ;  head  and  thorax  black,  with  abundant 
white  hair;  labrum,  mandibles  except  tips,  narrow  stripe  beneath  eyes, 
clypeus  and  lateral  face-marks  (consisting  of  a  triangle  at  lower  corners 
of  face, sending  a  line  upwards  to  level  of  antennae)  all  bright-yellow;  eyes 
green;  antennae  long,  scape  rather  swollen,  yellow  in  front  and  black  be¬ 
hind;  third  joint  shorter  than  fourth;  fourth  shorter  than  last;  flagellum 
bright  clear  yellowish-ferruginous, the  first  four  joints  black  above  ;tuber- 
cles,  tegulae,  upper  border  of  prothorax, mark  on  anterior  part  of  pleura, 
and  two  clearly-defined  oval  spots  on  scutellum,  yellow;  wings  slightly 
dusky,  apex  darker;  stigma  dark  ferruginous,  nervures  fuscous;  second 
submarginal  cell  very  narrow,  or  broadened  below  by  the  lengthening  of 
the  lower  basad  corner,  in  which  case  the  recurrent  nervure  is  received 
much  beyond  its  middle;  third  submarginal  extremely  broad  below,  nar¬ 
rowed  more  than  half  above,  its  outer  side  strongly  bent;  basal  nervure 
meeting  transverso-medial;  legs  red,  middle  and  hind  coxae  mainly  black ; 
middle  femora  with  a  black  stripe  beneath,  hind  femora  mostly  black  be¬ 
hind;  all  the  knees  broadly,  and  apex  of  hind  tibiae,  yellow;  abdomen 
yellow,  the  segments  ferruginous  on  apical  margin,  and  more  or  less 
black  basally;  apex  with  long  hairs,  apical  plate  very  feebly  notched; 


84  BULLETIN  94. 

venter  yellow,  ferruginous  at  base,  and  with  the  hind  margins  of  the 
segments  broadly  pale  ferruginous. 

9 ;  red;  mesothorax  and  metathorax  with  a  median  black  band; 
third  antennal  joint  not  greatly  shorter  than  fourth;  abdomen  red,  not 
black  at  base;  second  and  third  segments  with  a  subquadrate  bright  yel¬ 
low  spot  on  each  side,  third  also  with  a  pair  of  yellow  dots  mesad  of  the 
spots,  fourth  with  a  yellow  band,  not  reaching  lateral  margins,  fifth  with 
a  short  broad  band;  venter  without  yellow. 

The  is  to  be  considered  the  type.  It  is  closely  allied  to  N.  colo - 
radella,  but  larger,  with  a  broader  abdomen,  with  much  more  yellow. 
The  9  is  very  near  to  N.  lewisi ,  Ckll.,  but  has  no  yellow  at  lower  cor¬ 
ners  of  face;  and  has  the  third  submarginal  cell"  much  broader.  The 
scutellum  of  the  9  is  low  and  scarcely  bilobed,  as  in  N.  simplex,  Rob., 
which  is  closely  allied;  but  simplex  has  much  more  black  on  the  head 
and  thorax,  and  the  fourth  abdominal  segment  spotted  instead  of  banded. 

Nomada  ccloradensis,  Cockerell. 

A  pair;  the  3  marked  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  foothills,  May 
19,  1900,  E.  S.  G.  Titus,  collector:  the  $  marked  Colorado  566, 
just  like  the  original  type.  Taken  June  24,  1892,  at  Montrose,  by 
C.  P.  Gillette.  At  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  Dr.  Graenicher  has 
taken  a  form  of  N.  color adensis,  which  may  prove  to  be  subspeci- 
fically  separable. 

The  A  has  not  been  described.  It  is  very  similar  to  several  ^s, 
from  which  it  is  readily  separated  as  follows: 

Scape  conspicuously  swollen,  apical  plate  broad . 1. 

Scape  ordinary;  venter  red  not  spotted  with  yellow;  apical 

plate  narrow . . 3. 

1.  Pleura  with  much  red;  metathorax  with  four  red  spots; 

venter  with  large  yellow  markings . bethunei  Ckll. 

Pleura  and  metathorax  without  red  (or  pleura  with  a 

small  red  mark) . 2. 

2.  Venter  spotted  or  banded  with  yellow . vicinalis  Cresson. 

Venter  red  without  yellow . vicinalis  var.  infrarubens  Ckll. 

3.  Larger;  mesothorax  marked  with  red;  first  abdominal 

segment  with  a  yellow  band  . armaiella  Ckll. 

Smaller;  metathorax  all  black;  first  abdominal  segment 

without  a  yellow  band . coloradensis  Ckll. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Mr  Rehn  for  the  information  that  Cress- 
on’s  type  of  N.  vicinalis  has  the  apical  plate  of  abdomen  broad,  scape 
normal,  base  of  metathorax  more  granulose  than  rugulose,  labrum  with 
a  very  slight  median  denticle. 

N.  yicinalis  infrarubens  is  a  new  variety  obtained  by  Prof.  Cordley 
at  Corvallis,  Oregon,  June  6,1899.  It  has  the  following  noteworthy 
characters;  labrum  very  hairy;  ends  of  linear  upward  prolongation  of 
lateral  face-marks  slightly  bending  from  orbits;  flagellum  bright  red,  the 
last  joint  pointed,  the  first  five  joints  black  above;  hair  of  upper  part  of 
thorax  (especially  scutellum)  strongly  brownish;  tubercles  reddish  with 
a  yellow  spot;  tegulae,  scutellum,  two  stripes  on  mesothorax,  and  a  small 
mark  on  lower  part  of  pleura  in  front,  red;  first  abdominal  segment  with 
basal  half  black,  with  two  red  marks;  yellow  bands  on  segments  1  to  5 
broadly  interrupted  by  red  in  the  middle;  sixth  segment  with  a  short 
bilobed  yellow  band;  apical  plate  very  hairy.  The  antennae  remind  one 
of  N.  pascoensis ,  but  the  insect  is  otherwise  very  different. 

Nomada  alpha,  new  species. 

One  $  taken  by  F.  C.  Bishopp,  marked  Fort  Collins,  May  20, 
1903,  Colorado.  Taken  from  flowers  of  Capsella  bursa-pas  tor  is. 

Length  about  81  mm.;  head  and  thorax  red,  with  black  and  yellow 
markings;  abdomen  red  and  yellow.  Front  depressed,  coarsely  an 

d 


REPORT  OF  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


85 

closely  punctured;  facial  quadrangle  much  broader  than  long;  mandibles 
very  shiny,  pale  reddish  with  black  tips  and  more  or  less  yellow  bases; 
labrum,  clypeus,  and  sides  of  face  on  each  side  of  clypeus,  yellow,  the 
yellow  not  sharply  defined  from  the  red  just  above;  ocelli  on  a  black 
patch,  connected  with  a  black  patch  on  front,  but  leaving  a  red  mark  in 
front  of  middle  ocellus;  frontal  patch  sending  black  bands  to  sides  of 
clypeus,  these  and  the  narrowly  blackened  upper  clypeal  suture  making 
a  large  A;  posterior  orbital  margins  very  broadly  red,  with  a  large  yel¬ 
low  stripe  on  the  lower  two-thirds;  antennae  long,  red  without  any  black, 
scape  yellowish  in  front;  third  joint  longer  than  fourth;  mesothorax 
coarsely  rugoso-punctate,  red  with  three  rather  ill-defined  black  stripes; 
prothorax  black,  with  its  upper  border,  and  the  tubercles,  yellow;  pleura 
red,  with  a  black  spot  beneath;  a  broad  black  band  from  wings  to  middle 
and  hind  coxae;  scutullum  red  suffused  with  yellow;  postscutellum bright 
yellow;  metathorax  black,  with  a  large  red  spot  on  each  side;  tegulae  red; 
wings  yellowish,  apical  margin  not  much  darker  than  the  rest;  stigma 
bright  orange-ferruginous,  nervures  pale  brownish;  second  submarginal 
cell  moderately  narrowed  above;  third  of  the  narrow  type;  basal  nervure 
a  long  distance  basad  of  transverso-medial;  legs  bright  red,  antferior  and 
middle  femora  with  more  or  less  of  a  yellow  apical  spot;  hind  femora 
wholly  without  black;  abdomen  very  minutely  rugoso-punctate;  first  seg¬ 
ment  red  with  a  transverse  yellow  mark  on  each  side;  second  red  with 
very  large  pyriform  yellow  marks;  third  similar,  but  with  even  more  yel¬ 
low;  fourth  yellow  except  extreme  base  and  apical  margin:  fifth  yellow; 
venter  banded  with  yellow  and  red. 

In  Robertson’s  tables  this  runs  to  Holonomada,  but  it  is  closely  re¬ 
lated  to  some  of  the  species  which  are  referred  to  Xanthidium. 

Ncmaria  libata,  Cresson. 

This  is  erroneously  called  limbata  in  Dalla  Torre’s  Catalogue. 
Mr.  Rehn  has  kindly  examined  Cresson’s  type  and  finds  the 
apical  plate  rather  narrow,  deeply  notched;  the  ventral  surface  of 
abdomen  immaculate  except  the  apical  margins  of  the  three  termi¬ 
nal  segments,  which  are  yellow  to  a  considerable  degree;  scape 
normal. 

These  characters  are  in  part  similar  to  those  of  N.  armatella , 
which  may  be  known  from  libata  by  the  absence  of  yellow  on  ven¬ 
ter  and  the  basal  nervure  far  basad  of  transverso-medial  (in  N. 
libata ,  parata ,  bethunei  and  color adensis  it  is  only  a  little  basad 
of  it). 

Nomada  dilucida,  Cresson. 

Mr.  Rehn  has  kindly  examined  Cresson’s  type  5,  and  finds  it 
differs  structurally  from  N.  morrisoni  thus:  labrum  narrower, 
more  rectangular;  scape  heavier  and  more  robust;  abdomen  glab¬ 
rous  instead  of  pubescent. 

I  am  extremely  indebted  to  Mr.  Viereck,  who  has  most  kindly 
examined  all  of  the  types  in  the  collection  at  Philadelphia,  and 
reported  on  the  venation  and  proportions  of  the  third  and  fourth  an¬ 
tennal  joints. 

Nomada  frieseana,  Cockerell  and  N.  semiscita,  Cockerell. 

These  two  species  were  discovered  at  Colorado  Springs  since 
this  paper  was  written,  and  described  in  Annals  &  Mag.  of  Nat- 
Hist.,  July  1904.  N.  frieseana  is  allied  to  N.  rubicunda ,  and  N. 
semiscita  to  N.  scitiforrnism 


. 


/  A  UU-O-  IL'-iAAiL  kuA^ 


Bulletin  95.  December,  1904. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


EARLY  CANTALOUPES. 


BY 


P.  K.  BUNN. 

1 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1904. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President ,  - 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  - 
Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW,  - 
Hon.  EUGENE  H  GRUBB,  - 
Governor  JAMES  H.  PEABODY, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


Denver. 

Term 

Expires 

1905 

Fort  Collins. 

1905 

Denver. 

1907 

-  Denver. 

1907 

Gypsum. 

1909 

Rockyford. 

1909 

Canon  City. 

1911 

Carbondale. 

1911 

j  ex-officio . 


Executive  committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 


B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW. 


JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director,  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.S.,  -  -  - . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  -  -  Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M.,  ------  Veterinarian 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  M.  S., . -  Assistant  Chemist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S., . Assistant  Agriculturist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR,  B.  S., . -  Assistant  Horticulturist 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyeord 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY, . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


EARLY  CANTALOUPES. 


BY  P.  K.  BLINN. 


One  of  the  most  important  questions  connected  with  canta¬ 
loupe  growing  is  how  to  get  them  early,  for  here  as  elsewhere  it  is 
the  “early  bird  that  catches  the  worm.”  The  high  prices  received 
for  the  first  cantaloupes  on  the  market  offer  great  reward  to  the 
grower  who  is  successful  in  maturing  his  crop  a  few  days  in  ad¬ 
vance  of  his  neighbors. 

It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  vicinity  of  Rocky  Ford  for  the  ex¬ 
tra  early  cantaloupe  field  to  return  to  the  grower  from  two  to  three 
hundred  dollars  per  acre,  and  it  is  in  hope  of  such  returns  that 
every  grower  plants  his  seed;  but  as  the  season  advances  it  soon 
becomes  evident  that  from  one  cause  or  another  many  have  fallen 
behind  in  the  race,  and  only  those  who  are  fortunate  enough  to 
escape  the  various  adverse  conditions  which  beset  the  crop  from 
time  to  time  and  check  its  growth,  succeed  in  getting  the  early 
crates. 

Some  of  the  many  factors  that  influence  the  development  of  a 
crop  of  cantaloupes  are  beyond  the  control  of  the  farmer,  but  this 
bulletin  is  planned  to  deal  with  the  elements  that  can  be  influ¬ 
enced  by  him,  not  with  a  view  to  giving  specific  rules  which  will 
insure  an  early  crop,  for  the  varied  conditions  of  different  farms 
and  seasons  make  explicit  directions  of  little  value;  but  to  present 
from  observation  and  experience  such  facts  as  may  reveal  to  some 
extent  the  underlying  principles  to  be  considered  in  producing  a 
crop  of  cantaloupes. 

Seed. — The  Netted  Gem  cantaloupe  is  virtually  the  only  va¬ 
riety  grown  in  the  cantaloupe  growing  sections  of  Colorado,  yet 
there  is  almost  a  variety  variation  in  some  of  the  strains  of  seed 
from  different  growers,  due  to  varying  lines  of  selection.  It  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  most  perfectly  developed  types  are  not 
quite  so  apt  to  be  early  as  the  cantaloupe  grown  from  “slickers” 
or  culls;  but  the  ultimate  value  of  a  good  melon  and  its  influence 
on  the  market  make  it  imperative  for  the  grower  to  plant  nothing 
but  the  best  seed,  of  ideal  type  and  quality,  with  early  tendencies. 
It  is  evident  from  numerous  comparative  observations  that  the 
question  of  seed  does  not  have  so  much  influence  in  producing 


4 


Bulletin  95. 


early  cantaloupes  as  does  the  care  and  cultivation  in  handling  the 
crop. 

Soil. — Experience  has  proven  that  a  sandy  loam  is  the  soil 
best  suited  for  cantaloupes,  and  that  its  condition  of  tilth  and  the 
available  fertility  are  the  prime  essentials  in  bringing  cantaloupes 
to  quick  maturity. 

The  secret  of  getting  soil  in  that  ashy,  mellow  condition  so 
desirable  for  cantaloupes  is  largely  one  of  experience,  for  hardly 
two  farms  can  be  handled  the  same.  In  general,  there  must  be 
moisture  in  the  soil  over  winter  to  get  the  disintegrating  effect  of 
frost,  and  plowing  should  not  be  done  until  the  ground  is  dry 
enough  to  pulverize  mellow.  Barnyard  manure  has  long  been 
the  means  of  supplying  fertility  to  force  cantaloupes  to  early  ma¬ 
turity;  but  owing  to  the  limit  of  its  supply,  crop  rotation  became 
necessary,  and  in  1896  the  Sub-Experiment  Station  at  Rocky  Ford 
made  the  first  test  of  cantaloupes  on  alfalfa  sod,  which  resulted  in 
signal  success,  demonstrating  that  alfalfa  sod  affords  ideal  soil  con¬ 
ditions  for  cantaloupes  both  in  early  production  and  in  securing  a 
big  yield.  The  test  was  on  a  plat  of  one  acre,  which  was  planted 
May  4th  in  hills  six  feet  each  way  and  received  ordinary  care;  the 
plat  having  three  hoeings,  four  cultivations  and  seven  irrigation^ 
during  the  season.  The  first  crate  of  ripe  cantaloupes  was  mar¬ 
keted  July  29th,  only  one  day  later  than  the  earliest  record  ever 
made  at  Rocky  Ford  with  cantaloupes  on  well  manured  ground. 
The  vines  made  a  remarkably  uniform  growth  and  the  yield  was 
three  hundred  and  fifty  standard  crates  per  acre,  nearly  double  the 
normal  yield  on  ordinary  soil.  Since  then  alfalfa  sod  has  been  in 
general  nse  for  cantaloupes  in  the  crop  rotations  of  the  Arkansas 
Valley. 

Its  relative  value  over  old,  worn-out  land  is  well  contrasted  in 
Plate  1,  which  is  a  photo  taken  July  7th  on  the  farm  of  I.  D.  Hale; 
the  rows  on  the  right  were  planted  on  alfalfa  sod  at  the  same  time 
and  had  the  same  care  as  the  balance  of  the  field. 

The  same  contrast  is  often  seen  in  land  that  has  been  growing 
beets  and  that  which  has  not,  the  beet  ground  being  unfavorable 
for  early  cantaloupes;  indeed,  experience  of  four  years  at  Rocky 
Ford  since  the  introduction  of  the  beet  crop  testifies  that  it  is  use¬ 
less  to  expect  early  cantaloupes  on  beet  ground,  although  if  the 
land  is  not  too  much  exhausted,  very  satisfactory  late  cantaloupes 
have  been  grown  after  beets. 

During  the  season  of  1904  several  commercial  fertilizers  have 
been  tried  extensively  to  supply  the  needed  elements  for  growing 
early  cantaloupes  on  beet  ground,  but  the  results  are  so  conflicting 
that  a  conclusion  is  not  warranted,  except  that  the  use  of  the  fer¬ 
tilizer  in  and  under  the  hill  at  planting  time  is  extremely  haz¬ 
ardous. 


§>■«•  ,"v>. 

. 

t‘ : ■  r 

m 

mi. 

|§M 


PIATT  /. 


PLATE  2, 


COLO  AG-  OXP.  STA 


p  : 


PLATE  I. — Cantaloupes  at  right  grown  after  alfalfa.  At  left  on  worn  out  soil 
PLATE  II. — Root  System  of  Cantaloupe  Seedlings. 


PLATE  3. 


PLATE 4-.  C0l°  A0-  EXP sta. 


PLATE  III. — Showing  Development  of  Cantaloupes.  Photo  taken  July  2,  1904. 
PLATE  IV.— Same  Field  Two  Weeks  Later. 


Early  Cantaloupes. 


5 


Hardly  a  grower  who  used  the  special  melon  fertilizers  ac¬ 
cording  to  directions,  but  lost  from  a  few  rows  to  many  acres  of 
early  cantaloupes.  The  little  melon  plants  died  when  the  roots 
came  in  contact  with  the  caustic  elements  of  the  fertilizer.  A  few 
growers  had  encouraging  results;  and  when  the  manner  of  apply¬ 
ing  and  the  quantity  to  be  used  in  relation  to  irrigated  conditions 
is  determined  by  careful  experiments,  the  use  of  commercial  fertil¬ 
izers  may  result  in  valuable  profits  to  the  melon  growers,  but  until 
then,  barnyard  manure  and  rotation  with  alfalfa  and  other  ligu- 
minous  crops  offer  the  safest  and  most  reliable  source  of  fertility. 

Care  and  Cultivation. — If  there  is  a  secret  in  getting  early 
cantaloupes  it  is  in  growing  the  crop  from  start  to  finish  with  a 
uniform  unchecked  growth ;  the  cantaloupe  does  not  seem  to  have 
the  power  to  rally  from  a  check  in  growth  or  an  injury  from  an 
insect  and  still  make  its  normal  development.  The  back-set  not 
only  cuts  off  the  production  of  early  cantaloupes  but  seriously  af¬ 
fects  the  size  and  quality  of  the  melon.  There  are  numerous  in¬ 
stances  where  unfavorable  conditions  of  growth  have  produced  a 
large  quantity  of  pony  melons,  while  under  more  favorably  grow¬ 
ing  conditions  the  same  seed  and  soil  have  yielded  standard  sized 
cantaloupes.  One  of  the  first  signs  of  promise  for  early  canta¬ 
loupes  is  a  quick  germination  and  rapid  development  of  large 
cotyledons.  Seed  that  germinates  slowly  with  small  yellow  ap¬ 
pearing  seed  leaves  has  never  made  early  cantaloupes. 

Planting. — The  first  requisite  aside  from  moisture  for  a  good 
start  is  warm  weather,  as  cantaloupe  seed  cannot  germinate  when 
the  ground  is  cold  and  freezing;  and  if  perchance  the  days  are 
warm  enough  to  germinate  the  seed  that  is  planted  in  March  or 
April,  the  cold  nights  that  are  sure  to  follow  will  offset  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  early  planting. 

Fifteen  years  of  weather  records  at  the  Sub-Station  in  Rocky 
Ford  reveal  the  fact  that  in  nine  out  of  the  fifteen  years  there  has 
been  frost  the  last  few  days  of  April  or  the  first  in  May  that  seri¬ 
ously  injured  or  completely  killed  any  melons  that  were  germi¬ 
nated  at  that  time,  and  that  light  frosts  and  cold  nights  are  com¬ 
mon  up  to  the  middle  of  May.  Old  cantaloupe  growers  around 
Rocky  Ford  consider  that  May  first  is  plenty  early  to  plant  canta¬ 
loupe  seed. 

The  seedling  period  is  the  critical  time  in  the  development  of 
a  crop  of  cantaloupes.  It  is  in  that  stage  that  it  usually  receives 
a  check  in  growth  from  cold  weather,  high  winds  or  lack  of  moist¬ 
ure.  It  is  also  at  this  time  that  the  striped  cucumber  beetle  makes 
its  destructive  attacks.  A  knowledge  of  the  growth  and  root  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  seedling  will  in  a  measure  help  to  explain  the 
reason  for  the  steps  taken  and  the  precaution  necessary  in  hand¬ 
ling  the  crop  during  this  important  period. 


6 


Bulletin  95. 


Plate  2  represents  two  cantaloupe  seedlings,  the  one  on  the 
right  revealing  the  plan  of  the  first  root  system  that  develops 
when  the  seed  germinates ;  it  penetrates  almost  directly  down  from 
the  seed  while  the  stem  is  pushing  its  way  to  the  surface.  These 
roots  seem  to  form  a  temporary  support  for  the  plant  during  the 
first  two  or  three  weeks,  for  up  to  that  time  the  stem  from  the 
seed  point  up  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  smooth  and  white, 
with  no  evidence  of  the  lateral  roots  which  are  shown  on  the  stem 
of  the  seedling  to  the  left.  The  second  root  system  develops  from 
the  stem  about  the  time  the  fifth  leaf  appears,  or  four  or  five  weeks 
after  germination;  these  roots  seem  to  form  the  main  feeders 
which  develop  the  plant,  for  the  growth  of  a  hill  of  melons  is 
practically  insignificant  until  it  feels  the  impulse  of  this  larger  and 
better  root  system*  The  question  of  early  cantaloupes  almost 
hinges  on  the  success  of  the  farmer  in  supplying  conditions  that 
will  favor  early  development  of  the  lateral  root  system. 

It  seems  evident  that  the  depth  of  planting  and  the  manner 
of  managing  the  soil  in  the  hill  has  an  important  relation  to  the 
early  development  of  these  lateral  roots.  Experience  teaches  that 
seed  planted  much  over  two  inches  in  depth  are  slow  and  difficult 
to  germinate,  being  weakened  by  the  long  stem  that  is  necessary 
to  reach  the  surface,  and  on  the  other  hand  if  planting  is  too  shal¬ 
low,  the  seed  are  apt  to  dry  out,  or  if  rain  follows  a  crust  will  form 
which  must  be  removed,  and  that  often  exposes  the  seed  with  fatal 
results,  or  leaves  the  plant  with  too  shallow  a  stem  support.  It  is 
then  whipped  and  wrung  by  the  high,  dry  winds,  or  the  long  stem 
is  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  cucumber  beetle. 

Seed  will  germinate  readily  when  weather  conditions  are  fav¬ 
orable,  if  planted  at  about  the  depth  indicated  by  the  white  por¬ 
tion  of  the  stem  of  the  seedling  at  the  left  in  Plate  2.  When  the 
seed  leaves  are  nearly  to  the  surface,  if  a  garden  rake  is  drawn 
through  the  hills  with  a  lifting  motion  it  will  remove  any  crust  or 
dry  lumps  which  obstruct  the  little  melon  plants. 

Plenty  of  seed  should  be  used  to  provide  against  loss  in  hand¬ 
ling  the  hills  or  from  attacks  by  insects;  it  also  affords  a  chance 
to  select  the  thriftiest  specimens  when  the  thinning  is  made  to 
two  or  three  plants.  Owing  to  the  injuries  from  the  striped  cu¬ 
cumber  beetle,  this  thinning  should  not  be  done  until  the  plant 
gets  several  leaves  and  the  lateral  roots  are  developed;  the  extra 
plants  in  the  hill  should  be  destroyed  by  pinching  or  cutting  the 
stem,  as  pulling  is  apt  to  disturb  the  remaining  plants. 

The  best  known  precautions  against  the  cucumber  beetle  con¬ 
sists  in  the  application  of  lime,  ashes  or  road  dust,  and  the  con¬ 
tinual  working  of  the  field  with  hoe  or  cultivator. 

Hoeing. — Hoeing  the  hills  is  of  great  importance,  but  it 
should  be  done  with  skill  both  as  to  the  time  and  the  way  it  is 


Early  Cantaloupes. 


7 


done,  for  careless  hoeing  is  a  common  error;  if  the  seed  has  been 
properly  planted  in  mellow  soil  and  the  irrigation  properly  applied, 
there  is  no  reason  for  deep  hoeing  in  and  close  to  the  hill,  as  it 
only  disturbs  the  plants  and  dries  out  the  soil;  weeds  can  be  de¬ 
stroyed  by  shallow  hoeing. 

The  dry,  cloddy  soil  on  the  surface  should  be  removed  from 
the  hill  by  hand  and  replaced  with  fine,  moist,  mallow  soil,  hill¬ 
ing  up  the  plants  as  far  as  possible,  which  will  protect  the  plants 
from  wind  and  insects  in  a  large  measure ;  but  the  most  important 
feature  of  this  process  is  the  holding  of  the  moisture  well  upon 
the  neck  or  stem  and  affording  the  best  conditions  for  a  long  base 
and  an  early  growth  of  the  main  root  system.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  soil  in  the  hill  is  loosened  up  with  the  hoe  and  only 
hilled  up  by  drawing  the  loosened  soil  to  the  plant  with  the  hoe, 
the  hill  will  usually  dry  out,  and  only  a  short  portion  of  the  stem 
be  in  moist  soil,  consequently  it  has  but  a  short  base  for  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  its  root  system. 

Cultivation. — A  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  before  it  is 
planted  to  cantaloupes  will  very  much  lessen  the  necessity  for  so 
much  cultivating  afterwards,  but  a  great  deal  depends  on  frequent 
and  thorough  cultivation  during  the  early  stages  in  the  growth  of 
cantaloupes;  at  first  it  should  be  deep  and  thorough,  but  not  close 
enough  to  disturb  the  plants;  the  cultivations  should  be  more 
shallow  and  further  from  the  hills  as  the  plants  develop.  The 
grower  who  cultivates  deep  and  close  to  the  hill  because  the  vines 
do  not  prevent  him,  is  cutting  off  one  source  of  early  cantaloupes. 
He  should  study  the  growth  of  the  roots,  for  they  form  the  coun¬ 
terpart  of  the  vines  on  the  surface,  only  they  ramify  the  soil  more 
thoroughly  and  to  a  greater  distance  than  the  length  of  the  vines. 
Plates  3  and  4  will  give  a  conception  of  the  root  system  which 
must  exist  to  produce  such  an  increase  of  growth  in  so  short  a 
time;  the  first  was  taken  July  2,  1904,  and  represents  the  growth 
of  about  eight  weeks,  while  the  second  was  taken  at  the  same 
point  two  weeks  later. 

Irrigation. — Moisture  for  the  cantaloupe  hill  is  generally  sup¬ 
plied  by  the  irrigation  furrow.  It  should  always  reach  the  seed  or 
plant  by  soaking  through  the  soil.  Irrigation  should  never  be 
allowed  to  over-soak  or  flood  the  ground,  as  the  soil  will  then  be¬ 
come  hard  and  not  permit  a  good  growth. 

The  relation  of  irrigation  to  an  early  set  of  cantaloupes  is  a 
somewhat  mooted  question.  There  are  growers  who  argue  the  use 
of  frequent  irrigations  during  the  setting  period  to  secure  a  good 
set,  and  there  are  others  who  prefer  to  keep  the  vines  rather  dry 
and  even  letting  them  show  the  need  of  water  before  they  will  ir¬ 
rigate  during  the  setting  stage. 

There  have  been  results  that  seemed  to  support  both  theories, 


8 


Bulletin  95. 


i 


* 

i 


yet  close  observation  would  not  warrant  following  either  plah  to 
an  extreme,  but  rather  a  medium  course  of  supplying  enough 
moisture  for  an  even,  healthy  growth,  which  seems  to  be  the  essen¬ 
tial  condition  all  the  way  through.  An  excess  of  irrigation  during 
the  hot  weather  in  July  will  doubtless  tend  to  grow  vines  at  the 
expense  of  early  fruit;  but  the  most  disastrous  result  of  too  much 
water — having  the  ground  so  soaked  that  the  surface  is  nearly  all 
wet,  and  affording  the  moist,  dewey  condition  which  is  favorable 
to  its  development — is  in  the  development  of  rust. 

The  rust  problem  is  a  serious  one  in  cantaloupe  culture  in 
Colorado.  Controlling  it  by  proper  application  of  irrigation  is 
only  a  palliative  measure,  yet  a  marked  contrast  is  often  seen  in 
two  portions  of  a  field;  one  over-irrigated,  and  the  other  compara¬ 
tively  dry,  aside  from  the  moisture  necessary  to  the  growth  of  the 
vines.  Rainy  weather  and  dewey  nights  afford  the  proper  condi¬ 
tions  for  the  growth  of  the  rust  spore,  and  while  the  farmer  can¬ 
not  change  climatic  conditions,  yet  by  careful  attention  in  the  ap¬ 
plication  of  water,  having  the  rows  well  ditched,  and  with  adequate 
waste  laterals  to  prevent  over-soaking  and  flooding,  the  surface  of 
the  ground  will  dry  rapidly  after  a  rain  or  an  irrigation.  Thus 
the  dews  at  night  will  be  less,  and  in  a  measure  alleviate  the  ef¬ 
fects  of  rust. 

Marketing. — The  high  prices  which  prevail  at  the  beginning 
of  the  season,  and  the  urgency  of  the  commission  men,  have  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  shipment  of  many  green  and  unmarketable  melons. 
It  is  evident  that  a  continuation  of  such  practice  will  produce 
dissatisfied  customers  and  consequently  loss  of  trade.  The  popu¬ 
larity  of  the  Rocky  Ford  cantaloupe  and  its  value  as  a  money 
making  crop,  should  induce  the  farmers  of  the  Arkansas  Valley  to 
maintain  the  standard  of  excellence  by  every  means  in  their  pow¬ 
er,  and  to  discountenance  the  shipping  of  green  and  otherwise  un¬ 
marketable  melons  as  an  act  of  treachery  to  the  cantaloupe  in¬ 
dustry. 


Bulletin  96.  February,  1905. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


The  Shade  Trees  of  Denver. 


—  BY  — 


W.  PADDOCK  and  B.  O.  LONGYEAR. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

% 

Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1905 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President ,  - 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  - 
Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  - 
Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB,  - 

Governor  ALVA  ADAMS, 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


ex-officio . 


Denver. 

Term 

Expires 

1905 

Fort  Collins. 

1905 

Denver. 

1907 

-  Denver. 

1907 

Gypsum. 

1909 

Rockyford. 

1909 

Canon  City. 

1911 

Carbondale. 

1911 

Executive  Committee  in  charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 


B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW. 


JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director ,  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S.,  -  -  - . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  •  -  Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M.,  ------  Veterinarian 

W.  H.  OLIN,  M.  S.,  --------  Agrostologist 

C.  J.  GRIFFITH,  B.  S.  A  ,  -  -  -  -  -  Animal  Husbandman 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S-,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  M.  S..  -------  Assistant  Chemist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Agriculturist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR,  B.  S., . Assistant  Horticulturist 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY,  ----------  Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY, . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


THE  SHADE  TREES  OF  DENVER. 


By  W.  Paddock  and  B.  O.  Longyear. 

A  great  many  shade  trees  have  been  planted  on  the  farms  and 
in  the  towns  in  the  agricultural  sections  of  Colorado,  but  this  does 
not  necessarily  mean  that  all  who  have  planted  trees  did  so  because 
of  their  love  of  plant  life.  Perhaps  a  majority  of  the  settlers  form¬ 
erly  lived  where  trees  grow  to  perfection  and  their  absence  here 
emphasized  the  fact  that  a  house  destitute  of  trees  does  not  meet 
all  the  requirements  of  a  home.  Then,  too,  it  is  almost  necessary 
to  have  some  relief  from  the  glare  of  the  intense  sunshine  and 
from  the  monotony  of  the  plains.  So  the  settlers  have  not  been 
slow  to  make  the  best  of  what  the  country  affords  and  but  few 
country  homes  are  seen  in  the  older  agricultural  sections  that  are 
not  surrounded  by  groves  of  cottonwood  or  boxelders.  Neither 
is  it  uncommon  to  see  country  roads  bordered  with  these  trees; 
and  in  the  older  towns  and  cities,  shade  trees  are  as  common  as 
in  many  states  that  are  more  favored  in  this  respect.  Associated 
as  they  are  with  the  early  development  of  the  state,  the  cottonwood 
and  boxelder  will  not  soon  be  supplanted.  Their  principal  virtues, 
however,  lie  in  the  fact  that  they  are  easily  transplanted  and  under 
favorable  conditions  make  rapid  growth.  They  also  withstand 
the  extremes  of  drouth  and  moisture  if  not  too  long  continued 
and  do  not  readily  break  down  during  a  windstorm  or  under  a 
load  of  snow  and  sleet.  But,  unfortunately,  the  quick  growth 
for  which  these  trees  are  mostly  esteemed,  leads  naturally  to  early 
maturity.  Trees  that  were  planted  by  the  first  settlers  twenty-five 
and  thirty  years  ago,  are  now  mature,  and,  judging  from  appear¬ 
ances,  it  will  be  only  a  few  years  before  most  of  them  must  be  re¬ 
moved.  Full  grown  specimens  of  either  species  are  rarely 
beautiful,  and  the  wood  has  little  value  from  a  commercial  stand¬ 
point. 

Still  another  cause  has  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
popularity  of  these  trees.  Large  sums  of  money  have  been  ex¬ 
pended  in  the  effort  to  introduce  trees  from  the  East,  especially 
chose  kinds  that  were  common  about  the  old  homes.  But  as  the  con¬ 
ditions  that  obtain  in  an  arid  climate  were  little  understood,  and 
a  majority  of  the  people  who  undertook  to  plant  trees  were  not 
accustomed  to  the  work,  most  of  these  efforts  resulted  in  failure, 
since  but  few  trees  will  stand  abuse  and  neglect  so  well  as  the  cotton- 


4 


Bulletin  96. 


wood  and  the  boxelder.  Is  it  any  wonder  then  that  the  idea  has 
been  almost  universal  that  trees  foreign  to  the  state  will  not  suc¬ 
ceed  ? 

But  in  a  large  city  like  Denver,  with  its  parks,  cemeteries, 
avenues,  and  fine  residences,  fine  trees  are  such  a  necessity  that 
failures  only  stimulated  the  desire  to  overcome  the  obstacles.  Re¬ 
peated  trials  have  resulted  in  many  successes,  and  as  a  result  there 
are  growing  in  that  city  today  at  least  60  species  and  varieties  of 
trees  which  are  foreign  to  the  state.  Many  of  these  trees  occur  as 
isolated  specimens,  and  as  they  are  scattered  over  a  large  area  they 
have  attracted  but  little  attention.  A  majority  of  the  residents  of 
Denver  will  no  doubt  be  surprised  to  learn  of  the  large  variety  of 
trees  in  their  city.  Mr.  W.  G.  M.  Stone,  President  of  the  State 
Forestry  Association,  has  given  much  attention  to  the  trees  of 
Denver  for  several  years  past,  and  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  all 
the  data  given  in  this  bulletin.  Mr.  Stone  read  a  paper  at  the  con¬ 
vention  of  the  Board  of  Horticulture  in  1901  in  which  the  following 
extract  occurs :  “Whatever  trees  are  found  to  grow  successfully 
in  Denver  would  thrive  at  all  other  points  in  the  state  adapted 
to  deciduous  tree  culture.”  Believing  that  this  statement  is  true 
in  the  main,  it  is  then  desirable  that  all  prospective  tree  planters 
should  have  the  advantage  of  this  experience.  To  be  sure,  a 
record  of  25  or  30  years’  growth  is  not  conclusive  evidence  as  to 
the  final  estimate  that  should  be  placed  on  an  apparently  desirable 
tree.  More  especially  is  this  true  where  data  can  be  secured  on  only 
a  few  trees  of  a  kind ;  but  any  experience  that  will  be  an  indication 
as  to  what  varieties  may  succeed  must  be  productive  of  much  good. 

These  few  pages  are  then  intended  for  those  people  who  are 
desirous  of  adorning  their  grounds  with  fine  trees,  and  who  are- 
thinking  of  the  future  as  well  as  for  immediate  effects. 

Most  people  make  the  mistake  of  planting  trees  just  as  they 
receive  them  from  the  nursery.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  in  digging,  a  large  portion  of  the  root  system  is  left  in  the 
ground,  consecptently  when  trees  are  planted  without  cutting  the 
tops  back  to  correspond  with  the  loss  of  roots  many  of  them  die 
or  make  an  unsatisfactory  growth.  It  may  be  stated  as  a  general 
rule  that  all  trees  and  shrubs,  except  the  conifers,  should  have  a  large 
portion  of  the  tops  removed  when  they  are  transplanted.  All 
bruised  roots  should  also  be  cut  off  with  a  sharp  knife  so  as  to  leave 
a  smooth  surface  which  will  readily  heal. 

The  use  of  large  trees  should  generally  be  avoided,  as  vigorous 
young  trees,  two  to  four  years  old,  will  usually  give  much 
the  best  results.  Large  trees  can  be  successfully  transplanted  if 
a  large  ball  of  earth  is  taken  up  with  the  roots,  but  this  is  an  ex¬ 
pensive  operation  and  is  rarely  carefully  done.  Where  this  pre¬ 
caution  is  not  taken  the  older  trees  seldom  make  satisfactory 
growth  and  many  of  them  soon  fail. 


The  Shade  Trees  oe  Denver. 


5 


The  best  time  for  planting  trees  in  Colorado  is  in  the  spring 
of  the  year.  This  is  true  for  the  reason  that  the  winds  of  winter 
are  apt  to  dry  out  the  trees  as  well  as  the  soil.  The  root  system 
not  being  established,  cannot  supply  the  moisture  lost  by  evapo¬ 
ration  ,  therefore  the  plants  die. 

Shade  trees  respond  to  cultivation  and  care  as  well  as  do  other 
plants.  While  many  trees  will  make  a  fair  growth  in  poor  soil, 
yet  the  best  soil  will  be  found  none  too  good.  The  hole  in  which 
the  tree  is  to  be  planted  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  all  the 
roots  being  spread  out  naturally,  and  of  sufficient  depth  to  admit 
of  the  tree’s  being  set  one  or  two  inches  deeper  than  it  stood  in  the 
nursery.  If  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  is  hard  and  uncon¬ 
genial  some  of  it  should  be  removed  and  be  replaced  whh  a  generous 
layer  of  loose  top  soil.  After  the  tree  has  been  placed  in  the  hole 
and  its  roots  properly  spread  out,  the  soil  should  be  filled  in  a  little 
at  a  time  and  firmly  tamped  around  the  roots  so  that  no  cavities 
can  be  formed. 

As  soon  as  the  tree  is  planted  water  should  be  turned  on  until 
the  ground  is  thoroughly  moist.  Especial  pains  should  be  taken 
during  the  first  summer  to  see  that  the  ground  around  the  tree  does 
not  become  dry;  neither  should  it  be  kept  too  wet.  Later  in  the 
season  less  water  should  be  given  so  that  the  trees  may  ripen  their 
growth  for  winter,  as  it  too  often  happens  that  the  foliage  is  frozen 
from  the  trees  instead  of  ripening  naturally  as  is  indicated  by 
autumn  tints.  The  injudicious  use  of  water  late  in  the  season  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  the  direct  cause  of  much  of  the  winter  killing  of  trees. 

On  the  other  hand,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  ground  does 
not  become  dry  during  the  winter.  If  sufficient  moisture  is  not  pres¬ 
ent  in  the  soil  to  replace  that  which  is  lost  by  transpiration  from 
the  branches  the  tops  “freeze  dry.”  In  most  soils  trees  will  be 
benefited  by  a  watering  in  the  latter  part  of  November  or  the  early 
part  of  December.  The  necessity  of  subsequent  irrigations  will 
depend  upon  the  weather  conditions,  but  close  watch  should  be 
kept  through  the  winter  to  see  that  the  ground  does  not  become 
too  dry. 

The  amount  of  damage  that  is  done  to  shade  trees  by  careless 
and  aimless  pruning  is  difficult  to  estimate,  but  the  results  are  to 
be  seen  on  every  hand.  With  the  advent  of  spring  the  mania  for 
“cleaning  up”  comes  on  and  the  trees  are  often  the  first  objects  to 
be  attacked.  One  reason  for  this  no  doubt  is  that  a  large  showing 
for  one’s  labor  can  be  made  in  a  short  time. 

People  who  attempt  to  prune  trees  ordinarily  have  one  of  two 
ideas  in  mind.  The  more  common  idea,  perhaps,  is  that  the 
branches  of  all  trees  should  be  removed  from  the  lower  two  thirds 
of  the  trunk.  The  result  is  a  stiff,  bare  trunk  with  a  few  branches 
at  the  top — the  ungainly  remains  of  what  might  otherwise  have 
been  a  beautiful  tree. 


6 


Bulletin  96. 


The  other  idea  is  that  when  trees  have  nearly  or  quite  com¬ 
pleted  their  growth  the  tops  should  be  cut  back — regardless  of  the 
size  of  the  trunk  or  branches.  Some  trees,  like  the  cottonwood,  will 
stand  such  abuse  fairly  well,  but  they  are  mutilated  for  the  rest 
of  their  lives.  Fortunately  many  kinds  of  trees  do  not  live  long 
after  such  heroic  treatment. 

Although  shade  trees  usually  need  but  little  pruning,  that  which 
is  needed  should  be  done  systematically,  and  the  natural  shape  of 
the  tree  should  always  be  borne  in  mind.  Specimen  trees  should  as 
a  rule  never  be  pruned  except  when  they  are  planted,  as  mentioned 
above,  and  as  occasional  sprawling  branches  or  bad  forks  are  likely 
to  be  formed.  Street  trees  likewise  need  but  little  pruning  except 
that  the  head  should  usually  be  started  about  ten  feet  above  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  ground.  In  any  case  each  tree  should  be  allowed  to  as¬ 
sume  its  natural  form  as  much  as  possible. 

Another  mistake  which  is  commonly  made  is  that  of  planting 
trees  too  close  together.  One  is  naturally  desirous  of  securing 
quick  effects ;  and  as  a  means  of  securing  this  end  close  planting  is 
commendable,  providing  the  surplus  trees  are  removed  as  soon  as 
they  begin  to  crowd.  But  this  appears  to  be  a  difficult  matter  for 
the  average  person  to  do. 

In  some  towns  double  rows  of  cottonwood  trees,  the  trees 
ten  feet  apart  in  the  row,  may  be  seen,  one  on  each  side  of  the  side 
walk.  The  result  is  a  thicket  of  ungainly  trees  which  serve  no  pur¬ 
pose  that  would  not  have  been  gained  had  there  been  but  one  row 
and  the  trees  placed  three  or  four  times  as  far  apart. 

The  majority  of  trees  on  most  streets  should  be  planted  40 
feet  apart.  Then  if  quick  effects  are  desirable,  the  rapid  growing 
Carolina  poplar  may  be  planted  temporarily  between  the  slower 
growing  kinds,  thus  making  the  trees  20  feet  apart.  The  temporary 
trees  should  be  removed  at  the  first  sign  of  crowding  and  those  that 
remain  will  soon  fill  in  the  gaps. 

Most  of  the  trees  here  mentioned  are  propagated  ordinarily  by 
seeds,  a  few  by  cuttings  and  layers,  while  some,  as  the  elms,  bass¬ 
wood,  catalpa  and  black  walnut,  sprout  readily  from  the  stump.  If 
one  strong  shoot  is  allowed  to  grow  anew  tree  may  be  secured  in  a 
comparatively  short  time  in  this  way.  Seeds  of  most  trees  ripen  in 
autumn  and  may  be  planted  then  where  they  are  to  grow,  or  they  may 
be  stratified  and  planted  in  spring.  Stratification  consists  of  mix¬ 
ing  the  seeds  with  moist  sand,  or  alternate  layers  of  seeds  and  sand 
which  may  be  placed  in  barrels  or  boxes  and  kept  out  doors.  The 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing  to  which  they  are  subjected  during 
tne  winter,  when  thus  exposed,  is  necessary  to  enalzde  the  seeds 
of  many  trees  to  germinate. 


The  Shade  Trees  of  Denver. 


7 


A  tentative  list  is  given  below  of  the  kinds  of  trees  which  are 
foreign  to  the  state  that  are  known  to  be  growing  in  Denver : 


Elm,  American 
”  Cork 
”  Red 
Scotch 

Ash,  Blue 
”  Green 
”  White 

European 
Weeping 
Mountain  Ash, 

”  Oak  Leaved 
”  Weeping 

Locust,  Black 
Clammy 
”  Honey- 

Honey  Thornless 

Maple,  Soft 
”  Sugar 
Norway 
Sycamore 
Wiers  Cut  Leaf 
”  Japan 

Black  Walnut 
Butternut 
Horse  Chestnut 
Buckeye 

Catalpa  (Speciosa) 

(Bignonioides) 
Linden,  American 
European 


Birch,  White 
”  Black 
”  Weeping 
Oak,  Red 
”  Burr 
”  White 
Swamp 
English 
”  Pin 

Willow,  Weeping  American 
Weeping  European 
Laurel  Leaf 
Poplar,  Carolina 
Lombardy 
Silver  Leaf 
”  Siberian 
Tulip,  or  Yellow  Poplar 
Chestnut,  Sweet 
Mulberry,  Red 
”  Russian 

”  White 

Sycamore 
Hawthorn,  sp. 

Hackberry 

Cherry,  Black,  of  commerce 

Kentucky  Coffee  Tree 

Russian  Olive 

Ailanthus 

Red  Bud 

Persimmon 

Cucumber  Tree 


Many  of  these  kinds  have  not  been  tested  long  enough  to  war¬ 
rant  further  notice  at  this  time,  and  not  a  few  must  eventually 
prove  to  be  unsuited  to  our  conditions.  A  few  of  the  more  promis¬ 
ing  kinds,  those  that  now  show  every  indication  of  being  of  perma¬ 
nent  value,  have  been  selected  for  description  and  illustration : 


AMERICAN  ELM. 

(Ulmus  Americana  L  ) 

Few  trees  equal  and  probably  none  surpass  the  American  elm  for 
street  planting  in  the  Northeastern  States,  and  trials  have  shown  it  to  be 
one  of  the  most  desirable  trees  for  this  purpose  in  Colorado.  There  are 
several  recognized  forms  or  types  of  this  tree,  the  commonest  being  the 
vase  shaped  type.  This  is  specially  suited  to  avenue  planting,  as  the  trunk 
divides  some  distance  above  the  ground  into  numerous  branches  which 
gradually  spread  toward  the  tip  and,  as  the  tree  acquires  age,  become 
more  or  less  arched,  thus  producing  that  pleasing  effect  so  noticeable  in 
elm  avenues  of  long  standing. 

While  pre-eminently  an  avenue  tree,  this  elm  is  equally  suited  for 
planting  about  the  home  and  in  parks  and  public  grounds.  The  top  is 
usually  carried  high  above  the  ground,  especially  when  grown  among  other 
trees,  thus  furnishing  shade  without  impeding  free  circulation  of  air. 


8 


Bulletin  96 


The  airy  grace  and  majestic  bearing  of  the  elm  when  well  grown, 
likewise  make  it  a  most  desirable  tree  to  plant  where  generous  artistic 
effects  are  desired.  It  is  a  rapid  growing  tree  when  young  and  also  long- 
lived,  qualities  which  are  not  often  found  in  the  same  species.  While  this 
tree  does  best  in  a  rich,  moist  soil,  it  is  adapted  to  a  variety  of  situations 
and  soils  where  w~ater  can  be  supplied.  Its  wood  is  tough  and  hard  to  split 
qualities  which  enable  it  to  withstand  severe  winds  and  storms. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  sleet  storms  load  the  tops  with  ice 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  more  upright  branches  are  broken  down.  This 
trouble  is  no  more  liable  to  occur  in  this  state,  however,  than  in  other 
portions  of  the  country  where  the  elm  is  grown,  and  in  most  cases  the  trees 
are  capable  of  making  a  rapid  recovery  after  the  damaged  branches  are 
removed,  owing  to  their  ability  to  push  out  new  shoots. 

Young  trees  of  this  species  sometimes  show  a  straggling  habit  of 
growth  which  can  be  usually  corrected  by  a  little  judicious  pruning. 
As  with  most  trees  the  elm  does  best  and  makes  the  most  perfect  specimens 
when  planted  young  and  when  the  least  amount  of  root  pruning  is  necessary. 

Several  other  forms  of  elms  can  be  seen  in  the  city  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  the  cork,  Scotch  and  English  elms.  All  of  these  kinds  ap¬ 
pear  to  be  desirable  and  some  of  them  may  prove  to  oe  better  adapted 
to  our  conditions  than  the  common  white  elm. 

The  various  kinds  of  elms  are  commonly  propagated  by  seeds  which 
usually  ripen  in  May  or  June.  The  seeds  should  be  sown  at  once  and  the 
most  of  them  will  soon  germinate,  but  a  few  may  remain  dormant  until 
the  next  spring. 

Many  insects  attack  the  elm,  among  which  the  elm  leaf  beetle  has 
been  quite  destructive.  None  of  these  pests  have  appeared,  as  yet,  in  Colo¬ 
rado. 

ASH. 

(. Fraxinus  sp.) 

There  are  three  species  of  this  tree  which  closely  resemble  each 
other,  and  any  one  of  which  may  be  meant  when  the  name  ash  is  used 
for  those  grown  in  this  state.  They  are  the  white,  the  green  and  the 
red  ash.  Probably  in  most  cases  the.  green  ash  is  the  one  oftenest  seen 
and  is  the  one  most  highly  recommended  by  writers  on  the  subject  of  trees 
for  prairie  planting.  The  ash  is  one  of  our  most  reliable  trees  for  orna¬ 
mental  planting  in  this  state  and  is  capable  of  making  a  good  showing 
in  any  situation  where  the  cottonwood  can  be  grown.  It  is  a  rapid  grower, 
producing  a  somewhat  rounded  head  of  clean,  dark  green  foliage,  which 
assumes  a  bright  yellow  tint  in  autumn.  Its  leaves  are  compound,  each  being 
composed  of  five  to  nine  leaflets  arranged  along  a  common  stalk,  thus  res¬ 
embling  quite  closely  those  of  the  walnut.  Thus  its  foliage  contrasts  well 
with  trees  having  large  simple  leaves  and  they  are  also  pleasing  when 
seen  in  mass. 

The  ash  is  well  adapted  to  streets  and  other  places  where  more  ex¬ 
acting  trees  would  fail.  Thus  it  is  hardy,  its  wood  is  tough  and  not  easily 
broken  down  by  storms  and  the  tree  is  moreover  capable  of  withstanding 
drouth  to  a  considerable  extent.  It  is  especially  suitable  for  prairie 
plantings  for  wind  breaks  and  for  shade.  It  can  be  easily  grown  from  seeds 
which  should  be  mixed  with  sand  and  kept  in  a  shed  or  they  may  be 
spread  on  bare  ground  in  the  fall  and  covered  with  boxes  or  boards.  In 
the  spring  the  seeds  should  be  planted  in  rows  in  a  seed  bed  somewhat  shelt¬ 
ered  from  wind  and  full  sunlight  and  supplied  with  wafer. 

A  few  years  ago  borers  attacked  the  ash  trees  of  Denver  in  alarming 
numbers  and  it  was  feared  for  a  time  that  all  of  these  trees  would  lie 
destroyed.  But  the  result  has  not  been  so  serious  as  was  anticipated,  and  today 
the  insects  are  not  as  numerous  as  they  were  three  years  ago. 

HONEY  LOCUST. 

( Gleditschia  triacanthos  L.) 

The  honey  locust  is  a  tree  which  has  been  favorably  known  for  a  num¬ 
ber  of  years  in  the  Middle  Western  States,  where  it  is  quite  extensively 


The  Shade  Trees  oe  Denver. 


9 


planted  as  a  street  tree  and  for  wind  breaks  and  hedges.  It  is  readily 
distinguished  from  the  common  black  locust  by  its  smoother  bark,  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  large  branched  spines  on  the  trunk  and  branches,  and  by  its  leaves, 
which  are  twice  compound.  The  pods  also  differ  from  those  of  the  black 
locust,  being  much  larger  and  having  a  twisted  shape.  A  thornless  variety 
of  the  honey  locust  occurs  which  is  especially  desirable  where  the  presence 
of  spines  is  objectionable. 

The  form  of  this  tree  is  quite  variable,  being  rather  broad  and  low 
in  open  situations,  but  running  up  pretty  well  when  grown  among  other 
trees.  It  is  a  graceful  tree,  the  small  leaflets  closely  arranged,  giving  its 
foliage  an  unusually  delicate  appearance  especially  when  contrasted  with 
that  of  other  trees. 

The  honey  locust,  while  not  quite  hardy  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Colorado,  is  capable  of  making  a  good  growth  in  most  sections  of  the  state 
and  is  capable  of  enduring  considerable  drouth.  The  wood  is  hard  and 
strong  besides  being  very  durable,  moreover  it  is  not  subject  to  the  attacks 
of  borers,  so  often  destructive  to  the  black  locust. 

This  tree  is  readily  grown  from  seeds  which  should  be  collected  in 
the  fall  and  kept  dry  until  spring.  The  seeds  are  so  hard  that  they  are 
not  apt  to  germinate  the  first  season  unless  they  are  first  scalded  with  hot 
water  just  previous  to  planting.  This  treatment,  if  sufficiently  thorough, 
causes  them  to  swell,  after  which  they  should  be  planted  at  once  in  a  well 
prepared  seed  bed.  The  seedlings  should  receive  some  protection  during 
the  first  winter  by  either  heavy  mulching  or  laying  down. 

BLACK  LOCUST,  YELLOW  LOCUST. 

(Robinia  pseudctcacia  L.) 

The  common  locust  possesses  many  of  the  most  desirable  qualities  as 
a  utility  tree  for  the  state  of  Colorado,  since  it  is  readily  propagated  by 
seeds  and  root  cuttings,  is  a  rapid  grower,  resists  drought  well  and  is  hardy. 
The  wood,  moreover,  is  hard,  heavy,  of  good  fuel  value  and  resists  decay 
to  a  remarkable  degree.  In  thick  plantations  this  tree  makes  a  single 
trunk  of  slender  growth,  suitable  for  fence  and  telephone  posts  and  may  in 
time  reach  a  sufficient  size  to  furnish  material  for  railroad  ties. 

This  locust  is  also  much  grown  as  a  shade  and  ornamental  tree.  Its 
foliage  possesses  a  delicate  texture  due  to  the  small  size  of  its  leaflets 
and  when  in  bloom  the  tree  presents  a  very  attractive  appearance  and  gives 
off  a  most  delicious  fragrance.  When  grown  in  open  places  the  trunk  does 
not  often  run  up  far  before  dividing  several  times,  in  which  respect  it 
resembles  the  elm.  The  smaller  branches  are  beset  with  stiff 
prickers  which  occur  in  pairs  at  the  base  of  each  leaf  stalk,  thus  making  it 
an  unpleasant  subject  to  handle,  but,  like  the  honey  locust,  smooth  forms 
also  occur.  This  tree  frequently  sprouts,  especially  when  the  roots  are  in¬ 
jured  in  any  way,  and  when  cut  the  stump  sends  up  strong  shoots. 

The  most  serious  drawback  to  the  growing  of  the  b!ack  locust 
in  the  Eastern  States  is  the  fact  that  this  tree  is  especially  subject  to  the 
attacks  of  borers  which,  while  they  do  not  at  once  kill  the  tree,  yet  cause 
great  injury  to  it.  Moreover  the  wood  is  so  perforated  by  these  pests 
that  the  trunk  is  often  rendered  practically  worthless.  While  these  enemies 
of  the  locust  have  not  yet  appeared  to  trouble  this  tree  in  places  where 
it  is  now  growing  in  this  state,  it  is  possible  that  in  time  they  may  be 
found,  especially  if  the  tree  becomes  common.  But  before  this  does  occur 
it  is  probable  that  locust  plantations  may  be  grown  to  sufficient  size  to  make 
them  paying  investments. 

The  tree  is  usually  grown  from  seeds,  which  should  be  treated  the 
same  as  those  of  the  honey  locust. 

SUGAR  MAPLE.  HARD  MAPLE. 

( Acer  Saccharum  Marsh.) 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  tree  is  held  in  greater  esteem  than  the  sugar 
maple  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  tree  as  it  occurs  in  the  hard  wood 


10 


Bulletin  96. 


portions  of  the  Northeastern  States.  The  maple  grove  has  always  been  a 
favorite  place  wherever  it  exists,  for  a  local  celebration,  the  family  picnic  or 
a  quiet  stroll.  And  surely  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  pleasanter  spot,  whether 
it  be  in  the  early  spring  when  the  sugar  season  is  on,  during  the  heat  of 
summer,  shut  off  by  the  dense  foliage,  or  when  the  glorious  tints  of  autumn 
are  glowing  in  unrivaled  shades  of  yellow  and  crimson  from  the  dying  leaves. 

Being  a  rather  slow  growing  tree,  it  is  also  enduring  when  favorably 
situated.  In  its  typical  form  it  is  a  round  or  oval  headed  tree  if  grown  in 
sufficient  room,  but  specimens  occur  which  possess  a  tendency  to  stretch 
upward,  like  the  one  shown  in  the  picture.  The  foliage  of  the  sugar  maple 
is  usually  quite  dense  and  clean,  making  it  one  of  the  most  desirable  trees 
where  strong  shade  and  freedom  from  litter  are  wanted. 

Its  wood  is  hard,  strong  and  of  the  highest  value  for  fuel.  “Curly” 
and  “birdseye”  maple  are  varieties  of  timber  obtained  from  this  tree  and 
possess  a  high  value  in  cabinet  work.  In  sections  where  the  sugar  maple 
naturally  occurs,  it  is  one  of  the  favorite  street  trees  and  many  beautiful 
avenues  of  this  tree  exist.  Its  hardiness,  freedom  from  litter  and  its  beautiful 
display  of  autumn  tints  are  qualities  not  excelled  by  any  other  tree  in  the 
Northern  Middle  States. 

This  tree  sometimes  suffers  from  sun  scald  where  the  trunk  is  ex¬ 
posed  and  in  sections  where  there  is  great  variation  in  winter  tem¬ 
perature,  and  for  this  reason  some  protection  is  needed  for  the  trunks 
especially  when  young.  While  no  extensive  trials  have  been  made  in  grow¬ 
ing  the  sugar  maple  in  Colorado,  the  many  desirable  features  of  this  tree 
make  limited  plantings  worth  while  in  places  where  the  exposure  is  not 
too  great  and  where  water  is  available  for  irrigation. 

The  soft,  or  silver  maple  (A.  Saccharinum  L. )  has  been  extensively 
planted  in  Northern  Colorado  towns  as  a  shade  and  street  tree.  While 
many  of  these  trees  have  proven  satisfactory,  no  doubt  a  greater  number 
have  died,  and  the  light  colored  foliage  of  those  that  are  failing  may  be 
seen  on  all  sides.  This  species,  when  growing  naturally  is  at  its  best  on 
the  banks  of  streams  where  it  is  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  moisture. 
The  extremes  of  moisture  that  are  common  under  irrigation,  especially  if 
the  soil  is  heavy,  appear  to  result  in  the  death  of  the  smaller  roots;  at  any 
rate  the  lack  of  feeding  roots  on  dying  trees  is  always  very  noticeable  and 
uncongenial  soil  conditions  must  be  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

This  experience  has  been  so  universal  that  we  do  not  hesitate  to 
condemn  the  use  of  this  tree  in  most  sections  of  the  state. 

The  maples  are  propagated  by  seeds  which  may  be  sown  in  autumn 
or  they  may  be  stratified  and  sown  in  the  spring.  A  few  kinds  ripen  their 
seeds  early  in  the  season  and  these  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  they  are 
mature. 


NORWAY  MAPLE. 

( Acer  Platanoides  L.) 

In  general  this  tree  much  resembles  the  sugar  maple,  but  differs  in 
its  lower,  more  rounded  head  and  dense  foliage  of  a  dark  green  color.  Its 
compact  form,  clean  trunk  and  thick  foliage  possess  the  sturdy  aspect 
of  a  tree  fostered  in  a  rugged  country  and  under  the  ocean’s  breath. 
In  addition  to  these  characters  the  Norway  maple  holds  its  foliage  later 
than  any  other  maple,  the  leaves  turning  a  bright  yellow  before  falling. 
It  has  proven  to  be  a  very  hardy  tree  and  capable  of  making  a  healthy 
growth  in  the  city  of  Denver. 

On  account  of  its  low,  compact  habit  of  growth,  this  tree  is  especially 
adapted  for  planting  in  door  yards  and  parks  and  where  dense  shade  is 
desired.  It  is  also  an  admirable  tree  for  streets  and  avenues.  Some  of 
the  varieties  of  the  Norway  maple  make  excellent  specimen  trees  for  open 
situations  in  parks  and  yards.  For  this  purpose  the  purplish  leaved  varieties 
may  be  recommended.  The  foliage  when  first  put  out  is  a  bright  purple 
color,  which  changes  somewhat  to  a  greenish  purple  as  the  season  advances. 

This  tree  is  suitable  for  planting  wherever  the  sugar  maple  is  capable 
of  growfing,  and  in  many  cases  may  prove  hardier  than  the  latter.  Prop¬ 
agation — by  means  of  seeds  sown  in  autumn  or  stratified  and  planted  in 
spring. 


The  Shade  Trees  oe  Denver. 


i  i 


BASSWOOD. 

(Tilia  americana  L.) 

The  basswood  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  trees  in  the  native  forests 
of  the  Middle  States,  where  it  often  reaches  the  height  of  seventy  feet 
with  a  trunk  diameter  of  three  feet.  While  possessing  somewhat  the  aspect 
of  the  catalpa,  the  young  basswood  is  lacking  in  the  coarseness  of  foliage 
and  branches  so  characteristic  of  that  species  and  is  well  suited  to  take 
the  place  of  the  catalpa  for  shade  and  foliage  effects.  The  basswood  when 
grown  in  open  situations  assumes  an  oval  or  rounded  form  of  pleasing  pro¬ 
portions.  The  large  obliquely  heart-shaped  leaves  have  the  margins 
coarsely  serrate,  are  of  a  bright  green  color  and  are  arranged  alternately 
on  the  rather  slender  branches,  the  latter  being  covered  with  a  smooth 
gray  bark. 

The  inner  bark  of  the  basswood  is  extremely  tough  and  is  capable 
of  being  readily  split  into  very  thin  strips,  which  are  often  used,  where 
the  tree  is  plentiful,  for  binding  fodder.  Its  wood  is  soft,  light  and  almost 
white  in  color,  there  being  scarcely  any  difference  in  this  respect  between 
the  sap  and  the  heart  wood. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  timber  is  of  low  fuel  value  and  that  it 
decays  rapidly  when  placed  in  the  soil,  still  the  great  variety  of  uses  to  which 
the  wood  of  this  tree  is  put  and  the  fact  that  it  is  a  hardy  and  rather  rapid 
growing  tree  suggests  it  as  a  desirable  introduction  into  the  timber  plantation. 

So  far  as  it  has  been  tried  in  this  state  the  basswood  has  made  a 
satisfactory  growth  and  is  to  be  recommended  as  a  suitable  street  and 
lawn  tree,  especially  where  variety  in  foliage  is  desired,  in  addition  to  this 
the  tree  is  attractive  when  in  bloom,  for  the  flowers,  while  not  large,  are 
numerous  and  fragrant  and  are  capable,  moreover,  of  furnishing  a  fine 
quality  of  nectar  for  honey  bees. 

The  usual  method  of  propagation  of  the  basswood  is  by  mean-,  of 
the  fruit,  which  should  be  stratified  in  moist  sand  in  an  exposed  place  and 
planted  in  the  seed  bed  the  following  spring.  Many  of  them  may  fail  to 
germinate  the  first  year. 

In  timber  plantations  this  tree  readily  propagates  from  the  stump, 
which  sends  up  numerous  strong  shoots,  and  by  thinning  these  out  new 
trunks  of  good  form  may  be  secured  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 


HACKBERRY. 

( Celtis  occidenialis  L  ) 

This  tree,  while  not  as  well  known  as  it  should  be,  is  of  wide  range, 
having  been  found  as  far  west  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  While  in  general 
appearance  closely  resembling  the  elm,  the  hackberry  is  capable  of  making 
a  satisfactory  growth  wherever  the  elm  succeeds,  in  many  cases  proving 
hardier  than  that  tree.  It  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  Western  Kansas 
and  in  Minnesota,  where  it  is  recorded  as  one  of  the  best  trees  for 
ornamental  planting. 

It  does  not  usually  make  as  large  a  tree  as  the  American  elm,  but  is 
the  equal  of  that  tree  in  its  slender  gracefulness  of  limb,  while  the  leaves 
are  so  similar  in  shape  as  to  be  readily  mistaken  for  those  of  the  elm. 

While  the  hackberry  is  capable  of  making  the  best  growth  only  in  rich, 
moist  soil,  it  is,  nevertheless,  able  to  do  well  in  dry  situations.  It  is  well 
suited  for  street  planting  and  is  especially  desirable  for  door  yards  and 
small  grounds  on  account  of  its  moderate  size  and  pleasing  appearance. 

The  hackberry  is  propagated  from  seeds  which  are  found  in  the 
small,  cherry-like  fruit  borne  singly  on  the  twigs.  These  may  be  sown 
in  autumn  or  stratified  until  spring. 


THE  WESTERN,  OR  HARDY  CATALPA. 

(■ Catalpa  speciosa  Warder.) 


A  great  deal  has  been  said  and  written  in  recent  years  about  the 
catalpa  as  a  utility  tree  which  could  be  readily  grown  to  supply  the  great 


'  12 


Bulletin  96. 


and  increasing-  demand  for  fence  posts,  railroad  ties  and  telephone  poles. 
It  does  indeed  possess  some  of  the  most  desirable  qualities  for  such  pur¬ 
poses,  such  as  ready  propagation  by  seeds,  rapid  growth  and  great  durabil¬ 
ity  of  its  wood  in  contact  with  soil.  Its  adaptability  to  different  locations, 
however,  has  frequently  been  overestimated  and  in  consequence  plantings 
of  this  tree  for  its  timber  have  sometimes  proven  unsatisfactory  or  even 
complete  failures  when  attempted  outside  of  its  natural  range.  Thus  the 
catalpa  has  proven  undesirable  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  the  country 
on  account  of  its  liability  to  winter  injury.  But  when  planted  in  sheltered 
locations  and  in  rich  soil  it  has  made  a  good  showing  and  is  useful  as  an 
ornamental  tree  for  parks  and  dooryards,  and  where  a  variety  of  foliage 
effects  is  desired. 

The  catalpa,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  is  an  upright  growing  tree 
with  coarse  twigs  and  large  leaves.  It  is  a  showy  tree  when  in  bloom,  the 
large  clusters  of  whitish  flowers  faintly  spotted  with  purple  giving  it  an  at¬ 
tractive  appearance.  In  many  places  this  tree  has  been  extensively  planted 
along  streets  and  boulevards,  but  it  seems  poorly  suited  for  such  pur¬ 
poses,  as  it  is  apt  to  assume  an  ugly  and  ungraceful  appearance,  in  many 
instances  showing  dead  and  bare  limbs  which  the  coarse  foliage  fails  to 
conceal.  Its  most  desirable  use  as  an  ornamental  tree  is  shown  when  grouped 
among  or  against  a  background  of  other  trees  and  where  there  is  plenty  of 
room  in  the  foreground. 

Many  of  the  earlier  attempts  at  growing  the  catalpa  failed  for  the 
reason  that  the  Eastern  species  (C.  bignonioides)  was  substituted  for  the 
hardier  Western  kind.  The  former  species  is  entirely  worthless  in  Colorado, 
and  too  great  care  cannot  be  taken  to  get  seeds  from  reliable  people.  Seeds 
should  be  planted  in  the  spring  in  a  well  prepared  seed  bed.  In  some 
localities  cuttings  root  easily  when  placed  in  moist  soil. 

BLACK  WALNUT. 

( Juglcms  nigra  L.) 

The  black  walnut  has  always  held  a  prominent  place  among  the  most 
valuable  native  trees  of  North  America.  At  one  time  the  forests  of  the 
Middle  Eastern  States  contained  many  magnificent  specimens  of  this  tree, 
but  the  high  value  set  upon  its  timber  led  to  their  early  removal,  so  at  the 
present  time  it  is  rarely  that  one  sees  the  black  walnut  as  it  grew  in  the 
primeval  forest. 

It  is  not  uncommon,  however,  to  see  the  black  walnut  used  for  street 
and  roadside  planting  in  its  native  range,  as  it  is  of  moderately  rapid 
growth  when  young,  presents  an  attractive  appearance  and  the  nuts 
are  highly  esteemed  by  many  persons.  Plantations  of  this  tree  for  its  timber 
are  apt  to  be  somewhat  disappointing  on  account  of  the  face  that  the  wood 
does  not  assume  the  rich,  dark  brown  color,  which  has  made  it  so  much 
used  in  cabinet  work,  until  the  trees  are  of  great  age.  But  before  this 
occurs  the  young  trees  may  be  used  for  fuel  and  for  posts,  the  durability 
of  its  wood  making  this  tree  one  of  the  desirable  kinds  for  the  latter 
purpose. 

For  satisfactory  results  the  black  walnut  should  have  a  rich  soil 
and  a  fairly  constant  water  supply,  under  which  conditions  it  has  made  an 
excellent  growth  in  this  state.  It  is  particularly  suited  to  parks  and  similar 
places,  where  it  can  have  room  to  develop  on  all  sides,  when  it  assumes  a 
rounded  top  of  considerable  density. 

Its  foliage  slightly  resembles  that  of  the  ash  but  is  more  attractive, 
being  composed  of  numerous  pairs  of  leaflets  arranged  on  long  stalks, 
which  remain  on  the  tree  for  some  time  after  the  leaflets  are  shed.  The 
trees  begin  to  bear  nuts  when  ten  to  fifteen  years  of  age. 

This  tree  is  quite  readily  propagated  by  means  of  the  nuts,  which 
should  be  gathered  when  mature,  stratified  over  winter  arid  planted  in 
spring.  Or  the  nuts  may  be  planted  in  autumn  where  the  trees  are  to  stand. 
The  black  walnut  does  not  transplant  readily,  when  over  a  year  old,  unless 
the  precaution  has  been  taken  to  cut  the  long  tap  root  while  the  trees 
were  small. 


The:  Shade:  Trees  oe  Denver. 


13 


THE  BIRCHES. 

( Betula  sp.) 

Among  the  birches  are  found  some  of  our  most  graceful  ornamental 
trees.  As  a  group  they  are  characterized  by  their  slender  branches  and 
small  open  foliage  while  the  bark  in  many  species  is  smooth  and  possessed 
of  some  characteristic  color.  The  wood  of  the  larger  kinds  is  much  used 
hi  the  manufacture  of  small  wooden  articles,  while  the  curly  grained  indi¬ 
viduals  furnish  valuable  lumber  for  cabinet  work. 

The  black  birch  (Betula  occidentalis)  is  the  principal  native  tree  of 
this  group  in  Colorado.  It  is  a  rather  small  tree,  sometimes  reaching  a 
height  of  twenty  to  thirty  feet,  with  bark  of  a  bronze  color.  It  is  seldom 
planted,  but  is  capable  of  being  used  to  lend  variety  to  ornamental  tree 
plantings. 

The  European  white  birch  (Betula  alba)  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  has 
been  extensively  used  in  America  as  an  ornamental  tree,  where  it  is  be¬ 
coming  naturalized.  It  is  a  slender,  graceful  tree,  reaching  a  height  of 
thirty  to  forty  feet.  Its  most  noticeable  feature  is  the  chalk  white  color  of 
the  bark,  on  the  trunks  and  older  branches,  which  makes  it  a  striking  tree 
especially  in  the  winter  when  planted  in  front  of  a  group  of  evergreens. 
It  is  much  used  on  this  account  for  parks  and  public  as  well  as  private 
grounds. 

The  cut-leaved  weeping  variety  of  the  white  birch  is  the  embodiment 
of  delicate,  airy  grace  and  is  largely  used  in  the  place  of  the  species 
especially  where  daintiness  and  contrast  are  desired.  It  sometimes  reaches 
a  good  size  in  favorable  locations  where  moisture  is  unfailing,  but  it  is  not 
a  longlived  tree.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  however,  it  is  one  of  the  desirable 
ornamental  trees  for  lawns  and  parks. 

The  birches  may  be  grown  from  seeds  sown  in  autumn  or  stratified 
over  winter.  The  ornamental  varieties  are  increased  by  budding  and  grafting 
on  the  parent  species. 


SYCAMORE,  PLANE  TREE. 

( Platanus  Occidentalis  L.) 

The  sycamore  occurs  principally  along  streams  and  river  bottoms  in 
the  Middle  States  and  often  grows  to  a  very  large  size.  In  form  the  tree 
considerably  resembles  the  cottonwood,  but  the  branches  are  usually  more 
spreading  and  crooked  than  in  that  species.  On  the  branches  and  young- 
trunks  the  bark  is  smooth  and  of  a  greenish  white  color,  but  is  partly 
obscured  on  the  old  trunks  and  large  limbs  by  patches  of  dark  gray 
outer  bark.  Thus  the  sycamore  presents  a  rather  striking  appearance 
when  set  off  against  a  background  of  dark  foliage.  The  leaves  of  this  tree 
are  large  with  several  pointed  lobes  and  a  light  green  color,  making  it 
a  suitable  tree  for  securing  a  variety  of  foliage  effects,  especially  where 
dense  shade  is  not  desired.  The  sycamore  is  sometimes  known  by  the 
name  of  button-ball  tree,  from  the  fact  that  the  small,  seed-like  fruits 
grow  in  dense  globular  heads  about  the  size  of  a  walnut  and  these  hang 
on  the  tree  over  winter. 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  fine  grained,  hard  and  splits  with  difficulty. 
It  possesses  a  handsome  silver  grain  when  quarter  sawed  and  is  used  to  some 
extent  for  interior  finishing  and  for  articles  of  furniture. 

While  the  sycamore  has  been  but  little  used  in  the  Western  States 
it  is  a  desirable  tree  for  streets  and  parks  and  will  evidently  thrive  where 
planted  in  good  soil  and  supplied  with  water.  It  is  propagated  by  means 
of  the  seeds,  which  may  be  sown  in  spring  in  a  seed  bed. 


THE  HORSE  CHESTNUT. 

{Aesculus  hippocastanum  L.) 


This  tree  is  characterized  by  its  rounded  top  of  dense  foliage,  each 
leaf  being  composed  of  five  to  seven  leaflets  of  large  size  which  spring 


14 


Bulletin  96. 


from  the  end  of  the  leaf  stalk  in  a  radiating  manner.  This  formation  of 
the  leaves  gives  the  horse  chestnut  a  very  distinctive  character  and  makes 
it  a  desirable  tree  for  securing  a  variety  of  foliage  effects  in  ornamental 
plantings.  Being  a  rather  large  coarse  tree:  when  well  grown,  it  is  not 
as  suitable  for  small  areas,  as  for  parks  and  large  grounds  where  generous 
effects  are  wanted. 

Like  the  catalpa,  this  tree  is  showy  when  in  bloom,  the  flowers  being 
produced  in  large  erect  clusters  and  having  white  petals  spotted  with  pur¬ 
ple  and  yellow.  The  seeds  are  of  a  large  size  and  are  produced  in  a  prickly 
pod  about  the  size  of  a  mature  walnut.  After  the  leaves  are  shed  the 
tree  is  noticeable  among  others  by  its  coarse,  upright  branches,  each  bearing 
large  terminal  buds  covered  with  a  sticky  varnish. 

This  tree  can  be  readily  grown  from  the  seeds,  which  should  be  col¬ 
lected  in  the  autumn,  buried  in  sand  before  they  dry  and  planted  in 
spring.  Or  they  may  be  planted  in  a  sheltered  seed  bed  in  autumn,  where 
they  are  allowed  to  grow  the  next  season. 

The  horse  chestnut  has  been  much  used  as  a  street  and  shade  tree  in 
the  Eastern  and  Central  States,  but  is  not  considered  sufficiently  hardy  for 
Northern  localities.  A  few  trees  of  the  horse  chestnut  have  been  planted  in 
the  city  of  Denver  and  are  now  sufficiently  mature  to  produce  fruit. 

While  this  is  about  all  the  data  we  have  regarding  its  suitability  for 
Colorado,  it  is  evident  that  the  horse  chestnut  can  be  successfully  grown 
in  any  location  similar  to  that  of  Denver  and  where  moisture  and  fertility 
are  not  scarce. 


PLATE  I. 

AMERICAN  ELM. — City  Park.  Planted  about  1883;  height  50  feet;  cir 

cumference  54  inches.  Photo  Aug.  25,  1903. 


PLATE  II. 

WHITE  ASH  AVENUE. — City  Park.  Planted  about  1S70;  height  33  feet;  circumference  30  1-3  inches.  Photo  Aug.  16,  1903. 


PLATE  III. 

EL.4CK  LOCUST  AVENUE. — City  Park.  One  tree  in  Denver  twenty-six  years  old  has  attained  a  height  of  60  feet, 

and  a  circumference  of  71  inches. 


SUGAR  MAPLE. — Grounds  of  Mrs.  L.  A.  Howard.  Planted  1883;  height  33 
feet;  circumference  23  inches.  Photo  Aug.  16,  1903. 


PLATE  V. 

NORWAY  MAPLE. — Grounds  of  Mrs.  L.  A.  Howard.  Planted  1883;  height 
25  feet;  circumference  25  1-2  inches.  Photo  Aug.  16,  1903. 


ii  iin  iirtMmiiiwm 


COLO,  AG.  CXR  STA 


PLATE  VI. 

AMERICAN  LINDEN. — Fairmount  Cemetery.  Planted  1891;  height  23  feet 
circumference  23  inches.  Photo  Aug.  16,  1903. 


PLATE  VII. 


HACKBERRY. — Fairmount  Cemetery. 

cumference  26  inches. 


Planted  1891;  height  28  feet;  cir- 
Photo  Aug.  16,  1903. 


-‘J.-ry  V 


SUTBERLA  N-D 
DENVER: 


PLATE  VIII. 


CATALPA  SPECIOSA. — Campus,  Agricultural  College,  Port 
188  9;  height  3  0  feet;  circumference  4  8  inches.  Photo 


Collins.  Planted 
May,  1903. 


BLACK  WALNUT. — Walnut  Street.  Planted  about  1873.  Ten  of  the  largest  have  a  circumference 

of  30  inches  and  over.  “PVi a^t  ie  ■*ano 


PLATE  X. 

CUT  LEAF  BIRCH. — City  Park.  Planted  about  1885;  height  30  feet;  cir 

cumference  18  inches.  Photo  Aug.  16,  1903. 


PLATE  XI. 

ENGLISH  OAK. — Fairmount  Cemetery.  Planted  1891;  height  30  feet;  cir¬ 
cumference  31  inches.  Photo  Aug.  25,  1903. 


PLATE  XII. 


SYCAMORE. — Grounds  of  C.  B.  Kountze.  Planted  1880;  height  37  feet;  cir 

cumference  47  inches.  Photo  June  7,  1903. 


HORSE  CHESTNUT. — Grounds  of  W.  N.  Byers.  Planted  18  97 
feet;  circumference  14  inches.  Photo  June  7,  1903. 


height  15 


A 


V: 


s'  Of  1HE 


llUHOl* 


Bulletin  97. 


February,  1905 


r  . 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College. 


Feeding  Steers  on  Sugar  Beet  Pulp, 
Alfalfa  Hay  and  Farm  Grains. 


By  W.  L.  Carlyle,  C.  J.  Griffith  and  A.  J.  Meyer. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 


1  905. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President , 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS, 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  ROUTT,  - 
Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 
Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 
Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB, 


Denver 

TERM 

EXPIRES 

-  1905 

Fort  Coll  me, 

•  1905 

Denver,  - 

-  1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum,  - 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

Canon  City, 

-  1911 

Carbondale, 

-  1911 

Governor  ALVA  ADAMS.  \  ~  . 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  )  ex'°Plcl° 


Executive  Committee  in  charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION  STAFF. 


L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director  ...  -  Irrigation  Engineer 

C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S., . Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., . -  Chemist 

W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.  A., . Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M., . Veterinarian 

C.  J.  GRIFFITH,  B.  S.  A., . Animal  Husbandman 

W.  H.  OLIN,  M.  S ,  -  - . -  Agrostologist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  0.  ALFORD,  B.  S., . -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S., . Assistant  Agriculturist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Horticulturist 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY,  ....  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


Feeding  Steers  on  Sugar  Beet  Pulp, 
Alfalfa  Hay  and  Farm  Grains. 


By  W.  L.  CARLYLE,  C.  J.  GRIFFITH  and  A.  J,  MEYER, 


The  data  presented  in  this  bulletin  is  published  at  this  tlni 
for  the  benefit  of  cattle  feeders  in  those  sections  of  the  country 
where  the  growing  of  sugar  beets  is  coming  to  be  a  leading  in¬ 
dustry.  For  several  years  past  there  has  been  much  interest  man¬ 
ifested  concerning  the  value  of  sugar  beet  pulp  as  a  factor  in  beef 
production.  The  experiment  described  in  the  following  pages 
was  not  intended  to,  and  does  not,  show  the  actual  feeding  value 
of  beet  pulp.  It  does  show,  however,  that  this  by-product  has  a 
considerable  value  as  a  feed,  and  may  be  made  to  play  a  prominent 
part  in  economical  cattle  feeding. 

The  experiment  was  made  possible  through  the  liberality  of 
the  Great  Western  Sngar  Company,  of  Loveland,  Colo.,  who  fur¬ 
nished  the  cattle,  the  feed  and  equipment,  and  a  part  of  the  labor 
for  carrying  on  the  work.  The  Experiment  Station  greatly  ap¬ 
preciates  the  kindness  and  the  progressive  spirit  of  Mr.  C.  K. 
Boettcher,  president  of  the  company,  in  thus  supplying  to  the 
Station  this  means  of  testing  the  value  of  sugar  beet  pulp  com¬ 
bined  with  alfalfa  hay  and  farm  grains  as  a  feed  for  cattle. 

The  Station  is  also  indebted  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  through  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  for  financial 
aid  in  carrying  on  this  experiment. 

The  results  of  this  trial  are  not  considered  as  final  or  conclu¬ 
sive,  but  are  published  in  the  hope  that  the  data  gathered  from 
this  initial  experiment  may  be  of  some  benefit  to  the  prospective 
cattle  feeder.  Arrangements  are  already  under  way  for  a  more 
complete  anci  elaborate  experiment  with  these  feeds  during  the 
coming  winter,  when  an  effort  will  be  made  to  determine  the 
actual  feeding  value  of  sugar  beet  pulp  as  compared  with  other 
standard  feeds. 


4 


bulletin  97. 

The  great  cattle  ranges  of  the  western  states  have  for  many 
years  supported  large  herds  of  breeding  or  “she”  stock  and  have 
grown  immense  numbers  of  calves,  yearlings,  and  two  and  three 
year  old  cattle  to  supply  the  feed  lots  of  the  Middle  West,  or  corn 
belt,  with  feeders.  Frequently  this  is  a  very  profitable  business 
for  the  ranchmen  of  the  West,  but  at  times  when  corn  is  a  light 
crop  or  a  partial  failure,  there  is  little  demand  and  low  prices  for 
feeders  and  the  ranchman  must  either  keep  his  cattle  until  a  corn 
crop  is  assured  or  sacrifice ..them,  at  less  than  cost.  In  those  sec¬ 
tions  of  the  West  where  water  can  be  secured  for  irrigation  pur¬ 
poses,  ranchmen  have  frequently  made  a  success  of  cattle  feeding 
during  the  winter  months.  The  alfalfa  plant  seems  to  have 
found  in  the  irrigated  sections  of  this  western  country  its  most 
congenial  environment.  The  yield  per  acre  is  large  and  the 
quality  is  usually  excellent  owing  to  the  fine  weather  that  always 
prevails  during  the  growing  and  harvesting  seasons.  The  small 
grains  grown  in  these  regions  are  also  of  superb  quality.  The 
proximity  of  the  snow  capped  mountains  and  the  high  altitude 
renders  the  nights  rather  cold  and  the  growing  season  is  a  com¬ 
paratively  long  one,  resulting  in  a  very  heavy  yield  of  rich  and 
nutritious  grains. 

During  recent  years,  however,  the  growth  of  the  beet  sugar 
industry  has  presented  many  new  problems  for  solution.  Promi¬ 
nent  among  these  are  the  maintenance  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
the  profitable  disposition  of  the  alfalfa  crop,  which  rotates  best 
with  the  sugar  beet  crop,  and  last,  and  by  no  means  least  import¬ 
ant,  the  proper  utilization  of  the  beet  pulp,  a  by-product  from  the 
sugar-factories.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  60  per  cent,  of  the 
total  weight  of  the  beet  crop,  exclusive  of  the  tops,  is  returned 
as  beet  pulp  with  practically  no  change  in  its  composition  except 
the  extraction  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  sugar  content  of  the 
beet.  Since  many  ranchmen  and  stockmen  of  the  West  are  not 
familiar  with  the  process  of  sugar  making  from  beets,  a  few 
words  of  explanation  as  to  what  beet  pulp  is,  and  how  it  is  secured, 
may  be  appreciated.  When  the  beets  are  received  at  the  sugar 
factory,  they  are  first  thoroughly  washed  and  then  carried  to  the 
slicer  where  they  are  cut  into  small  strips  about  two  inches  long, 
one-fourth  inch  wide,  and  one-sixteenth  inch  thick,  called 
“cossettes.”  They  pass  directly  from  the  slicer  into  large  tanks 
where  running  water  extracts  the  sugar.  The  pulp,  after  the  ex¬ 
traction  process  is  complete,  is  drawn  from  these  tanks  at  the 
bottom  and  transferred  to  a  press  where  all  the  free  moisture  is 
expelled  and  is  then  transferred  by  means  of  screw  carriers  to  a 
large  flat  pit  or  reservoir  outside,  termed  the  “silo.”  In  this  pit 
the  pulp  is  piled  ten  or  twelve  feet  deep  and  rapidly  forms  an  air 
tight  crust  on  the  surface  which  preserves  the  lower  layers  per- 


feeding  steers  beet  puep,  aeEaefa  and  grains.  5 

fectly.  Any  surplus  water  is  drawn  off  through  the  drains  pro¬ 
vided  and  the  pulp  instead  of  deteriorating  in  palatability  and 
feeding  value,  is  actually  improved  in  these  respects  after  being 
siloed  for  several  months.  At  the  close  of  this  experiment,  the 
freshly  uncovered  pulp  was  sweet  and  pleasant  to  the  taste  and 
presented  an  odor  almost  identical  with  freshly  pulped  beets.  At 
this  time  it  appeared  much  drier  than  earlier  in  the  season  and 
the  cattle  appeared  to  be  fonder  of  it,  though  they  would  not 
consume  it  in  such  large  quantities.  In  some  of  the  factories  the 
pulp  is  carried  from  the  building  by  flushing  with  water  through 
elevated  sluice  boxes.  From  the  past  season’s  experience,  it  is 
apparent  that  this  is  a  very  objectionable  practice  on  the  part  of 
the  sugar  companies  and  should  not  be  followed  when  the  pulp  is 
desired  for  feeding  purposes.  From  the  six  sugar  factories  operat¬ 
ing  in  Northern  Colorado  during  the  season  of  1903,  there  was 
produced  at  least  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  tons  of 
beet  pulp,  all  of  which  was  available  for  stock  feeding  purposes. 
The  area  from  which  the  beets  were  grown  is  all  contained  in 
three  adjoining  counties,  and  there  were  at  least  three  hundred 
thousand  tons  of  alfalfa  grown  in  these  same  counties  last  year. 
These  figures  give  some  idea  of  the  possibilities  there  are  for  suc¬ 
cessful  meat  production  in  this  region. 

THE  OBJECT  OF  THE  EXPERIMENT. 

This  experiment  was  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  determin¬ 
ing:  . 

First. — If  beet  pulp  in  combination  with  alfalfa  hay  is  a  suit¬ 
able  food  for  fattening  steers. 

Second. — If  under  ordinary  conditions  it  would  be  profitable 
to  feed  grain  in  addition  to  the  pulp  and  alfalfa  hay. 

Third. — Which  grains  can  be  fed  to  the  greater  advantage, 
corn  or  the  home  grown  grains,  barley  and  oats  combined. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  it  was  desired  to  learn  what  effect, 
if  any,  the  various  rations  fed  would  have  upon  the  meat  pro¬ 
duced,  as  it  was  considered  by  many  that  an  exclusive  ration  of 
pulp  and  alfalfa  hay  would  not  produce  a  good  quality  of  edible 
meat. 

PDAN  OF  EXPERIMENT. 

In  planning  the  experiment,  it  was  decided  that  all  the  con¬ 
ditions  surrounding  it  should  be  as  nearly  similar  as  possible  to 
the  practices  of  the  cattle  feeders  in  this  section.  The  cattle 
selected  for  the  experiment  were  purchased  on  the  open  market  at 
Denver  in  October,  and  consisted  of  150  head  of  two  year  old 
grade  Shorthorn  and  Hereford  steers.  They  had  all  been  bred  by 
one  man  and  had  been  given  the  same  care  and  feed  from  birth 


6 


bulletin  97. 

until  purchased.  The  price  paid  was  $2.85  per  hundred  weight, 
which  was  low,  as  the  cattle  were  a  fair  average  lot  of  feeders. 
The  entire  lot  of  cattle  were  fed  together  on  pulp  and  hay  for  several 
weeks  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  them  accustomed  to  the  feed.  No  shelter  of  any  kind 
was  provided  for  the  cattle  during  the  entire  feeding  period.  The 
hay  was  fed  from  the  ground,  the  animals  securing  it  by  passing 
their  heads  through  a  rack  made  of  poles,  which  prevented  waste 
from  trampling.  The  pulp  and  grain  were  fed  from  long  flat  boxes  or 
“bunks”  set  up  from  the  ground  on  legs.  The  enclosing  and 
division  fences  were  constructed  of  posts  and  barbed  wire. 

On  December  19,  the  150  head  of  cattle  were  divided  as  equally 
as  possible  into  three  groups  of  50  each.  General  conformation, 
breed  characteristics,  as  well  as  size  and  weight  were  made  the 
basis  for  this  division. 

In  table  1  is  given  the  weights  of  the  steers  in  each  lot  when 
the  experiment  was  started,  from  which  it  may  be  seen  that  the 
steers  were  not  better  than  a  good  average  bunch  of  feeders. 

TABLE  I.  GIVING  INITIAL  WEIGHT  OF  STEERS. 


LOT  I.  LOT  II.  LOT  III. 

Total _  45,880  44,960  45,278 

Average _  917,6  899.2  905.6 


Feeds  and  Feeding. — The  steers  in  each  lot  were  given  all 
the  alfalfa  hay  and  beet  pulp  they  would  consume  without  ex¬ 
cessive  waste.  In  addition,  Lot  1  was  fed  a  light  ration  of  ground 
barley  and  ground  oats,  two  parts  by  weight  of  barley  to  one  of 
oats.  Lot  II  was  fed  the  same  amount  of  ground  corn  as  Lot  I 
received  of  barley  and  oats.  No  grain  of  any  kind  was  fed  to  the 
steers  in  Lot  III  during  the  experiment.  A  large  wagon  scale 
was  provided  for  weighing  the  steers  each  week  and  also  for 
weighing  the  hay  and  beet  pulp  to  each  lot.  The  grain  was 
weighed  out  each  day,  as  fed,  from  a  small  platform  scale. 

The  grain  supplied  was  much  below  the  average  as  it  was 
purchased  from  time  to  time  from  the  local  mills  and  varied 
greatly  in  quality.  The  barley  and  oats  were  particularly  note¬ 
worthy  in  this  respect  as  they  frequently  contained  a  large  per¬ 
centage  of  wild  oats.  This  was  unavoidable,  as  we  could  not  con¬ 
trol  the  purchase  of  the  grain.  At  different  times  as  the  experi¬ 
ment  progressed,  new  lots  of  hay  were  purchased  for  each  lot  of 
cattle,  so  that  no  attempt  was  made  at  such  times  to  keep  a  record 
of  the  daily  consumption  of  hay  by  each  lot,  the  total 
weight  being  charged  to  each  lot  and  the  average  amount  eaten 
daily  and  weekly  calculated  therefrom. 


FEEDING  STEERS  BEET  PULP,  ALFALFA  AND  GRAINS.  7 

DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 

In  the  accompanying  table  is  given  the  detailed  data  of  the 
weight  of  steers,  the  amount  of  the  different  feeds  consumed  and 
the  gains  made  by  each  lot  in  one  and  five  week  periods,  and  for 
the  entire  period  of  twenty-five  weeks. 

A  study  of  the  contents  of  this  table  and  the  sum¬ 
mary  as  given  in  Table  III,  reveals  some  interesting  features. 
It  will  be  observed  that  after  the  first  seven  weeks  of  feeding, 
there  was  a  marked  falling  off  in  the  amount  of  pulp  consumed 
by  the  steers  in  Lots  I  and  II  that  were  receiving  grain,  and  that 
this  decrease  continued  until  the  close  of  the  experiment,  while 
the  steers  in  Lot  III,  that  received  no  grain,  continued  to  eat  ap¬ 
proximately  the  same  amount  of  pulp  throughout  the  experiment, 
until  the  last  four  weeks,  when  they  also  ate  perceptibly  less.  The 
steers  in  each  of  the  lots  ate  about  the  same  amount  of  pulp  for 
the  first  seven  weeks  of  the  experiment.  This  may  be  accounted 
for  from  the  fact  that  the  amount  of  grain  received  daily  by  each 
steer  was  so  small  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  that  it  had 
no  appreciable  effect  upon  the  appetite  for  the  other  feeds.  The 
steers  in  Lots  I  and  II  received  two  pounds  of  grain  per  day  each, 
for  the  first  two  weeks,  after  which  time  this  quantity  was  in¬ 
creased  at  the  rate  of  one-half  pound  per  week  until  they  were  re¬ 
ceiving  on  an  average  six  pounds  each  daily.  This  continued 
until  the  13th  week  of  the  experiment,  when  they  were  fed  seven 
pounds  each  daily  for  one  week  until  the  2  2d  week,  when  they 
had  eight  pounds,  and  from  that  time  until  the  close  of  the  experi¬ 
ment  they  had  ten  pounds  each  daily. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  the  case  of  Lots  I  and  II  receiving 
grain,  that  while  the  amount  of  pulp  consumed  daily  diminished 
with  an  increase  in  the  grain  ration,  the  average  daily  consump¬ 
tion  of  hay  remained  fairly  constant  throughout  the  experiment, 
while  there  was  a  constant  increase  in  the  amount  of  hay  con¬ 
sumed  by  Lot  III  that  received  no  grain.  It  seems  hardly  cred¬ 
ible  that  the  steers  in  Lot  III  should  consume  approximately  60 
per  cent  more  of  hay  in  the  last  five  weeks  of  the  experiment 
than  they  did  in  the  first  five  weeks.  Another  striking  feature 
of  this  table  will  be  noted  in  the  fact  that  while  the  amount  of 
grain  fed  daily  to  the  steers  in  Lots  I  and  II  was  increased  from 
week  to  week,  there  was  no  constant  or  corresponding  increase  in 
the  rate  of  gain.  Contrary  to  what  might  have  been  expected, 
there  was  not  any  appreciable  increase  in  the  rate  of  gain  in  Lots 
I  and  II  with  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  grain  fed.  While  the 
average  rate  of  gain  increased  somewhat  after  the  first  five- week 
period,  when  more  grain  was  fed,  yet  it  cannot  be  attributed  to  the 
increase  in  amount  of  grain  fed,  since  the  steers  in  Lot  III  that  re- 


Grand  Total 


8 


BULLETIN  97 


Grand  Total . — - 

Tota . 

Twenty-fifth . 

Twenty-fourth . 

Twenty-third . . . 

Twenty- second. . 

Twenty-first . 

Total .  . 

Twentieth . 

Nineteenth . . . 

Eighteenth . 

Seventeenth . . 

Sixteenth . 

Total . 

Fifteenth... . 

Fourteenth  . 

Thirteenth . 

Twelfth . . 

Eleventh . 

Total. . . . . 

Tenth . . . - . 

Ninth . 

Eighth . 

Seventh . 

Sixth . 

Total..., . . . 

Fifth . 

Fourth . . 

Third . 

Second . 

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G 

G 

ro 

CJl 

CJl 

o 

O’ 

DC 

O’ 

o 

fr- 

CO 

G 

X 

-T 

O’ 

8  M 

nr 

^  rt* 

TABLE  II.  GIVING  FEEDS  AND  GAIN  OF  EACH  LOT  OF  STEERS  BY  WEEKS  AND  IN  FIVE  WEEK  PERIODS. 


SfUT H£R<L  A  N'O 
'CXfiNV'eR 


S  UTH£  RL  A N 
Denver 


Photograph  reproductions  of  cuts  of  beef  from  three  representative  steers-, 
one  from  each  of  the  lots  as  numbered  in  the  reproductions. 


Photograph  reproduction 
Alfalfa  Hay,  Beet 


of  representative  steer  from  Lot  I  fed 
Pulp-,  and  Ground  Barley'  and  Oat&, 


up»on 


Photograph  reproduction  of  steers  in  Lot  1  fed  upon  Alfalfa  Hay 
Beet  Pulpr  and  Ground  Barley  and  Oats, 


Photograph  reproduction  of  representative  steer  from  Lot  II  fed 
upon  Alfalfa  Hay,  Beet  Pulp  and  Ground  Corn. 


Photograph  reproduction  of  steers  in  Lot  II  fed  upon  Alfalfa  Hay 

Beet  Pulp  and  Ground  Corn. 


Photograph  reproduction  of  representative  steer  from  Lot  III  fed 
upon  Alfalfa  Hay  and  Beet  Pulp. 


COLO.  AQR.  S  TA 


Photograph  reproduction  of  steers  in  Lot  III  fed  upon 
Alfalfa  Hay  and  Beet  Pulp. 


FEEDING  STEERS  BEET  PUDP,  ADFADFA  AND  GRAINS.  9 

ceived  no  grain  also  increased  in  rate  of  gain  in  approximately 
the  same  proportion  as  did  the  steers  in  the  lots  receiving  an  in¬ 
crease  of  grain  feed  from  week  to  week.  So  far  as  can  be  deter¬ 
mined  from  the  data  obtained,  the  increase  in  amount  of  grain 
consumed  from  week  to  week  after  the  first  five  weeks  of  the  ex¬ 
periment  resulted  only  in  a  slight  decrease  in  the  amount  of  pulp 
consumed  and  in  maintaining  a  constant  consumption  of  hay,  while 
the  steers  receiving  no  grain  increased  in  their  consumption  of 
hay. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  an  average  daily  grain  ration 
of  9.6  lbs.  fed  to  a  group  of  fifty  steers,  in  conjunction  with  beet 
pulp  and  hay  ad  libitum ,  as  was  the  case  in  the  fifth  five-weeks, 
would  not  result  in  a  greater  gain  than  an  average  daily  grain 
ration  of  five  pounds  per  day  with  pulp  and  hay  ad  libitum ,  as  was 
the  case  in  the  second  five-week  period.  The  only  conclusion 
that  can  be  drawn  from  this  data  would  seem  to  be  that  with  an 
abundance  of  beet  pnlp  and  alfalfa  hay  at  prevailing  prices,  a 
grain  ration  of  five  pounds  of  either  coin  or  barley  and  oats  will 
result  in  a  greater  gain  in  the  early  part  of  a  feeding  period  than 
will  be  produced  with  a  much  larger  average  grain  ration  toward 
the  close  of  such  period.  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  the 
steers  in  all  of  the  lots  were  transferred  from  one  feed  yard  to  an¬ 
other  one  six  miles  distant  in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  week 
of  the  experiment,  which  110  doubt  accounts  in  a  large  measure 
for  the  small  gains  made  by  all  the  steers  during  the  third  five- 
week  period.  Reference  to  Table  II  will  show  that  in  the  case  of 
Rot  I,  the  50  steers  actually  lost  an  average  of  approximately  13 
pounds  each  on  two  weeks  feed  as  a  result  of  the  change  while 
the  steers  in  Ivot  II  made  a  comparatively  small  gain  for  this 
same  period.  While  this  transfer  from  one  set  of  yards  to  an¬ 
other  was  absolutely  necessary  owing  to  the  conditions  under 
which  the  experiment  was  conducted,  and  was  much  to  be  re¬ 
gretted  since  it  had  such  a  marked  effect  upon  the  steers,  yet  it 
serves  to  show  how  exceedingly  important  it  is  to  have  feeding 
cattle  remain  in  their  accustomed  environment.  The  result  in 
this  case  on  one  lot  of  50  steers  was  a  direct  loss  of  two  full 
weeks  feed  and  645  pounds  of  live  weight. 

The  average  amount  of  the  different  kinds  of  feed  consumed 
daily  by  each  steer  is  shown  in  Table  III.  This  data  has  been 
averaged  for  each  five- week  period  and  for  the  whole  25  weeks 
over  which  the  experiment  extended. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  two  lots  of  steers  that  were  fed 
grain,  each  steer  ate  on  the  average  98  pounds  of  pulp  and  about 
11  pounds  of  hay  daily,  while  the  steers  in  Rot  III  that  had  no 
grain,  ate  on  the  average,  123  pounds  of  pulp  and  12.5  pounds  of 
hay  daily. 


IO 


BULLETIN  97. 

TABLE  III. 


AVERAGE  AMOUNT  IN  POUNDS  OF  FEED  CONSUMED  AND  GAINS 
MADE  BY  EACH  STEER  DAILY  IN  THE  DIFFERENT 
LOTS  IN  FIVE  WEEK  PERIODS. 


FIVE  WEEK 

Average  amount  of  feed  consumed. 

AVERAGE 

GAIN 

.PERIOD 

Lot 

1. 

Lot  II. 

Lot  III, 

Lot  I 

Lot  II. 

Lot  III 

Oats 

Pulp 

Hay 

and 

Barley 

Pulp 

Hay. 

Corn 

Pulp 

Hay 

First  . 

F7.8 

10.2 

2.6 

157.4 

10.1 

2.6 

158.0 

10.1 

1.73 

1.60 

1.46 

Second . 

108.1 

10.5 

5  0 

li  8.5 

10.7 

5.0 

115.0 

11.3 

2.43 

2.68 

1.41 

Third . 

83.5 

10  9 

7.0 

90.5 

11.1 

7.0 

118.0 

12.4 

1.73 

1.78 

1.61 

Fourth . 

75.5 

10.9 

8.0 

79.2 

10.6 

8  0 

117.6 

13.6 

1.33 

1.97 

1.00 

Fifth . 

54.5 

10.5 

9.6 

r  8 . 8 

13.0 

9.6 

106.4 

15.3 

2.55 

1.97 

2. 34 

Average 

for  entire 

95.9 

10.6 

6.44 

98.9 

11.1 

6.14 

123.0 

1 

1.9 

2.0 

1.57 

period 

TABLE  IV. 

GIVING  AVERAGE  AMOUNT  IN  POUNDS  OF  FEED  REQUIRED  BY  THE 
STEERS  IN  EACH  LOT  FOR  ONE  POUND  OF  LIVE  WEIGHT  GAIN. 


Pulp 

Hay 

Barley-Oats 

Corn 

Lot  I 

50.59 

5.59 

3.39 

Lot  II 

49.46 

5.55 

3.22 

Lot  III 

78.58 

8.01 

In  table  IV,  which  shows  the  average  amount  of  feed  re¬ 
quired  by  the  steers  in  each  lot  for  one  pound  of  gain  in  live 
weight,  it  will  be  noticed  in  the  case  of  Lot  III  that  seventy- 
eight  and  one-half  pounds  of  pulp  and  eight  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay 
were  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  live  weight  gain  on  a  bunch 
of  50  two-year  old  steers.  In  Lot  I,  three  and  thirty-nine  one 
hundredths  pounds  of  barley  and  oats  fed  in  the  ration  of  this 
bunch  of  steers  was  equivalent  to,  or  took  the  place  of,  twenty- 
seven  and  ninety-nine  one-hundredths  pounds  of  pulp  and  two 
and  forty-two  one  hundredths  pounds  of  hay.  The  result  in  Lot 
II  was  almost  the  same,  except  that  it  required  slightly  less  of 
corn  to  replace  approximately  the  same  amount  of  pulp  and 
hay. 

The  whole  one  hundred  and  fifty  head  of  steers  were  disposed 
of  to  the  Western  Packing  Company  of  Denver,  at  a  flat  price. 
The  steers  were  weighed  in  the  usual  manner  at  the  feed  yards 
before  shipping,  and  were  weighed  again  at  the  yards  in  Denver 
after  a  short  rest  with  hay  and  water  supplied.  In  order  to  obtain 
the  difference  in  the  market  value  of  each  lot  of  steers  as  they  ap- 


II 


FEEDING  STEERS  BEET  PULP,  ALFALFA  AND  GRAINS. 

peared  when  on  the  market,  three  of  the  leading  buyers  in  the 
yards  kindly  consented  to  place  a  price  upon  each  lot.  It  will  be 
seen  in  the  summary  table  that  the  steers  in  Lot  III  fed  upon 
pulp  and  hay,  shrank'  appreciably  more  in  shipping  than  either  of 
the  grain  fed  lots.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  the  steers  in  Lot  II 
fed  upon  ground  corn  in  addition  to  the  pulp  and  hay  were 
valued  at  ten  cents  per  hundred  more  than  the  lot  fed  upon  bar¬ 
ley  and  oats  with  pulp  and  hay,  and  forty-five  cents  more  per 
hundred  than  the  lot  fed  pulp  and  hay  alone.  It  is.  only  fair  to 
state  that  the  gentlemen  placing  a  value  on  the  steers  were  not 
informed  as  to  the  character  of  the  feed  given  to  any  of  the  steers 
and  consequently  could  not  be  even  suspected  of  bias. 

TABLE  V. 


GIVING  SUMMARY  OF  DATA  FOR  THE  AVERAGE  OF  THE  STEERS 

IN  EACH  LOT. 


Lot  I. 

Barley  & 
Oats. 

Lot  II 
Corn 

Lot  III 
Pulp 

Weight  at  beginning  of  experiment . . 

917.60 

899.20 

905.60 

Value  at  8  cents  per  pound . . 

$  27.52 

$  26.98 

$  27.16 

Cost  of  feed  for  entire  period . 

$  21.65 

$  20.68 

$  10.87 

Cost  of  feed  for  100  lbs  gain . . . 

$  6.53 

$  5.93 

$  3,79 

Cost  of  labor  involved . .  . 

$  3.50 

$  3.50 

$  3.50 

Weight  of  finished  steers  at  feed  lot . 

1,249.30 

1,248.00 

1,189.50 

Sale  weight  of  steers . . . 

1,213.60 

1,216.90 

1,149.40 

Shrinkage  in  shipping  (lbs.) . 

35.70 

31.10 

40,10 

Shrinkage  in  shipping,  (per  cent) . 

2.86 

2.49 

3.71 

Selling  price  per  hundred  pounds . . . 

$  5,50 

$  5.60 

$  5.15 

Value  at  selling  price . . . 

$  66.75 

$  68.15 

$  59.19 

Cost  of  marketing . 

$  1.53 

$  1.54 

$  1.46 

Net  profit . 

$  12.55 

$15.45 

$  16.20 

RESULTS  OF  SLAUGHTER  TEST. 

A  very  thorough  slaughter  test  was  made  of  each  lot  of 
steers  at  the  packing  plant,  the  result  of  which  is  summarized  in 
Table  VI.  In  this  data,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  caul  fat  of  the 
lot  of  steers  fed  upon  barley  and  oats  was  noticeably  heavier  than 
either  of  the  other  lots,  while  the  lot  fed  upon  pulp  and  hay  had 
appreciably  less  of  internal  fat  than  the  steers  fed  upon  corn. 

Some  data  was  collected  as  to  the  size  and  condition  of  the 
livers,  as  it  was  thought  that  this  organ  might  indicate  something 
of  the  physical  condition  of  the  animals  in  the  different  lots. 
From  the  data  presented,  hewever,  it  will  be  noted  that  there  was 
no  appreciable  difference  in  either  the  size  or  condition  of  this  or¬ 
gan  in  the  different  lots  of  steers. 

When  taken  to  the  cooling  rooms,  the  dressed  carcasses  of 
the  different  steers  were  carefully  weighed  and  the  weight  re¬ 
corded;  after  hanging  in  the  cooling  room  for  several  days,  the 
time  vary  ing  somewhat  with  the  different  carcasses  but  no  differ- 


12 


bulletin  97. 

ence  being  made  in  those  from  the  different  lots,  it  was  found 
that  the  average  amount  of  shrinkage  on  each  carcass  of  the 
steers  in  Lot  I  was  15.8  lbs.,  in  Lot  II,  17.1  lbs.,  and  in  Lot  III, 
14.6  lbs.  These  figures  were  somewhat  surprising  as  it  was  ex¬ 
pected  that  the  carcasses  of  the  steers  that  had  not  been  fed  any 
grain  would  shrink  more  in  cooling  than  those  fed  a  grain  ration 
in  addition  to  the  pulp  and  hay. 

TABLE  VI. 

I  f  * 

GIVING  DATA  FROM  SLAUGHTER  TEST. 


Lot  1 

Lot  11 

Lot  III 

Barley  &Oats 

Corn 

Pulp 

Average  weight  of  caul  fat . 

Average  weight  of  livers . 

Numbers  of  diseased  livers . . 

Average  shrinkage  on  each  carcass  in  cooler 
Average  percentage  of  shrinkage  in  cooler. 

19.2  lbs 

12.8  lbs 

4 

15.8  lbs 

2.11 

17.5  lbs 

12.6  lbs 

8 

17.1  lbs 

2.19 

15.1  lbs 

12.7  lbs 

2 

14.6  lbs 

2.11 

Before  the  steers  were  slaughtered,  a  representative  steer 
from  each  lot  was  selected  by  the  three  buyers  in  the  yards  and 
the  carcasses  of  these  three  animals  were  reserved  for  a  thorough 
demonstration  test  on  the  block  where  the  various  wholesale  cuts 
could  be  compared  with  a  similar  cut  from  each  of  the  other  car¬ 
cases.  Photographs  of  these  cuts  were  also  taken  and  are  repro¬ 
duced  in  these*pages,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  there  was 
no  appreciable  difference  in  the  quality  or  grade  of  the  meat  from 
each  of  the  representative  carcasses.  Cooking  tests  were  also  con¬ 
ducted  and  if  any  choice  was  made  by  the  various  parties  eating 
the  meats,  it  was  invariably  in  favor  of  that  produced  from  pulp 
and  hay  alone.  As  a  last  and  final  test,  a  loin  roast  from  the  car¬ 
cass  of  the  steer  representing  the  pulp  and  hay  fed  lot  was  served 
to  Secretary  James  Wilson,  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul¬ 
ture,  and  a  party  of  his  friends  in  Denver.  The  Secretary,  in  re¬ 
sponse  to  a  request  for  his  opinion  of  this  roast,  wrote  the  follow¬ 
ing  communication  which  needs  no  explanation: 

“Washington,  D.  C.,  August  15,  1904. 

Prof.  W.  L.  Carlyle, 

Fort  Collins,  Colo. 

Dear  Sir:  — 

Replying  to  yours  of  the  6th,  I  have  to  say  that  I  have  inspected  and 
eaten  of  the  beef  fed  with  alfalfa  and  beet  pulp  at  the  Colorado  Experi¬ 
ment  Station,  Fort  Collins,  Colo.  It  was  of  superior  quality,  indicating 
that  the  Mountain  states  will  have  no  difficulty  in  finishing  cattle  with 
their  own  forage  plants,  and  making  their  own  meats. 

Yours  very  truly, 

James  Wilson, 

Secretary.” 


feeding  steers  beet  puup,  aefaefa  and  grains.  13 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  FEEDERS.  . 

In  feeding  pulp,  absolute  cleanliness  should  be  observed.  The 
pulp  should  be  fed  in  troughs  or  “bunks”  provided  for  the  pur¬ 
pose.  Only  such  an  amount  of  pulp  should  be  fed  at  one  time  as 
the  cattle  will  clean  up  with  reasonable  waste,  and  the  bunks 
should  be  cleaned  out  daily.  Unless  this  be  done,  the  bunks  will 
gradually  become  filled  with  frozen  pulp  in  cold  weather,  and 
with  foul  and  decaying  pulp  during  warm  weather. 

Pulp  which  has  been  “nosed”  about  and  breathed  upon  for 
some  time  will  usually  be  refused  by  the  cattle.  To  avoid  the 
possibility  of  waste  on  this  account,  and  to  insure  profitable  gains, 
feed  often  and  in  small  quantities.  It  is  folly  to  place  a  large 
quantity  of  pulp  into  the  feed  troughs  with  the  intention  of  hav¬ 
ing  a  single  feed  last  the  greater  part  of  a  day.  The  inevitable 
result  of  such  a  course  is  to  throw  some  of  the  cattle  off  their  feed 
causing  an  unreasonable  and  unwarranted  waste  of  pulp. 

Pulp  should  never  be  fed  late  in  the  afternoon  during  cold 
weather.  The  cattle  generally  refuse  to  eat  after  nightfall  and 
whatever  remains  in  the  bunks  freezes  before  morning  and  occa¬ 
sions  no  little  difficulty  in  removing  it  before  the  fresh  pulp  is 
placed  before  the  cattle. 

Pulp  has  a  laxative  tendency.  On  this  account  it  is  well  to 
feed  good  alfalfa  hay  of  the  first  cutting  with  the  pulp  where  it  is 
convenient  to  do  so.  The  later  cuttings  of  hay  are  more  apt  to 
encourage  scouring  and  bloat,  although  where  care  and  judgment 
are  exercised  this  condition  can  be  largely  avoided  regardless  of 
which  cutting  of  hay  is  used. 

The  feed  racks  for  hay  and  bunks  for  pulp  should  be  near 
together  so  that  the  steers  will  have  to  travel  but  a  few  steps  in 
passing  from  one  feed  to  another. 

Cattle  seem  to  be  particularly  fond  of  well-cured  pulp  from 
the  silo,  preferring  this  to  fresh  pulp.  I11  order  to  secure  the 
pulp  in  its  best  form,  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  placed  in  the  silo 
fresh  from  the  factory  and  later  transferred  direct  from  the  silo  to 
the  feeding  troughs.  After  fermentation  has  once  begun,  exposure 
to  the  air  in  handling  causes  the  pulp  to  deteriorate  rapidly  in 
quality.  Cattle  relish  it  less  after  a  continual  exposure  to  the  air 
and  reject  a  larger  per  cent  than  they  would  in  the  case  of  pulp 
direct  from  the  silo. 

On  account  of  the  uniform  mildness  of  the  weather  durino* 
the  experiment,  there  was  no  noticeable  variation  in  the  amount  of 
pulp  eaten,  or  resulting  gains,  that  could  in  any  case  be  attributed 
to  climatic  conditions.  It  is  very  probable,  however,  that  during 
a  period  of  severe  cold  weather,  pulp  would  prove  a  rather  un¬ 
satisfactory  feed,  since  it  is  not  in  any  sense  a  heat  o-eneratino- 
food. 


L  ;V’"‘  v 

>•  ^ui varsity, (1'  '  •■  / 

I  :  ’■  1  # iitfetfiM  •■ 


Bulletin  98.  i  U-  i  v  :  March,  1905. 

\ 

v  v 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OP  THE 

Colorado  Agricultural  College.  t $QiL$L 


Beet  Worms  and  their  Remedies 

I.  The  Beet  Web-Worm. 

1 

II.  The  Beet  Army-Worm. 

^  By  CLARENCE  P.  GILLETTE. 

III.  Cutworms. 

By  S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Fort  Collins,  Colorado, 
1  905. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  P.  SHARP,  President ,  • 

Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  -  -  • '  - 

Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS,  .... 

Mrs.  ELIZA  ROUTT, . 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW 
Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB, 

Governor  JESSE  F.  McDONALD,  ) 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  \  M'0!/1010 


Denver 

TERM 

EXPIRES 

-  1905 

Fort  Collins, 

-  1905 

Denver,  ■ 

-  1907 

Denver, 

-  1907 

Gypsum,  - 

-  1909 

Rockyford, 

-  1909 

Canon  City, 

1911 

Carbondale, 

-  1911 

Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS 


STATION 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director 
C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.  S.,  - 

W.  P.  HEADDEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D„  - 
W.  PADDOCK,  M.  S.,  ... 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.  A.,  - 
G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M., 

C.  J.  GRIFFITH,  B.  S.  A., 

W.  H.  OLIN,  M.  S., 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S„  - 
F.  C.  ALFORD,  B.  S., 

EARL  DOUGLASS,  B.  S.,  - 

A.  II.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  - 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  - 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR,  M.  S., 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  A 


Staff. 

-  Irrigation  Engineer 
Entomologist 

. Chemist 

Horticulturist 
Agriculturist 
-  Veterinarian 
Animal  Husbandman 
Agronomist 
Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Agriculturist 
Assistant  Entomologist 
Assistant  Horticulturist 
,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyford 


OFFICERS. 

President  BARTON  O.  .AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S., . Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY, . Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY,  ....  Stenographer  and  Clerk 


THE  BEET  WEB-WORM, 

Loxostege  sticticalis  L. 

CLARENCE  P.  GILETTE, 

The  beet  web-worn,  did  more  or  less  damage  in  all  the  heef 
growing  sections  of  the  state  last  summer  and  fall.  In  the  virili¬ 
ty  of  the  Loveland  and  the  Longmont  factories  very  little  harm 
was  done  but  the  beets  o-rown  fnr  c  iiarin 

Ford  Suo-arCitv  P  r "n  ]  SUgar  factones  at  Rocky 

,  v  ^ar  Lit)  ,  1  ort  Collins,  Windsor-  , Greeley  and  Fntnn  Wi 

suffered  to  a  considerable  extent  in  some  of  the  fields. 

cron  nesfS  ”  ,d°eS  110t  Possess  a»y  great  notoriety  as  yet  as  a 

IuS  1™ m  s&g*  ~ 

Tnthl  °f  fi!>; -d  A«U  and  ££  to'a’Te  d 

of  mint  in  Michigan  late  in  September.  Since  Jo,  if  J 
attracted  much  attention.  9  1  has  Ilot 

For  thirteen  years  at  least  the  moth,  which  is  the  adult  form  ,  f 

ithLsT*’  las  be®n  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  where 

S.bein  T4,hrrrsof  r  jr take-“ 

lantern  trap  for  this  department,  Imtook t^othTl^L" 
btis.  Ihe  record  rims  as  follows:  May  20th  aro  moths-  \r  " 
22d,  2  moths;  May  23d,  191  moths;  May  25th  7  moths-  Mav  2^ 
24  moths;  May  3,st,  31  moths;  June  , , th,  s  moths  June  ,6th  6 

5SL, ?z£r  J“  *  ■«*  ^ 

the  following  "°teS  UP°”  CaptUreS  °f  this  illsect  »  1897  I  quote 

Jaastiafis:'"'11" 

r«ih.:  m£*,S f’S'i'Ss'K, S- *  »«"• •"« <•* 

ture  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  b  6  eggs  are  stiI1  imma- 

^ ^  he  moths  are  becoming  scarce  «nnip  f 

Junegin’  vhilef0ther?  have  nea‘Lv  finished  laying  Se  taken  are 

_ June  10.  Very  tew  ot  the  moths  are  coming-  to  light  now. 

*  r'.  .  .  -  . 


- - - - .  u  --  v  •  *  * 

p.  172,  a  1  s O  a itic le  b y  Vu ey ' and H o wan  M  °n  g  ect  V £  »r  VSi®  *v  °f  .4,®ric«lture  for  1892, 
same  publication  by  L.  O.  Howard  Vol  vi  n  V  Voi.  V.  p.  820;  an  article  in  the 

in  Bulletin  30,  U.  8.JDep.  if  Aur  ,%i,'.°'f BniSJokly?  “  *rt,e'«  by  ^"re, we  Bruner 


4 


bulletin  98. 

From  my  notes  of  1896  I  extract  the  following: 

May  22.  Took  about  500  Loxostege  sticticalis  moths  last  night.  Cloudy 
and  warm. 

May  24.  Took  about  200  moths  of  L.  sticticalis  last  night.  Examined 
100  moths  and  found  that  29  were  males  and  71  females.  The  females 
predominating  so  greatly  indicates  that  the  eggs  have  quite  largely  been 
deposited.  Dissections  show  that  the  majority  of  those  taken  have 
their  ovaries  full  of  eggs;  in  some  cases  the  eggs  are  still  immature, 
and  in  others  many  or  nearly  all  of  the  eggs  have  been  deposited. 

June  10.  The  moths  are  still  numerous  at  light  and  females  are  still 
found  containing  immature  eggs. 

These  records  with  others  at  this  station  indicate  maxima 
of  the  broods  about  the  20th  of  May,  June,  July,  and 
August.  The  records  have  not  been  continuous  through¬ 
out  a  season,  but  are  sufficient  to  strongly  indicate  a  brood  of 
moths  and  worms  prior  to  the  brood  that  attacks  the  beets  in  July 
though  no  one  seems  to  have  discovered  the  worms  of  this  brood 
as  yet. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  WORMS  IN  COLORADO. 

The  first  complaint  of  injuries  of  any  importance  done  by 
this  insect  in  Colorado  that  came  to  my  notice  was  on  the  9th  of 
July,  1903,  when  Mr.  H.  V.  Norton,  living  a  couple  of  miles  northeast 
of  Fort  Collins,  sent  word  that  some  kind  of  a  worm  had  sudden¬ 
ly  appeared  in  great  numbers  in  one  of  his  fields  and  was  rapidly 
destroying  his  onions  and  cabbages.  I  visited  Mr.  Norton’s  place 
at  once  and  found  near  the  center  of  the  infested  lot  a  small 
patch,  perhaps  a  half  acre,  of  dry  uncultivated  ground  above  water, 
that  was  densely  grown  up  to  pigweed  ( Chenopodium  album). 
The  weeds  appeared  to  have  died  and  dried  up,  but  upon  exami¬ 
nation  I  found  that  the  leaves  had  been  eaten  away  by  the  worms 
of  the  insect  under  consideration,  and  that  some  of  the  worms 
were  still  upon  the  plants,  but  the  great  proportion  of  them  had 
migrated  out  in  all  directions  into  the  patches  of  onions  and  cab¬ 
bages  which  were  close  at  hand.  The  worms  were  nearly  full 
grown  and  after  a  few  days  disappeared. 

Two  days  later,  July  11,  I  was  informed  that  a  little  striped 
worm  had  appeared  in  many  of  the  beet  fields  northeast  of  Ft. 
Collins  and  was  doing  serious  injury  to  the  plants  which  were 
still  rather  small.  In  company  with  Mr.  Charles  Evans,  manager 
of  the  Ft.  Collins  Beet  Growers  Association,  I  visited  several 
farms  where  injuries  were  reported.  In  most  cases  the  injury  was 
not  severe.  Where  the  worms  were  most  numerous,  in  nearly 
every  case,  the  field  was  in  alfalfa  the  previous  summer,  aud  con¬ 
siderable  alfalfa  had  been  allowed  to  grow  among  the  beets  up  to 
about  the  time  of  our  visit.  Whether  the  alfalfa  had  any  direct 
bearing  upon  the  presence  of  the  worms  or  not  is,  however,  quite 
uncertain.  The  late  brood  of  worms  which  did  the  chief  harm 
the  past  season,  were  not  heard  from  in  1903. 


BEET  WORMS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  5 

During  the  last  week  of  June  of  the  past  year  (1904)  word 
came  from  Mr.  P.  K.  Blinn,  field  agent  of  the  Experiment  Station, 
and  Mr.  W.  K.  Winterhalter,  agriculturist  of  the  American  Beet 
Sugar  Co.  at  Rocky  Ford,  stating  that  a  worm  was  troubling  the 
beets  in  the  Arkansas  Valley.  Mr.  S.  A.  Johnson  of  this  depart¬ 
ment  was  sent  to  investigate  the  matter.  Mr.  Johnson  did  not 
find  the  injuries  very  severe  except  in  small  areas  in  a  few  fields, 
and  several  patches  had  already  been  sprayed  with  Paris  green  or 
arsenite  of  lime  in  water  Mr.  Johnson  concluded  that  the  Paris 
green  sprays  had  given  best  results,  and  especially  where  a  second 
application  had  been  made  a  few  days  after  the  first.  A  sample 
of  the  spraying  outfits  used,  from  a  photo  taken  by  Mr.  Blinn,  is 
shown  at  Plate  II,  Fig.  1.  Plate  II,  Fig.  2,  shows  the  work  of 
the  worms  in  one  of  the  fields  visited  by  Mr.  Johnson  at  that  time. 
The  writer  visited  the  same  locality  again  Aug.  19th  and  was 
much  assisted  in  his  investigations  by  Mr.  Winterhalter  and  Mr. 
Blinn.  At  this  time  the  August  brood  of  worms  had  about  com¬ 
pleted  their  work  of  destruction  which  exceeded  that  of  the  July 
brood. 

The  first  complaint  that  came  to  the  experiment  station  last 
summer  was  Aug.  13.  On  that  date  I  went  with  Mr.  C.  M.  Liggett 
to  his  ranch  about  10  miles  northeast  of  Ft.  Collins  and  found  the 
worms  doing  considerable  damage.  Occasional  moths  were  still 
in  the  field.  Mr.  Fred  Wright,  agriculturist  for  the  Ft.  Collins 
factory,  told  me  that  the  moths  were  abundant  in  Mr.  Liggett’s 
field  ten  days  before.  A  week  later  many  other  fields  were 
seriously  attacked.  The  worms  continued  to  increase  and  devas¬ 
tate  other  fields  for  fully  two  weeks,  but  they  had  nearly  disap¬ 
peared  in  Mr.  Liggett’s  field  on  Aug.  22. 

Mr.  Timothy,  agriculturist  for  the  Greeley  sugar  factory,  told 
me  that  he  first  noticed  the  worms  at  Sterling  August  3,  and  at 
Greeley  August  10.  The  worst  of  the  injuries  were  over  at 
Greeley  August  20.  Mr.  Johnson  was  at  Sterling  August  18  and 
noted  that  the  injuries  were  practically  over  there  at  that  date. 
He  also  reported  immense  flocks  of  sparrows  feeding  upon  the 
worms. 

FOOD  PLANTS. 

I  have  noticed  the  worms  feeding  freely  upon  beets,  cabbages, 
onions,  pigweed  ( Chenopodium  album),  Russian  thistle  and  alfalfa. 
They  will  probably  feed  upon  many  other  plants  in  case  of  an 
emergency. 

LOSSES. 

Growers  have  estimated  their  losses  all  the  way  from  one  to 
five  tons  per  acre  as  the  result  of  the  injuries  by  the  worms. 


6 


bulletin  98. 


Analyses  by  the  chemists  at  the  sugar  factory  indicate  a-  loss  of 
about  2  per  cent,  in  both  sugar  content  and  in  purity  in  beets 
that  were  defoliated  badly  during  August.  Probably  more  than 
1000  acres  of  beets  suffered  substantial  loss  from  the  web-worm  in 
Colorado  last  year. 


life  and  habits  of  the  insect. 


The  worms  that  were  in  the  beet  fields  last  August  disap¬ 
peared  by  burrowing  into  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  or 
two  and  spinning  about  themselves  white  silken  tubes  from  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  and  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  A  few  of  these  worms  changed 
to  pupae  and  emerged  again  as  moths  during  September,  but  near¬ 
ly  all  of  them  have  spent  the  winter  as  worms  in  the  silken  tubes. 
Mr.  G.  P.  Weldon,  a  special  student  in  entomology,  dug  69  of 
these  tubes  from  one  square  foot  of  ground  in  a  badly  infested  beet 
field  on  Aug.  31.  On  the  same  day  he  opened  m  tubes  and 
found  13  pupae  and  97  worms.  He  also  noted  that  the  moths  were 
quite  numerous  in  the  field,  more  so  than  a  number  of  days  pre¬ 
vious.  Moths  which  the  writer  placed  over  beets  in  cages  Aug. 
25  deposited  eggs  which  began  hatching  Aug.  3;.  O11  September 

20,  I  visited  beet  fields  in  the  vicinity  of  Wellington  (r2  miles 
northeast  of  Fort  Collins)  in  company  with  Mr.  FTed  W  right, 
Agriculturist  of  the  FAort  Collins  Sugar  Factory.  The  worms  had 
disappeared  but,  although  the  day  was  cold,  several  of  the  moths 
were  taken  and  many  of  the  secondary  parasites  ( M.  agilis)  over 
the  beets,  but  there  was  no  September  brood  of  worms  seen  or 
heard  from.  Mr.  Johnson  took  a  few  moths  as  late  as  Oct.  12. 

Judging  from  the  investigations  by  Riley  and  Howard,  and 
Pu'uner  in  Nebraska  and  our  own  records  at  FT  Collins,  it  is  prob¬ 
able  that  the  spring  brood  of  moths  will  begin  hatching  about  the 
iotli  of  May  in  the  beet  growing  districts  of  the  northern  portion 
of  the  State,  and  probably  about  the  first  day  of  May  in  the  Ar¬ 
kansas  valley.  We  have  found  the  moths  very  numerous  at 
Fort  Collins  front  the  iotli  to  the  25th  of  May,  and  it  is  probable  that 
they  are  depositing  the  first  brood  of  eggs  at  about  this  time  and 
somewhat  earlier  in  the  warmer  sections  as  at  Rocky  Ford  and 
Sugar  City.  At  this  time  the  beets  are  not  up  or  are  too  small  to 
attract  the  moths  so  that  probably  pigweed  ( Chenopodium )  alfalfa 
and  other  plants  that  are  more  advanced  serve  as  food  for  the  early 
brood.  About  Sterling,  Mr.  Johnson  noticed  that  the  beets  planted 
after  the  25th  of  June  escaped  injury  from  the  worms. 

The  second  brood  of  moths,  judging  from  our  records,  are 
most  numerous  at  FT  Collins,  about  the  last  week  in  June  which 
should  give  a  brood  of  worms  about  the  10th  of  July  and  this  is 
the  brood  that  did  some  injury  to  beets,  onions  and  cabbages  near 


BEET  WORMS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  7 

Ft.  Collins  in  1903  and  about  Rocky  Ford  and  Sugar  City  during 
the  first  week  of  July,  1904.  But  it  was  the  next,  or  third  (?), 
brood  that  did  most  mischief  in  Colorado  the  past  year.  In  the 
Northern  portion  of  the  State  the  worms  were  most  destructive 
from  the  10th  to  the  25th  of  August. 

Most  moths  are  on  the  wing  only  after  dark,  or  in  the  twi¬ 
light,  but  the  moth  that  lays  eggs  to  produce  the  beet  web-worms 
is  active  in  the  day-time  also  and  may  be  seen  flying  about  the 
beets  a  week  or  ten  days,  at  least,  before  the  worms  appear. 

THE  EGGS. 

The  eggs  are  sometimes  deposited  singly  but  usually  in  clus¬ 
ters  or  rows  of  from  2  or  3  to  8  or  10  together.  They  are  oval  in 
form,  and  about  1  millimeter  long  by  .7  of  a  millimeter  broad 
(one-twenty-fifth  by  one-thirty-sixth  of  an  inch),  and  are  quite  flat 
below  but  strongly  convex  above.  When  clustered,  the  eggs  are 
laid  in  a  row,  one  overlapping  upon  another  and  making  an  angle 
of  about  45  degrees  with  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  In  color  they 
are  a  very  pale  green  with  a  beautiful  pearly  reflection.  They  are 
deposited  upon  either  the  upper  or  lower  surface  of  the  leaves.  In 
our  breeding  cages  the  greater  number  were  deposited  on  the 
under  surface.  After  once  seeing  them  they  are  quite  readily  de¬ 
tected  by  the  naked  eye.  They  are  shown  once  and  a  half  natural 
size  at  a  and V,  Fig.  2,  Plate  I.  At  the  end  of  about  the  second 
day  there  appears  a  small  black  speck  upon  the  eggs  as  shown  at 
c.  This  is  the  black  head  of  the  little  worm  that  is  developing 
within  the  shell.  I11  about  two  or  three  days  more  the  little  worm 
eats  a  ragged  exit  hole  in  one  end  of  the  shell  and  escapes. 

THE  WORM. 

The  little  worms  are  almost  black  at  first  and  so  small  (one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  long)  that  they  are  easily  overlooked.  PAor 
the  first  two  or  three  days  the  worms  eat  very  little  and  skeleton¬ 
ize  the  leaves  instead  of  eating  entirely  through  them,  but  when 
they  are  about  half  grown  and  the  white  stripes  begin  to  show 
plainly,  they  begin  to  eat  and  grow  very  rapidly  so  that  the  owner 
of  the  beets  is  often  made  to  believe  that  the  worms  have  migrat¬ 
ed  in  the  night  from  an  adjoining  crop  or  field.  I  have  seen  no 
general  migrations  of  the  worms  except  in  a  few  instances  where 
their  food  supply  had  given  out  or  become  very  scanty-  A  pecul¬ 
iarity  of  the  attacks  of  this  insect  in  nearly  every  case  that  I  have 
observed  is  that  the  chief  injuries  are  well  in  the  fields  and  almost 
never  at  the  borders.  We  have  also  noticed  the  injuries  to  be 
worse  in  the  higher  and  dryer  portions  of  the  fields  but  we  have 
not  found  the  injuries  more  common  on  light  than  011  heavy  soil. 
On  individual  plants,  the  young  tender  leaves  at  the  center  were 
always  the  last  to  be  eaten. 


l 


8 


bulletin  98. 

REMEDIES. 

If  the  worms  are  numerous  enough  to  attract  any  attention 
at  all  late  in  the  summer  or  in  the  fall,  the  beet  ground  should  be 
plowed  deeply  and  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  beets  are  gathered, 
for  the  purpose  of  burying  the  worms  so  that  the  moths  will  not 
be  able  to  escape  the  following  spring.  If  it  is  impossible  to  plow 
in  the  fall,  then  the  surface  of  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly 
harrowed  or  disced  for  the  purpose  of  crushing  the  worms  and 
and  bringing  the  tubes  to  the  surface  where  freezing  and  thawing 
and  the  attacks  of  birds  may  destroy  a  large  proportion  of  the 
worms. 

On  Feb.  28,  1905,  Mr.  S.  A.  Johnson  visited  a  beet  field  near 
Ft.  Collins  that  was  plowed  last  fall  and  collected  94  of  the  silken 
tubes  on  the  surface  and  76  beneath  the  surface.  The  94  tubes 
from  the  surface  contained  4  living  and  4  dead  worms  and  there 
were  86  tubes  that  were  empty.  The  last  all  had  openings  in 
them,  some  at  the  end  but  most  of  them  had  been  torn  open  along 
the  side,  probably  by  birds.  Riley  and  Howard  in  “Insect  Fife,” 
Yol.  5,  P.  321,  report  Mr.  Walter  Maxwell,  of  Schuyler,  Nebraska 
as  stating  that  cocoons  that  were  exposed  by  repeated  harrowings 
were  largely  emptied  by  birds  and  he  mentions  particularly  mead¬ 
ow  larks  and  quails. 

The  76  tubes  that  Mr.  Johnson  dug  from  beneath  the  surface 
contained  52  living  worms,  13  dead  worms  and  11  were  empty. 
If  we  suppose  that  moths  or  parasites  were  hatched  from  the  11 
empty  tubes  last  fall,  we  should  have  an  indication  that  about  20 
per  cent  of  the  worms  were  killed  from  mechanical  injuries  from 
fall  plowing,  and  a  considerable  additional  number  were  killed  as 
the  result  of  exposure  upon  the  surface.  Those  that  were  deeply 
covered,  it  is  believed  will  never  find  their  way  out. 

If  plowing  was  neglected  in  the  fall,  the  next  best  tiling  will 
will  be  to  plow  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground  in  the  spring.  After  plowing  the  ground  should  be  thor¬ 
oughly  pulverized  and  leveled  so  as  to  fill  in  with  fine  dirt  be¬ 
tween  the  clods  and  prevent  the  escape  of  the  moths. 

It  is  doubtful  if  anything  farther  can  be  done  for  this  insect 
before  the  worms  appear  upon  the  beets  except  to  keep  the  beet 
fields  and  surrounding  territory  as  clean  as  possible  of  weeds  that 
are  attractive  to  the  moths  for  the  deposition  of  their  eggs. 

POISONING  THE  WORMS. 

The  worms  accomplish  their  work  of  destruction  so  quickly 
that  it  is  important  that  the  beet  grower  should  be  prepared  to 
check  the  injuries  as  soon  as  they  are  seen.  In  order  to  do  this  it 
will  be  necessary  to  be  on  the  look  out  for  the  moths  which  will 
always  appear  in  the  beet  fields  from  one  to  two  weeks  before  the 


PLATE  I. 


The  Beet  Web-Worm  and  Parasites. 

1.  Moth  of  Loxostege  sticticalis.  2.  Eggs  on  leaf  of  beet.  3  and  4.  Lateral  and  dorsal 
views  of  larvae.  5.  Pupa.  H.  Larvae  tubes  from  earth.  7.  Venation  of  wings  of  moth. 
8.  Parasite  Cremops  vulgaris.  9.  Parasite  Mesochrus  agilis  Cress. 

Drawings  by  Miss  Miriam  A.  Palmer. 


!  PLATE  II. 

Fig.  1.— Home-made  apparatus  for  spraying  four  rows  of  beets  at  one  time. 

Fig.  2.— Beets  eaten  down  by  the  beet  web-worm  at  Rockyford,  Colo.,  July  1, 1904. 


BEET  WORMS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  9 

worms- will  be  noticed.  These  moths  span  about  one  inch  from 
tip  to  tip  of  their  wings  when  spread  and  are  of  a  dark  grayish  or 
grayisli-brown  color.  (See  Plate  I. Fig.  i.) 

They  will  fly  up  and  go  a  short  distance  and  then  suddenly 
alight,  usually  upon  a  leaf  of  a  plant.  The  presence  of  the  moths 
in  anything  like  large  numbers  among  the  beets  should  be  the  sig¬ 
nal  to  prepare  for  war  by  procuring  a  quantity  of  poison  and  a 
spray  pump  or  some  other  instrument  for  the  distribution  of  the 
poison  upon  the  beet  leaves. 

THE  POISON  TO  USE. 

Some  combination  of  arsenic,  as  arsenite  of  lime,  arsenate  of 
lead,  Paris  green,  or  London  purple  should  be  used.  The  arsen¬ 
ite  of  lime  is  the  cheapest  of  these  but  is  a  little  more  troublesome 
to  prepare  and  apply.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  more  easily  mixed  and 
applied  but  is  by  far  the  most  expensive  poison  to  use.  Paris 
green  settles  badly  in  the  barrel  or  tank  and  must  be  kept  thor¬ 
oughly  stirred.  It  would  be  cheaper  than  the  arsenate  of  lead  but 
dearer  than  the  arsenite  of  lime.  The  chief  objection  to  Paris 
green  last  year  in  Colorado  was  its  serious  adulteration  with  white 
arsenic  causing  it  to  burn  foliage.  Samples  of  this  poison  ob¬ 
tained  at  Greeley  last  year,  where  it  was  selling  for  14  and  15  cents 
a  pound,  were  badly  adulterated  which  accounts  for  the  low  price 
at  which  it  was  sold.  A  sample  of  this  Paris  green  was  taken  to 
the  station  chemist,  Dr.  W.  P.  Headden,  for  analysis  to  determine 
percentage  of  arsenic.  The  report  of  the  analysis  was  as  follows: 

“Total  Arsenic  -  -  -  60.69  per  cent. 

Soluble  (free)  Arsenic  -  -  8.51  per  cent.'1 

Such  Paris  green  is  unfit  to  use  because  of  its  tendency  to 
burn  foliage,  and  it  will  mix  with  difficulty  with  water. 

These  poisons  may  be  applied  dry  by  means  of  dust  sprayers, 
or  by  shaking  them  through  porous  cloth  sacks  (as  cheesecloth) 
carried  in  the  hands,  or  they  may  be  applied  in  water  by  means  of 
force  pump  and  spraying  nozzles  attached  to  a  barrel  or  tank. 
Both  of  these  methods  have  their  stiong  advocates  but  after  con¬ 
siderable  investigation  I  am  convinced  thoroughly  that  the  wet 
spray  is  much  better  where  it  can  be  used.  The  principle  objec¬ 
tion  to  it  is  the  expense  of  getting  pumps  and  barrels  or  tanks 
necessary  to  spray  large  fields.  At  Plate  II,  Fig.  1,  is  illus¬ 
trated  a  barrel  sprayer  mounted  on  cast  off  cultivator  wheels  such 
as  is  used  by  the  American  Beet  Sugar  company  and  by  Mr.  P.  K. 
Blinn  of  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station  at  Rocky  P'ord.  One 
man  with  this  barrel  pump  will  spray  four  rows  of  beets  as  fast  as 
a  horse  will  walk  across  the  field.  The  dust  sprayers  are  very  in¬ 
expensive  but  all  that  I  have  seen  used  distribute  the  poison  very 
unevenly  over  the  plants.  The  dust  sprayers  have  been  used  quite 


IO 


BULLETIN  98. 

extensively*  about  Greeley  and  many  who  used  them  seem  well 

j  j  ,  J 

pleased  with  the  results  obtained. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  POISONS. 

IN  WATER. 

Paris  green  or  London  purple. — Mix  one  pound  of  the  poison 
in  50  gallons  of  water  and  make  a  thorough  and  even  application. 

Arsenate  of  lead. — Mix  5  or  6  pounds  of  the  poison  in  100 
gallons  of  water  and  apply  thoroughly. 

Arsenite  of  lime. — Boil  together  white  arsenic,  lime  and 
water  for  a  full  half  hour  in  the  following  proportions: 

White  arsenic . 1  pound 

Lump  lime . 2  pounds 

Water . . . 3  gallons 

Then  dilute  to  100  gallons  with  water  and  apply. 

Or  prepare  as  follows:  Dissolve  one  pound  of  white  arsenic 
and  4  pounds  of  sal-soda  by  boiling  them  together  for  15  minutes 
in  a  gallon  of  water.  LTse  two  quarts  of  this  stock  solution  to  50 
gallons  of  water  and  before  using  stir  into  it  8  pounds  of  freshly 
slaked  lime  of  best  quality.  Spray  thoroughly  as  with  the  other 
poisons. 

DRY  APPLICATIONS. 

About  Greeley  the  past  summer  the  growers  used  the  Paris 
green  dry  without  any  dilution  and  they  applied  from  1  f  to  3 
pounds  to  the  acre.  Mr.  Timothy,  agricultural  superintendent  of 
the  Greeley  Sugar  Company,  said  they  had  found  the  dry  applica¬ 
tions  very  satisfactory. 

Whatever  the  application,  it  must  be  made  promptly  upon 
the  first  appearance  of  the  worms,  the  poison  must  be  evenly  dis¬ 
tributed,  and  the  treatment  must  be  thorough,  to  secure  good 
results. 

NATURAL  ENEMIES. 

Insect-eating  birds  devour  the  worms  in  large  quantities. 
Where  the  worms  were  abundant  last  August  the  blackbirds  were 
attracted  in  flocks  of  thousands  and  in  several  instances  that  came 
under  our  observation  the  worms  were  all  cleaned  out  of  fields  by 
them  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days. 

Another  check  which  nature  has  provided  to  keep  this  insect 
from  becoming  too  numerous  is  a  parasitic  flv  with  dusky  wings 
shown  in  Plate  I,  Fig.  8,  and  known  to  science  as  Cremops  vul¬ 
garis A  The  large  numbers  of  the  worms  last  year  was  probably 
due  more  to  the  small  numbers  of  this  parasite  than  to  anything 


i  Determined  for  me  by  Mr.  E.  8.  G.  Titus. 


BEET  WORMS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES. 


i  r 

else,  and  if  the  worms  are  to  be  kept  down  without  our  efforts,  it 
will  probably  be  chiefly  through  the  attacks  upon  them  by  this 
parasite.  Judging  from  the  number  of  parasites  raised  in  our 
breeding  cages  last  fall,  it  would  seem  that  not  more  than  io  per 
cent  of  the  worms  were  destroyed  bv  them  last  summer.  The 
reason  for  the  small  numbers  of  this  friendly  parasite  we  can 
blame  partly,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  presence  of  another  yellow, 
clear-winged  parasitic  fly  (Afesochrus  agilis  %  Cress.)  shown  at  Fig. 
9,  of  Plate  I,  which  preys  upon  the  smoky  winged  parasite  of  the 
worms,  and  so  is  an  enemy  of  the  beet  grower.  In  capturing  these 
parasites  over  the  beets  last  fall  we  took  almost  as  many  of  the 
clear  winged  parasite  as  of  the  other.  This,  together  with  the 
fact  that  the  worms  have  passed  the  winter  in  good  condition 
makes  it  seem  probable  that  the  worms  may  appear  in  large 
numbers  again  the  coming  season  but  of  this  we  cannot  be  cer¬ 
tain.  I  would,  at  least,  advise  all  beet  growers  in  Colorado  to  be 
prepared  to  treat  their  beets  on  short  notice  with  some  arsenical 
poison  in  ease  the  worms  should  appear. 

SUMMARY. 

The  worms  have  passed  the  winter  in  good  condition  and  the 
moths  will  doubtless  appear  in  large  numbers  about  the  middle  of 
May. 

The  May  brood  of  moths  will  probably  lay  their  eggs  upon 
weeds  and  other  plants  and  not  trouble  beets. 

If  the  worms  from  the  May  brood  of  moths  succeed  in  devel¬ 
oping  well,  another  large  brood  of  moths  may  be  expected  about 
June  20,  from  which  may  be  expected  the  first  brood  of  worms 
upon  the  beets,  about  the  first  week  in  July. 

Should  the  July  brood  of  worms  meet  with  no  disaster,  look 
for  a  second  brood  of  worms  upon  the  beets  about  the  middle  of 
August.  This  brood  will  probably  be  more  extended  than  the 
the  others  and  may  appear  to  consist  of  two  or  three  broods  close 
together. 

The  exact  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  broods  will  vary  in 
different  portions  of  the  state  and  with  the  earliness  or  lateness  of 
the  spring. 

Be  prepared  with  poison  and  spray  pump  so  as  to  strike  the 
blow  in  time  to  prevent  serious  injury  to  your  beets  if  the  worms 
should  appear. 

Where  worms  have  appeared  during  late  summer  or  fall,  al¬ 
ways  plow  the  ground  deeply  before  winter  if  possible  and  harrow 
the  surface.  Failing  to  do  this,  plow  as  soon  as  possible  in  the 
spring  and  work  the  surface  as  finely  as  possible  with  disk  and 
harrow. 


§  Determined  for  me  by  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard. 


12 


BULLETIN  98. 

Adverse  weather  conditions  or  abundance  of  their  enemies 
may  prevent  the  occurrence,  in  destructive  numbers,  of  any  of  the 
insects  mentioned  in  this  bulletin  this  year,  but  be  011  the  look  out 
for  them. 

Whenever  insects  are  troubling  your  crops,  write  the 
Experiment  Station  for  information  and  send  specimens. 


THE  BEET  ARMY-WORM.t 


( Caradrina  exigua  Hub.) 


This  insect  might  easily  be  taken  for  the  Beet  Web- worm. 
The  moth  is  a  little  larger  than  that  species,  spanning  a  trifle 
more  than  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings  when  spread.  The  fore 
wings  are  quite  uniformly  grayish  brown  in  color  with  a  pale  spot 
about  mid-way  near  the  front  margin,  and  the  hind  wings  are  al¬ 
most  pure  white  except  for  a  narrow  strip  on  the  anterior  margin 
which  is  darker.  See  Plate  III  Pig.  i.  The  worms  are  also  a  little  larg 
erwhen  fully  grown  being  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long.  They- 
are  also  plumper  in  form,  greenish  in  color  and  without  distinct 
white  stripes,  but  often  with  quite  distinct  dark  lateral  stripes. 
See  Plate  III,  Fig.  2. 


COLO  £XPT  ST  A 

PLATE  III. 

The  Beet  Army  Worm  ( Caradina  exigua). 

1.  Adult  moth.  2.  The  Army  Worm,  dorsal  view.  3.  Pupa. 

The  pupa,  or  chrysalis,  is  a  good  half  inch  long,  mahogany 
brown  in  color  and  has  two  straight  slender  spines  at  the  small 
end  as  shown  in  Plate  III,  Fig.  3. 

So  while  these  two  insects  are  much  alike  in  general  appear¬ 
ance  and  in  the  damage  they  do,  they  are  easily  separated  in  any 
stage  of  their  development.  Their  habits  are  also  quite  different 
as  we  shall  see  presently. 


f  This  insect  was  treated  in  Press  Bulletins  1  and  S;  Report  1?.  p.  89;  Report  13, 
p.  128;  and  Bull.,  «4;  pp.  1  and  10,  of  this  .Station. 


14 


BULLETIN  98. 

About  the  10th  of  August,  1899,  the  worms  of  this  insect 
seemed  suddenly  to  appear  in  fields  of  sugar  beets  about  Grand 
Junction.  Many  acres  of  beets  had  their  tops  all  eaten  away  and 
then  the  worms  turned  their  attention  to  the  beets  themselves 
eating  them  out  below  the  crown.  Mr.  H.  H.  Griffin,  then  at 
Rocky  Ford,  reported  this  insect  as  doing  some  injury  to  experi¬ 
mental  plats  of  sugar  beets  in  that  locality.  Since  1900  this 
worm  has  been  reported  as  doing  some  injury  to  beets  in  the 
Arkansas  valley,  but  it  lias  not  been  reported  in  injurious  numbers 
since  1899  at  Grand  Junction. 

LIFE  HABITS  OF  THE  INSECT. 

The  worms  that  were  so  numerous  in  the  Grand  Valley  in 
1899,  burrowed  into  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch 
when  they  became  full  fed,  formed  an  earthen  cell  about  them¬ 
selves,  apparently  without  spinning  any  cocoon,  and  from  these 
cells  the  moths  appeared  in  great  numbers  during  the  latter  part 
of  August  and  September.  The  moths  appeared  so  late  that  it 
seems  probable  that  they  hibernate  during  the  winter  in  that 
stage,  but  of  this  I  have  110  positive  knowledge.  I  was  shown  in¬ 
juries  done  to  beets  by  this  worm  during  June  of  the  same  season 
at  Grand  Junction,  so  there  are  two,  and  possibly  three  broods  of 
this  insect  in  a  year. 

I11  June  1900  Mr.  E.  I).  Ball  visited  Rocky  Ford  where  this 
insect  was  doing  some  injury  and  learned  that  the  worms  began 
hatching  about  June  1st,  and  that  the  moths  were  noticed  in  the 
fields  two  weeks  prior  to  that  date.  He  also  noted  that  early 
planted  beets  suffered  most  and  the  application  of  Paris  green  had 
proven  a  satisfactory  remedy*. 

The  following  life  history  notes  are  extracted  from  breeding 
cage  records  kept  by  Mr.  Ball  upon  the  development  of  worms  of 
all  sizes  taken  by  him  at  Las  Animas,  July  16,  1901,  while  an 
assistant  in  this  department: 

July  22,  1  chrysalis,  (or  pupa.) 

July  24,  another  worm  in  earthen  cell  ready  to  pupate. 

July  27,  several  worms  have  pupated  in  the  last  few  days. 

July  29,  all  have  changed  to  pupa?. 

Aug.  5,  first  moth  emerged. 

Aug.  6,  another  moth. 

Aug.  7,  another  moth  and  a  parasite  from  July  22,  pupa. 

Aug.  8  to  14,  one  to  4  moths  each  day. 

Aug.  9,  four  moths  that  hatched  today  were  put  in  a  cage  with 
sweetened  water  which  they  ate  freely. 

Aug.  14,  552  eggs  have  been  laid  upon  under  side  of  leaves  and 
upon  sides  of  cage.  They  are  in  groups  of  from  12  to  50  and  each  group 
is  coated  with  a  white  downy  secretion. 

Aug.  15,  some  of  the  eggs  are  looking  darker. 


*See  13th  Annual  Report  of  Colo.  Agrl.  Uxp.  Sta.  p  128. 


BEET  WORMS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES.  1 5 

Aug-.  1G,  half  of  the  eggs  are  hatched  and  worms  are  feeding  on 
leaves.  Last  night  38  more  eggs  were  laid. 

Aug.  17,  nearly  all  of  the  552  eggs  are  hatched. 

Aug.  1.8,  14  more  eggs  laid  last  night. 

Aug.  21,  the  eggs  laid  Aug.  16  have  hatched. 

Aug.  22,  the  eggs  laid  Aug.  18  have  mostly  hatched. 

Aug.  22,  1  male  moth  dies. 

Aug.  24,  100  fresh  eggs  laid. 

Aug.  25,  1  female  moth  dies. 

Aug.  29,  another  female  moth  dies.  Total  eggs  laid  by  the  two 
females,  704.  Time  from  emergence  to  laying  first  eggs,  5  days;  to  lay¬ 
ing  last  egg,  1G  days.  Time  required  for  eggs  to  hatch,  4  to  5  days. 

The  writer  was  at  Palisade,  Colo.,  July  8,  1901,  at  which 
time  the  worms  were  found  in  all  stages  of  growth  upon  beets. 
The  small  worms  were  usually  found  in  groups  of  from  3  or  4  to 
6  or  8  beneath  slight  webs  which  they  spin  for  protection.  These 
worms  were  most  common  upon  the  younger  central  leaves  and 
were  more  common  below  than  upon  the  upper  surface.  The 
webbing  continues  with  this  insect  until  the  worms  are  nearly 
grown.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  worms  they  skeletonize  the 
leaves  as  in  the  case  of  the  web- worms.  Worms  taken  July  8th 
at  Palisade  began  changing  to  pupae  July  14th. 

REMEDIES. 

When  the  beets  have  been  gathered  it  is  too  late  to  destroy 
this  insect  by  cultivation,  but  a  thorough  stirring  of  the  surface 
soil  immediately  after  the  worms  disappear  would  probably  de¬ 
stroy  many  of  the  pupce  in  the  ground. 

The  worms  may  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  poisons  the  same 
as  in  case  of  the  preceeding  species. 


CUTWORMS. 

BY  S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON. 

Each  year  farmers  and  gardeners  suffer  greater  or  less  loss 
from  the  ravages  of  cutworms.  This  loss  is  commonly  most 
severe  in  the  spring  or  early  summer  when  the  crops  are  just 
appearing.  Injuries  occur  in  midsummer,  as  well,  but  they  are 
commonly  unnoticed  because  of  the  abundance  of  vegetation.  By 
proper  care  these  may  be  largely  if  not  entirely  prevented.  Cut¬ 
worms  are  quite  generally  distributed  and  in  favorable  seasons  be¬ 
come  so  numerous  that  farmers  are  dismayed  at  the  prospects  of 
losing  a  crop. 

RIFE  HISTORY  AND  HABITS. 

Injuries. — The  most  common  and  injurious  species  in  this 
state  is  peculiar  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  is  figured  in 
the  accompanying  drawing.  In  times  of  great  abundance  it  will 
travel  in  immense  numbers  in  search  of  food,  in  consequence  of 
which  it  has  been  called  the  “Army  Cutworm.”  An  outbreak  of 
this  kind  occurred  in  Colorado  in  the  spring  of  1903  and  is  quite 
fully  reported  by  Prof.  Gillette  in  Bulletin  94  of  this  Station. 
During  the  previous  season  the  moths  were  unusually  abundant. 
They  always  fly  at  night  and  hide  by  day  among  the  leaves  of 
trees,  in  the  grass,  under  boards,  or  other  places  of  shelter.  In 
the  suburbs  of  Denver  they  fairly  beseiged  the  houses  when  the 
lamps  were  lighted.  In  a  very  few  minutes  after  dusk  the  win¬ 
dows  and  screen  doors  would  be  covered  with  moths.  They  crept 
in  by  every  crack  and  crevice  much  to  the  annoyance  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  who  were  at  times  forced  to  put  out  the  lights  and  retire  to 
escape  the  enemy.  The  insects  were  noticeably  more  abundant  at 
houses  near  alfalfa  fields. 

Dates  of  Appearance. — The  college  records  show  that  this 
and  the  closely  allied  species,  Chorizagrotis  agrestis  and  C.  intro- 
jerens ,  appear  in  two  broods,  the  dates  of  the  spring  captures  at 
Fort  Collins  ranging  from  April  16th  to  July  27th,  and  those  in 
the  fall  from  September  3d  to  October  12th.  These  dates,  how- 


1 8  bulletin  98. 

ever,  represent  only  stragglers  at  either  ends  of  the  broods.  The 
greatest  abundance  of  the  moths  in  the  spring  comes  between  the 
middle  of  May  and  the  first  of  July  and  in  the  fall  in  the  later 
half  of  September. 

Eggs. — The  eggs  laid  by  the  fall  brood  cause  the  trouble¬ 
some  worms  in  the  spring.  The  eggs  are  laid  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  upon  vegetation,  and,  although  the  worms  are  very 
general  feeders,  they  appear  to  show  some  preference  for  particu¬ 
lar  crops.  They  are  always  more  or  less  abundant  in  fields  of 
alfalfa.  Where  virgin  soil  is  broken  they  may  usually  be  found. 
A  significant  instance  came  to  our  notice  two  years  ago.  In  a 
number  of  cases  cutworms  were  quite  destructive  to  sugar  beets 
where  these  were  planted  in  ground  which  bore  a  crop  of  barley 
the  previous  year. 

When  the  egg  is  laid  it  is  white  in  color,  hemispherical  in 
shape  and  attached  to  the  leaves  or  grass  by  the  flat  side.  Under 
the  magnifying  glass  it  shows  beautiful  striations  which  radiate 
from  the  center  toward  the  edge  of  the  disc.  Before  hatching, 
which  occurs  in  a  very  few  days,  the  eggs  become  brown  in  color. 

Young  Worms. — The  young  worms  are  very  small  and 
travel  about  for  a  short  time  with  the  looping  motion  of  the 
measuring  worms.  They  feed  during  the  night  and  hide  by  day 
under  some  protecting  object  or  in  holes  which  they  make  in  the 
ground. 

Hibernation. — By  the  time  cold  weather  begins  the  young  are 
about  half  grown  and  range  from  a  half  inch  to  an  inch  in  length. 
In  color  they  are  brownish  or  greyish  with  in  many  cases  a  dis¬ 
tinct  greenish  tinge.  At  this  time  they  are  provided  with  three 
pairs  of  sharp  pointed  feet  under  the  forepart  of  the  body  and 
four  pairs  of  blunt  proplegs  under  the  posterior  part.  I11  this  con¬ 
dition  the  worms  spend  the  winter  buried  in  the  ground. 

Spring  Injuries. — With  the  warm  spring  days  the  worms 
come  to  the  surface  at  the  time  the  first  blades  of  grass  and  leaves 
appear.  Their  appetite  is  now  ravenous.  Their  growth  during 
the  fall  has  been  rather  slow,  but  now  the  size  increases  by  leaps 
and  bounds.  At  this  time  of  year  vegetation  is  scarce.  Most  of 
the  green  has  been  killed  by  the  winter’s  cold,  and  the  young, 
tender  shoots,  which  give  promise  of  harvest,  furnish  a  most 
pleasing  feast  for  the  hungry  worms.  Then  the  seriousness  of 
the  pest  becomes  evident,  especially  if  the  field  has  been  recently 
plowed  and  seeded  or  set  with  plants,  in  this  way  reducing  the 
amount  of  food.  In  beet  fields  the  worms  cut  off  and  devour  the 
seedlings  as  soon  as  they  appear  above  the  ground,  often  follow¬ 
ing  along  the  drill  mark  and  taking  everything  in  the  row  for 
several  feet. 


BEET  WORMS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES. 


*9 

Fitll  Grown  Worms. — The  worms  are  now  between  one  and 
two  inches  in  length,  rather  plump  and  sluggish,  and  have  a 
habit  of  curling  up  when  touched  or  suddenly  exposed  to  the 
sunlight.  The  color  is  dull  green  or  greenish  brown.  Two 
broad,  irregular  stripes  extend  down  the  back  which  are  lighter  in 
color  than  the  rest  of  the  body  and  more  brownish.  On  the  sides 
will  also  appear  broad  light  colored  lines.  The  number  of  prop- 
legs  is  now  found  to  be  five  pairs.  The  easiest  way  to  discover 
the  presence  of  worms  in  the  field  is  to  examine  under  boards, 
clods  and  other  objects,  or  dig  in  the  earth  near  the  base  of  plants. 
Often  when  a  plant  has  been  injured  the  culprit  may  be  found  by 
digging  in  the  ground  near  it.  They  seldom  bury  themselves  to 
a  greater  depth  than  two  inches. 


PLATE  IV. 


The  Army  Cutworm.  ( Chorizagrotis  auxillaris.) 


1.  The  adult  moth.  2.  Full-fed  larva.  3.  Pupa  in  case  of  hardened  earth. 

4.  Cutworm  filled  with  chrysalids  of  tiny  parasite. 

[We  have  reared  as  many  as  2005  of  these  parasites  from  one  cutworm.] 

All  twice  natural  size. 


At  Aurora,  near  Denver,  in  1903  the  larvae  were  so  abundant 
that  they  ate  off  entire  fields  of  alfalfa.  The  early  garden  crops 
were  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  larvae  covered  the  side¬ 
walks  in  such  numbers  that  it  was  impossible  to  walk  without 


20 


BULLETIN  98. 

crushing  them  under  the  feet.  They  crawled  in  at  the  doors  and 
became  a  household  pest.  Mr.  Rauchfuss  saved  his  garden  by 
hunting  the  worms  with  a  lantern  at  night.  The  field  injuries 
were  most  noticeable  in  the  cases  of  early  sown  barley,  sugar 
beets  and  alfalfa  of  one  year’s  standing.  At  Fort  Morgan  Prof. 
Gillette  found  that  there  were  two  distinct  forms  of  attack.  Where 
virgin  soil  had  been  broken,  the  larvae  were  abundant  in  all  parts 
of  the  field  and  the  entire  crop  in  some  cases  was  taken,  the 
young  plants  being  eaten  down  to  some  distance  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  In  other  places  where  the  ground  was  plowed  the 
previous  fall  the  field  itself  was  not  infested,  but  the  worms  mi¬ 
grated  in  from  adjoining  lands  to  a  distance  of  several  rods  denud¬ 
ing  the  ground  as  they  went.  See  Plate  IV,  Fig.  2. 

Pupation . — When  the  larvae  have  attained  their  full  growth 
they  make  vertical  burrows  in  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  about 
two  inches  and  change  to  the  chrysalis  form  with  the  head  of  the 
chrysalis  pointed  to  the  opening  of  the  burrow.  This  change 
usually  takes  place  in  May  or  early  June.  Of  course  injuries 
cease  when  this  transformation  is  accomplished.  The  chrysalis  is 
dark  brown  and  much  shorter  and  more  plump  than  the  worm 
from  which  it  came.  See  Plate  IV,  Fig.  3. 

The  Adult  Moths. — The  adult  moths  appear  in  about  a 
month.  They  have  a  ground  color  of  blackish  brown.  In  the 
species  whose  life  history  we  have  just  been  over,  the  front 
wings  are  marked  with  lighter  brown.  The  front  and  back 
edges  are  margined  with  this  and  patches  occur  between  these 
lines.  The  back  wings  are  lighter  than  the  front  and  are  dusky 
in  color,  darkest  on  the  outer  margins.  The  eggs  are  laid  shortly 
after  the  moths  appear  and  the  summer  brood  of  worms  live  and 
produce  the  fall  brood  of  moths.  See  Plate  IV,  Fig.  1. 

ENEMIES  AND  PARASITES. 

The  rate  of  increase  in  cutworms,  as  in  most  insects,  is  enor¬ 
mous,  blit  this  is  offset  commonly  by  the  raids  made  upon  them 
by  their  natural  enemies.  When  the  parasites  fail  to  keep  the 
insect  down,  things  become  serious  for  the  farmer.  The  enemies 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes;  those  which  prey  upon  the 
worm,  killing  and  eating  it,  and  those  which  live  within  and 
upon  the  tissues  of  the  worm,  finally  killing  it. 

Vertebrate  Enemies. — To  the  first  class  belong  chickens, 
birds,  ground  squirrels  and  pigs.  Under  the  conditions  existing 
in  Colorado,  probably  the  birds  are  the  most  useful.  Ouail, 
meadowlarks,  bluebirds  and  bluejays  are  known  to  feed  upon 
them.  The  flocks  of  blackbirds  which  constantly  patrol  the 
fields  destroy  immense  numbers.  When  a  field  of  alfalfa  is  flooded 


BEET  WORMS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES. 


21 


the  worms  crawl  out  and  are  thus  exposed,  the  blackbirds  congre¬ 
gate  and  help  to  rid  the  farmer  of  his  hungry  foes. 

Parasites. — The  insects  which  live  within  the  worms  are  many 
in  kind  and  number.  The  maggots  of  several  kinds  of  flies  attack 
them.  Wasp-like  insects,  both  large  and  small,  help  in  the  good 
work.  Two  species  of  the  larger  kinds  (. Ichneumon  longnlus  and 
Ambly teles  subrufus )  have  been  reared  at  the  Station  while  the 
worms  at  Denver  two  years  ago  were  very  largelyparasitized  by  a 
tiny  insect  belonging  to  the  genus  Copedosoma.  Plate  IV,  Phg.  4. 
Counts  were  made  from  those  reared  from  several  worms  and  gave 
in  individual  cases  from  one  to  two  thousand.  So  many  of  the 
worms  were  overcome  by  these  agencies  that  there  was  no  recur- 
rance  of  the  pest. 


REMEDIES. 

There  are  two  methods  by  which  injuries  may  be  controlled. 
One  is  preventive  and  aims  to  forestall  trouble,  and  the  other 
tends  to  lessen  losses  after  the  injuries  are  noticed. 

Preventive. — Early  fall  plowing  will  almost  surely  prevent 
the  presence  of  worms  in  the  field,  for  it  leaves  no  vegetation  on 
which  the  eggs  may  be  laid.  In  the  case  of  alfalfa,  plow  to  the 
depth  of  three  or  four  inches  in  September.  This  will  not  only 
prevent  the  pest,  but  will  give  the  young  foliage  time  to  rot  and 
furnish  nourishment  for  the  young  beets.  After  plowing,  harrow 
or  otherwise  treat  the  field  so  that  it  will  be  kept  bare  until  win¬ 
ter  sets  in. 

Date  fall  plowing  is  almost  equally  beneficial  for  it  turns  the 
young  worms  under  so  deeply  that  they  seldom  come  to  the  sur¬ 
face  or  else  it  exposes  them  in  such  a  way  that  they  fall  an  easy 
prey  to  the  watchful  birds  or  the  inclement  weather. 

Clear  away  all  rubbish  from  the  borders  of  the  field.  Such 
collections  furnish  the  best  kind  of  shelter  for  the  worms  over 
winter,  from  which  they  may  invade  the  growing  crop. 

If  the  field  has  not  been  plowed  in  the  fall  for  any  reason,  it 
should  be  thoroughly  examined  for  the  presence  of  the  pest  in  the 
spring.  This  may  be  done  by  examining  under  any  object  which 
may  be  laying  on  the  ground.  It  would  be  well  to  lay  bits  of 
board  or  shingles  in  different  places  and  look  under  them  every 
few  days  for  worms. 

Alleviative. — If  the  worms  are  present  in  the  fields  in  the 
spring,  they  may  be  almost  surely  checked  by  one  of  the  following 
practices: 

Spray  heavily  with  Paris  green  or  other  arsenical  mixture  a 
growing  patch  of  alfalfa  or  grass,  mow  it  close  to  the  ground  and 


22 


buixetin  98. 

spread  over  the  plowed  field  in  small  handfuls  at  a  distance  of 
every  few  feet.  The  Paris  green  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound  to  a  hundred  gallons  of  water  and  the  grass  distributed  late 
in  the  day  so  that  it  will  not  wither  before  the  worms  attack  it  at 
night.  Of  course  ground  must  be  sprayed  which  will  not  soon  be 
eaten  over  by  stock.  If  desirable  the  poison  may  be  mixed  in  a 
barrel  of  water  and  the  green  material  dipped  into  it  and  then  dis¬ 
tributed  over  the  ground.  The  water  must  be  constantly  stirred 
to  keep  the  poison  in  suspension. 

If  fresh  vegetation  is  not  available  arsenic  bran  mash  may  be 
used.  This  is  made  by  the  method  used  for  grasshoppers.  The 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  gives  the  following  directions 
for  preparing  this  insecticide:  “Paris  green,  arsenoid,  white 
arsenic,  or  in  fact  any  arsenical  can  be  used  for  poisoning  this 
bait,  and  in  its  preparation,  on  account  of  the  weight  of  the  poison 
and  the  fact  that  it  soon  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  water  when 
stirred,  it  is  best  to  mix  the  bran  with  water  and  sugar  and  then 
add  the  poison.  The  proportions  are  two  or  three  ounces  of  sugar 
or  a  similar  quantity  of  glucose  or  molasses  to  a  gallon  of  water 
and  a  sufficient  amount  of  bran  (about  a  pound  per  gallon)  to 
make,  when  stirred,  a  mixture  that  will  readily  run  through  the 
fingers.”  About  one  pound  of  poison  should  be  used  for  every 
fifty  pounds  of  bran.  Often  syrup  may  be  had  at  the  sugar  fac¬ 
tories  at  a  very  much  cheaper  rate  than  the  cost  of  the  other 
sweetening  materials.  Scatter  this  preparation  over  the  fields  late 
in  the  day,  preferably  when  the  ground  is  bare,  either  before  the 
seed  is  planted  or  before  it  comes  up.  Dr.  John  B.  Smith  is 
authority  for  the  statement  that  a  field  may  be  cleared  in  forty- 
eight  hours  by  this  means.  If  the  beets  have  already  begun  to 
come  up  the  bait  should  be  placed  in  little  heaps  of  a  tablespoon¬ 
ful  each  along  the  rows. 

A  dry  mash  composed  of  Paris  green  1  lb.,  equal  parts  of  bran 
and  middlings  20  lbs.  is  recommended  by  Dr.  Forbes. 

Hither  of  the  bran  preparations  are  dangerous  to  fowls  and 
these  should  be  kept  off  the  fields  for  several  days. 


Bulletin  99.  March,  1905. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

OF  THE 

Agricultural  College  of  Colorado. 


How  Can  We  Maintain 
the  Fertility  of 
Our  Colorado  Soils  ? 


—  BY  — 


WILLIAM  P.  HEADDEN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

1905. 


The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 

FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 


THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Hon.  P.  F.  SHARP,  President ,  - 
Hon.  JESSE  HARRIS,  - 
Hon.  HARLAN  THOMAS, 

Mrs.  ELIZA  F.  ROUTT, 

Hon.  JAMES  L.  CHATFIELD, 

Hon.  B.  U.  DYE, . 

Hon.  B.  F.  ROCKAFELLOW,  - 
Hon.  EUGENE  H.  GRUBB,  - 
Governor  JESSE  F.  McDONALD, 
President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH, 


ex-officio . 


Denver. 

Term 

Expires 

1905 

Fort  Collins. 

1905 

Denver. 

1907 

-  Denver. 

1907 

Gypsum. 

1909 

Rockyford. 

1909 

Canon  City. 

1911 

Carbondale. 

1911 

Executive  Committee  in  Charge. 

P.  F.  SHARP,  Chairman. 

.  ROCKAFELLOW.  JESSE  HARRIS. 


STATION  STAFF. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  Director ,  -  -  -  Irrigation  Engineer 
C.  P.  GILLETTE,  M.S.,  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  Entomologist 

W.  P.  HEAD  DEN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  . Chemist 

WENDELL  PADDOCK,  M.  S., . -  Horticulturist 

W.  L.  CARLYLE,  B.  S.,  - . Agriculturist 

G.  H.  GLOVER,  B.  S.,  D.  V.  M.,  ------  Veterinarian 

C.  J.  GRIFFITH,  B.  S.  A ,  -  -  -  -  -  Animal  Husbandman 

W.  H.  OLIN,  M.  S.,  . :  Agrostologist 

R.  E.  TRIMBLE,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Irrigation  Engineer 

F.  C.  ALFORD,  M.  S.,  -  '  -  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Chemist 

EARL  DOUGLASS.  M.  S., . Assistant  Chemist 

A.  H.  DANIELSON,  B.  S.,  -  -  -  -  -  Assistant  Agriculturist 

S.  ARTHUR  JOHNSON,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  Assistant  Entomologist 

B.  O.  LONGYEAR,  B.  S.,  -----  -  Assistant  Horticulturist 

P.  K.  BLINN,  B.  S.,  -  -  Field  Agent,  Arkansas  Valley,  Rockyeord 


Officers. 

President  BARTON  O.  AYLESWORTH,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

L.  G.  CARPENTER,  M.  S.,  -  -  -  -  ...  Director 

A.  M.  HAWLEY. . Secretary 

MARGARET  MURRAY, . Stenographer  and  Clerk 


HOW  CAN  WE  MAINTAIN  THE  FERTILITY  OF 
OUR  COLORADO  SOILS? 


BY  WM.  P.  HEADDEN. 

This  bulletin  has  no  other  purpose  than  to  present  to- the  farm¬ 
ers  of  Colorado  some  of  the  most  patent  facts  relative  to  the  main¬ 
tenance  of  the  productiveness  of  their  lands.  The  writer  has  pre¬ 
sented  this  subject  repeatedly,  either  in  lectures  before  Farmers' 
Institutes  or  bulletins,  and  particularly  in  the  pages  of  our  too 
short-lived  Agricola  Aridus.  The  presentation  of  this  subject  has, 
heretofore,  apparently  failed  to  attract  the  attention  of  our  farmers, 
either  because  of  the  unskillful  manner  in  which  it  has  been  pre¬ 
sented,  or  because  it  was  not  opportune,  the  farmers  not  yet  having: 
come  to  a  realization  of  the  importance  of  the  question,  as  one  ap¬ 
pertaining  to  their  lands  and  to  their  prosperity.  The  time  may  be 
more  auspicious  for  obtaining  the  attention  of  a  reasonable  per¬ 
centage  of  the  persons  for  whose  benefit  the  Experiment  Stations 
have  their  existence.  It  is  in  hope  that  this  is  the  fact,  that  I  pre¬ 
sent  the  following  considerations,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  pre¬ 
senting  any  new  results,  or  any  facts  which  are  not  already  well 
known. 

OUR  COEORADO  SOILS  ARE  NOT  INEXHAUSTIBLY  RICH. 

In  the  early  days  of  Colorado  agriculture,  when  the  railroad 
land  agent  was  endeavoring  to  induce  homeseekers  to  settle  on  our 
prairie  lands,  it  was,  perhaps,  pardonable  to  emphasize  their  virgin* 
condition  and  to  claim  for  them  inexhaustible  fertility.  This  fic¬ 
tion  was  soon  dispelled  by  the  plain  facts,  so  plain  that  no  one  could 
misunderstand  them.  The  magnificent  yields  of  the  first  few  years 
after  the  lands  were  brought  under  irrigation,  were  followed  by 
rapidly  decreasing  ones,  until  they  fell  to  one-half  or  one-third  of 
their  former  weight  or  measure,  and  it  became  evident  to  the  most 
obtuse  that  a  remedy  had  to  be  found. 

That  this  result  would  ensue,  and  that  rapidly,  was  easily  to- 
be  foreseen;  the  nature  of  our  soils  justified  no  other  belief  or  expec¬ 
tation,  and  we  now  begin  to  apprehend  that  in  our  climate  itself  we 
have  added  reasons  for  the  fact  that  the  virgin  fertility  of  our  soils 
was  of  comparatively  short  duration  when  subjected  to  continuous 
cropping  without  fertilization. 


4 


Bulletin  99. 


Our  soils  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  mountains  are,  for 
the  most  part,  light,  sandy  loams.  The  heavier,  clayey  soils,  de¬ 
rived  largely  from  the  disintegration  of  shales,  especially  of  the  Ft. 
Benton  shales,  are  apt  to  come  under  the  class  of  soils  designated  as 
gumbo,  which,  to  use  the  language  of  an  earlier  writer,  is  inimical 
to  vegetation.  The  soils  derived  from  the  strata  of  the  Jura- 
Trias  may  be  somewhat  clayey,  occasionally  limey,  due  to  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  calcite  or  ordinary  lime  stone,  or  to  the  presence  of  gypsum, 
the  latter  mineral  being  of  common  occurrence  in  portions  of  these 
strata. 


ORIGIN  OR  OUR  SOILS. 

The  origin  of  our  soils  may  safely  be  ascribed  to  the  breaking 
down  of  the  rocks  forming  the  mountains  to  the  west  of  us.  The 
mountains  from  which  the  material  of  the  strata  of  the  Jura-Trias 
were  derived  may  not  have  been  the  present  mountains,  but  the  ma¬ 
terial  composing  them  is  so  similar  to  that  yielded  by  the  disintegra¬ 
tion  of  the  Front  Range,  that  there  is  no  reason  for  discussing  the 
possible  differences  in  origin. 

The  rocks  of  the  mountains  are  essentially  granitic  in  char¬ 
acter,  and  the  sands  and  soils  derived  from  their  disintegration  will 
naturally  partake  of  this  character,  too.  It  is  a  fact  that  the 
soils  from  the  foothills  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  are  sandy  or 
gravelly  loams,  in  which  the  sands  and  gravel  are  composed  of 
quartz  and  felspar  grains,  with  some  mica  plates;  in  some  places 
they  may  be  coarser  than  in  others,  especially  in  river  bottoms  they 
may  be  finer,  but  we  have  everywhere  the  same  general  composi¬ 
tion  with  but  little  variation,  and  this  restricted  to  small  sections. 

The  base  of  our  soils,  mineralogically,  is  very  uniform.  The 
fact  that  they  are  nearly  all  sandy  loams  tells  us  that  these  mineral 
grains  still  possess  their  mineralogical  characteristics  ;  they  have  been 
broken  and  ground  to  small  sizes,  but  they  have  not  been  materially 
changed  in  their  composition.  The  felspar,  hornblende,  augite  or 
mica  are  the  same  rocks  that  form  the  mountain  masses,  only  that 
they  have  been  broken  up  into  very  small  pieces.  If  we  examine 
the  red,  clayey  soils,  corresponding  to  the  Jura-Triassic  strata,  we 
find  the  same  to  hold  true  to  a  very  great  extent.  The  red  sand¬ 
stones  of  this  formation  show  the  same  facts. 

Such  are  the  salient,  mineralogical  characteristics  of  our  soils. 
The  mineral  which  can  furnish  the  potash  is  a  felspar,  orthocluse, 
which  yields  slowly  to  the  decomposing  action  of  water  and  air,  and 
to  some  extent,  to  the  action  of  the  roots  of  the  plants.  The  total 
amount  of  potash  in  our  soils  is  from  two  and  one-quarter  to  two 
and  one-half  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  soil.  A  comparatively 
small  portion  of  this,  however,  exists  at  any  given  time  in  such  form 
as  to  be  readily  taken  up  by  plants.  Before  this  can  take  place,  the 


Maintain  the  Fertility  oe  Our  Soils. 


5 


felspar  must  be  altered  and  the  potash  brought  into  another  form, 
or,  in  other  words,  it  must  be  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  In 
our  virgin  soils,  this  preparation  had,  to  a  certain  extent,  taken 
place,  but  this  supply  of  prepared,  available  potash  was  quickly 
used  up,  and  the  magnificent  crops  of  the  first  few  years  gave  place 
to  poor  and  unremunerative  ones. 

The  phosphoric  acid  in  our  soils  is  also  furnished,  certainly  in 
a  large  measure,  by  the  felspars.  A  sample  of  this  mineral,  just  as 
it  was  broken  from  the  granite  of  which  it  formed  a  part,  con¬ 
tained  more  phosphoric  acid  than  some  of  our  soils.  The  amount 
was  below  the  minimum  considered  necessary  to  a  fertile  soil,  but 
was  equal  to  or  greater  than  the  amount  found  to  be  present  in  six¬ 
teen  out  of  fifty-five  samples  of  soils  representing  the  different 
counties  of  this  state. 

The  same  facts  pertain  to  this  substance,  regarding  the  extent 
to  which  it  is  prepared  to  be  taken  up  by  the  plant,  or,  as  it  is  gen¬ 
erally  expressed,  its  availability,  as  to  the  potash. 

« 

OUR  SOILS  NOT  RICH  IN  POTASH  AND  PHOSPHORIC  ACID. 

The  average  Colorado  soils,  as  represented  by  a  considerable 
number  of  samples  from  almost  as  many  portions  of  the  state,  are 
not  very  rich  in  these  elements  of  plant  food,  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid;  that  is,  the  amount  of  potash  taken  up  by  dilute  acids  is  very 
moderate  indeed,  while  the  total  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  is  com¬ 
paratively  small,  only  about  one-tenth  of  the  samples  analyzed  show¬ 
ing  two-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  or  more,  and  about  one-third  of 
them  as  much  as  one-tenth  per  cent,  or  more.  This  statement,  un¬ 
like  the  one  relative  to  potash,  has  reference  to  the  total  amount  of 
phosphoric  acid  present,  because  dilute  acids  extract  the  whole  of 
it  from  the  soil. 


THE  NITROGEN  IN  OUR  SOILS. 

This  element  may  be  considered  as  having  been  furnished 
wholly  by  the  agency  of  animals  or  plants.  It  is  the  most  variable 
plant  food  in  soils  in  general,  depending,  also,  to  a  considerable  de¬ 
gree,  on  conditions  of  climate,  which  are  of  less  effect  in  the  cases 
of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid.  There  are  the  same  questions  of 
availability  regarding  the  nitrogen  as  regarding  the  other  two 
plant  foods  mentioned.  But  assuming  that  a  fairly  productive  soil 
contains  about  one-tenth  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  nearly  all  of  our 
soils  would  measure  up  to  this  standard,  but  only  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  them  would  have  a  considerable  excess  above  this, 
less  than  one-third  of  the  samples  analyzed  showing  as  much  as 
two-tenths  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

The  statements  made  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  pertain  al¬ 
most  exclusively  to  virgin  soils. 


6 


Bulletin  99. 


These,  then,  were  the  conditions  under  which  our  agriculture 
began.  It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  the  farmers  very  soon  began 
to  feel  the  need  of  doing  something  to  keep  up  the  yield,  particularly 
of  the  cereals,  because  this  was  the  first  class  of  crops  raised. 

THE  COST  OE  GROWING  CROPS. 

In  these  early  days  the  soil  bore  the  burden  or  cost  of  raising 
the  crops,  and  the  farmer  made  no  estimate  of  this;  even  now  he 
seldom  takes  this  factor  into  account.  A  ton  of  alfalfa,  perhaps 
one  of  his  cheaper  crops,  is  charged  with  the  rent  of  the  land,  cost 
of  irrigating,  cutting  and  stacking.  There  is  seldom  any  question 
as  to  whether  the  ton  of  alfalfa  has  cost  the  land  any  of  its  fer¬ 
tility  or  not.  The  time  has  already  arrived  when  these  questions 
of  cost  in  soil  fertility  must  be  taken  into  account.  I  have  taken 
alfalfa  because  it  is  our  popular  forage  plant,  and  very  justly  so. 
I  shall  use  figures  in  this  calculation  which  I  published  ten  years 
ago,  but  they  are  the  same  facts,  just  as  true  as  they  were  then. 
The  cost  of  the  ton  of  alfalfa  in  soil  fertility  will  be  best  understood 
if  we  consider  it  to  have  been  sold  off  of  the  ranch.  With  the  ton 
of  alfalfa  hay,  cut  when  the  plants  were  in  half  bloom,  there  would 
be  sold  fifty-five  pounds  of  potash,  ten  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and  fifty-two  pounds  of  nitrogen,  some  of  which,  however,  came 
from  the  atmosphere.  I  do  not  know  how  much  of  it  really  came 
from  the  air  and  how  much  from  the  soil,  but  I  will  assume  that 
one-half  of  it  came  from  each,  and  we  will  use  the  trade  values  for 
these  substances  as  given  for  1904.  The  fifty-five  pounds  of  potash, 
at  5  cents  per  pound,  is  worth  $2.75 ;  the  phosphoric  acid,  in  cotton 
seed  meal,  etc.,  is  quoted  at  4  cents,  and  the  10  pounds  in  the  ton  of 
alfalfa  is  worth  40  cents.  Considering  that  one-half  of  the  nitrogen 
is  obtained  from  the  soil,  we  will  have  26  pounds  of  nitrogen  to 
charge  against  it  at  17  cents  per  pound,  or  $4.42,  a  total  cost  in  soil 
fertility,  which  would  have  cost,  bought  in  the  market  in  1904, 
$7.57.  As  it  may  be  better  understood  by  some,  I  will  express  it 
as  the  cost  of  raising  four  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  per  acre,  which  would 
be  $30.28. 

The  sugar  beet  is  a  crop  which  is  now  grown  on  a  large  scale 
in  several  sections  of  the  state.  The  crop  harvested  in  this  im¬ 
mediate  neighborhood  in  1904  was  80,000  tons.  What  was  the 
money  value  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  nitrogen  removed 
from  the  soil  by  this  crop  at  the  current  prices  of  these  substances, 
i.  e.,  4  cents  per  pound  for  phosphoric  acid,  5  cents  per  pound  for 
potash,  and  17  cents  per  pound  for  nitrogen.  These  are  the  values 
adopted  by  some  of  the  Eastern  Experiment  Stations  and  would  be 
too  low  for  our  market.  The  80,000  tons  of  beets  would  contain 
331  tons  of  potash,  worth  $31,100;  71  tons  of  phosphoric  acid, 
worth  $5,680;  160  tons  of  nitrogen,  worth  $54,400;  a  total  of 


Maintain  the:  Fertility  of  Our  Soits. 


7 


$81,180  for  the  crop,  a  trifle  over  one  dollar  per  ton.  In  other 
words,  had  the  farmers  of  this  immediate  neighborhood  who  sold 
their  sugar  beets  to  the  local  factory,  been  compelled  to  pay  the 
market  prices  for  the  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  removed 
from  their  lands  by  the  beet  roots  taken  to  the  factory,  it  would 
have  cost  them  $81,180. 

These  examples  serve  thoroughly  well  to  emphasize  the  fact 
that  there  are  other  items  of  cost  in  raising  a  crop,  even  of  alfalfa, 
than  those  previously  mentioned,  i.  e.,  land  rent,  labor,  etc.,  and  to 
show  that  the  cost  in  the  diminished  fertility  of  the  soil  may  be  a 
very  important  item. 

Our  farmers  can  no  longer  afford  to  treat  this  subject  with  in¬ 
difference  or  utter  neglect,  as  they  have  done  in  years  past,  and  as 
they  do  to  a  considerable  extent  even  at  the  present  time.  We  have 
shown  that  the  soils  are  by  no  means  inexhaustibly  rich;  even  our 
virgin  soils  are  not.  In  fact,  none  of  them  are  more  than  moder¬ 
ately  rich  in  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food. 

climate:  and  fertility. 

Our  climate  does  not  seem  to  be  especially  favorable  to  the 
formation  of  that  form  of  organic  matter  known  as  humus,  which 
favors  the  retention  of  nitrogen  until  it  can  be  converted  into  a  form 
fitted  for  its  taking  up  and  assimilation  by  the  plant.  The  mod¬ 
erate  supply  of  plant  food,  our  climatic  conditions  which  favor  the 
complete  destruction,  the  burning  up  of  the  organic  matter  in  the 
soil  rather  than  its  humi faction,  and  every  other  condition  which 
tends  to  lessen  the  fertility  of  our  soils,  admonishes  us  to  vigilance 
in  the  preservation  and  enhancement  by  every  means  within  our 
power  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  our  lands,  which  is  their  power  to 
produce. 

This  view  is  supported  by  the  experience  of  ranchmen  or  farm¬ 
ers  throughout  Colorado,  and  while  it  is  in  perfect  agreement  with 
the  theoretical  views  held  regarding  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  its 
durability,  it  is  simply  a  plain  matter  of  fact  not  fully  appreciated 
as  yet,  but  one  which  is  coming  to  be  more  and  more  generally  ac¬ 
knowledged,  even  by  the  most  careless  and  indifferent. 

The  necessity  of  carefully  considering  this  question  cannot  be 
too  strongly  urged  upon  all  classes  of  our  agricultural  population. 
This  will  undoubtedly  seem  a  self-evident  fact,  even  a  trite  one,  to 
many  persons,  but  a  very  little  observation  of  the  practices  of  our 
farmers  will  convince  any  one  that  it  cannot  be  repeated  too  often. 

CAN  WE  PROFITABLY  REPLACE  THE  PLANT  FOOD  REMOVED? 

There  is  a  very  important  question  confronting  us,  i.  e.,  can  we, 
by  any  available  means,  restore  the  plant  food  removed  by  our  crops, 
sugar  beets,  for  instance,  at  such  a  cost  as  will  permit  us  to  make  a 


8 


Bulletin  99. 


reasonable  profit?  The  question  of  our  being  able  to  maintain  the 
fertility  of  our  lands  is  one  thing,  but  the  question  of  its  cost  is  an¬ 
other.  It  is  clear  that  the  returns,  either  in  the  present  or  in  the 
immediate  future,  must  not  only  pay  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  the 
fertility,  but  must  permit  of  a  profit.  It  must,  in  other  words,  be 
accomplished  in  some  business  way  which  must  be  approved  by  an 
increased  prosperity. 

The  means  at  our  disposal  with  which  we  may  endeavor  to 
meet  this  question  are  such  as  other  communities  possess,  but  the 
questions  of  costs  and  local  conditions,  and  perhaps  methods  or 
practices  dependent  upon  the  latter,  may  prevent  us  from  availing 
ourselves  of  some  means  which,  in  other  places,  have  been  very  ef¬ 
ficient.  I  wish  that  I  could  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  Colorado 
farmer,  while  he  may  avail  himself  of  the  observation  and  experi¬ 
ence  of  others,  must  solve  his  own  agricultural  questions,  the 
maintaining  of  the  fertility  of  his  soil  and  the  earning  of  profits  for 
himself. 

Colorado  is  not  a  sea-board  state  and  its  agriculture  cannot 
look  to  the  products  of  the  sea  as  a  means  of  restoring  the  waste  of 
its  lands.  Among  its  varied  mineral  resources  there  has  not  as  yet 
been  found  phosphorite,  apatite,  or  other  rock  phosphate,  or  any 
salt  of  potash  in  such  quantity  as  to  permit  of  its  use  in  agriculture ; 
its  packing  house  industry  is  too  small  to  supply  any  quantity  of 
waste  or  by-products  nearly  adequate  to  supply  the  elements  of  fer¬ 
tility  which  we  are  annually  using  up.  Our  manufacturing  inter¬ 
ests  are  producing  no  by-products,  such  as  phosphatic  slags,  to 
which  we  can  have  recourse.  In  regard  to  our  sources  of  nitrogen¬ 
ous  fertilizers,  we  are  no  better  off.  Our  coke  industry  might  be 
made  to  yield  us  some  in  the  form  of  ammonia  salts,  our  packing 
industry  a  little  in  the  form  of  dried  blood  and  other  forms,  but 
these  are  all  insufficient  to  supply  an  amount  nearly  equal  to  our 
actual  consumption. 


CAN  WE  USE  POTASH  SALTS  ? 

If  we  use  German  or  Stassfurt  salts  as  a  supply  of  potash,  we 
must  realize  from  its  use  a  sufficient  return  to  pay  for  its  produc¬ 
tion,  preparation,  marketing  and  delivery  to  us,  together  with  the 
profits  put  on  by  the  producer  and  dealer,  and  leave  a  margin  of 
profit  for  the  farmer  who  uses  it. 

Can  the  Colorado  farmer  profitably  use  these?  The  answer  de¬ 
pends  upon  two  things :  First,  upon  the  price  that  he  must  pay  for 
the  potash.  This,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  actual  cost  of  the 
salt,  including  transportation,  and  the  modesty  of  the  profits  realized 
by  all  of  the  interested  parties.  Second,  upon  the  increased  pro¬ 
ductivity  of  the  soil,  considering  the  total  increase  in  both  quantity 


Maintain  the  Fertility  oe  Our  Soils. 


9 


and  quality  of  crop,  whether  it  is  produced  during  the  season  of  its 
application  or  later. 

The  writer  does  not  know  of  any  series  of  experiments  show¬ 
ing  conclusively  that  the  Colorado  farmer  can  make  a  profit  by 
using  this  salt  on  general  crops,  and  will  certainly  be  pardoned,  if 
he  does  not  find  some  sympathy,  in  entertaining  a  serious  doubt  re¬ 
garding  the  feasibility  of  our  using  this  salt  for  maintaining  the  sup¬ 
ply  of  potash  in  our  Colorado  soils. 

CAN  WE  USE  SUPERPHOSPHATES  AND  CHILI-SALTPETRE? 

The  preceding  considerations  apply  to  the  questions  relative  to 
phosphoric  acid,  whether  it  comes  from  Canadian  apatite,  or  phos- 
phatic  rock  from  Tennessee,  South  Carolina  or  Florida.  They  also 
apply  to  nitrogen,  whether  it  is  in  sodic  nitrate  from  Chili,  or  in 
dried  blood,  meat,  etc.,  from  the  packing  houses  of  Chicago.  I 
have  assumed  throughout  that  the  trade  would  by  every  means,  con¬ 
sistent  with  a  reasonable  business  proceedure,  for  it  is  always  en¬ 
titled  to  a  legitimate  profit  which  no  one  ought  to  begrudge,  en¬ 
deavor  to  make  the  use  of  such  fertilizing  materials  profitable  in 
order  to  extend  their  business. 

It,  however,  seems  to  me  to  be  a  serious  question  whether  we 
can,  with  any  hope  of  realizing  a  profit,  look  to  these  means  of 
maintaining  or  restoring  the  fertility  of  our  soils,  except  perhaps  in 
a  few  special  cases  as,  perhaps,  in  market  gardening  in  the  vicinity 
of  our  larger  cities. 

BETTER  PRACTICE  REGARDINCx  barnyard  manure. 

In  the  past,  even  up  to  within  a  very  few  years,  not  more  than 
three  or  four  years  ago,  but  little  or  any  use  was  made  of  the 
manure  accumulating  about  our  towns  and  the  corrals  where  hun¬ 
dreds  of  animals  had  been  fed.  Within  the  past  year  it  has  been 
possible  for  us  to  find  piles  of  manure  five,  ten  and  even  twenty 
years  old,  which  have  lain  there  just  as  they  were  piled  when  the 
corrals  were  cleaned  out. 

At  the  present  time  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  and,  at 
the  same  time,  available  means  for  the  maintenance  of  the  produc¬ 
tiveness  of  our  fields,  i.  e.,  the  careful  husbanding  of  all  the  prod¬ 
ucts  of  the  farm  which  can  economically  be  converted  into  a  fer¬ 
tilizer — say  into  barnyard  manure. 

Our  former  practice  was,  in  cases  where  the  alfalfa  was  fed 
upon  the  ranch  where  it  was  grown,  to  neglect  the  refuse  or  per¬ 
haps  haul  it  out  to  dump  it  in  some  boggy  place ;  if  it  were  sold  off 
of  the  farm  no  further  account  was  taken  of  it — another  crop  would 
grow.  So  little  appreciation  of  this  subject,  which  is  of  the  very 
greatest  importance  to  the  agriculture  of  this  section,  has  heretofore 
been  evinced,  that  it  has  been  possible,  within  the  three  years  last 


IO 


Bulletin  99. 


past,  to  obtain  at  the  corral  a  four-horse  wagon  load  of  well-rotted 
manure  for  a  consideration  of  twenty-five  cents.  This  time  is  past, 
it  lasted  altogether  too  long. 

WHY  SAVE  The  BARNYARD  MANURE? 

I  intentionally  chose  alfalfa  as  an  illustration  to  show  that  it 
cost  a  great  deal  to  raise  a  crop,  which  I  endeavored  to  make  evi¬ 
dent  by  converting  the  elements  of  fertility  into  their  respective 
money  values,  which  for  a  four-ton  crop  of  alfalfa,  per  acre, 
amounts  to  $30.28,  assuming  that  only  one-half  of  the  nitrogen 
present  in  this  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  was  obtained  from  the  soil. 
I  realize  that  it  is  difficult  for  the  average  ranchman  to  appreciate 
this  fact,  for  it  represents  money  value  which  he  has  never  had 
represented  in  his  bank  account,  nor  has  he  ever  seen  the  materials 
in  mass,  nor  can  he  miss  them  from  the  place  whence  they  have 
been  taken.  They  are,  nevertheless,  no  longer  there,  but  have  been 
embodied  in  the  hay  and  removed  with  it.  There  is  less  plant  food 
by  this  much  in  the  soil  than  there  was  before. 

It  costs  less,  not  in  the  labor  of  plowing  and  preparing  the  seed 
bed,  or  of  irrigating  and  harvesting,  but  in  soil  fertility,  to  grow  a 
ton  of  wheat,  or  oats,  or  rye  straw,  still  it  cannot  be  grown  except 
at  a  cost,  and  after  it  has  grown  and  produced  its  crop  of  grain,  it 
still  has  a  value  which  is  of  too  much  importance  to  be  permitted  to, 
in  any  degree,  go  to  waste.  Thousands  of  tons  of  this  material  are 
left  in  the  fields  where  stock  has  access  to  eat  what  it  may,  but  very 
large  quantities  of  it  are  removed  before  the  next  plowing  by  the 
ready  means  of  the  match,  whereby  the  nitrogen  and  the  organic 
matter,  both  beneficial  to  our  soils,  are  dissipated  in  the  atmosphere, 
while  the  ash  constituents  would  have  been  far  more  valuable  if  ap¬ 
plied  jointly  with  the  other  constituents  of  the  straw.  The  glow  of 
the  burning  straw  pile  is,  even  in  this  year  of  1905,  not  an  unusual 
sight.  This,  too,  has  been  a  wanton  waste  of  fertilizing  values 
which  the  future  will  teach  us  to  utilize  in  a  rational  way. 

Cattle  feeding  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Collins  has  given  place 
to  lamb  feeding,  at  least,  to  a  large  extent.  The  number  of  lambs 
which  have  been  or  are  being  fed  in  this  immediate  neighborhood 
during  this  season,  the  winter  of  1904-1905,  is  about  250,000  head. 
In  order  to  get  a  clear  idea  of  the  important  bearing  of  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  barnyard  manure  upon  our  agriculture,  I  will  estimate  the 
manurial  value  of  the  voidings  of  250,000  sheep,  using  conventional 
but  conservative  data. 

First,  we  will  assume  the  feeding  period  to  be  100  days;  second, 
we  will  take  the  daily  consumption  of  alfalfa  at  three  pounds ;  third, 
we  will  assume  the  manurial  value  of  alfalfa  hay  to  be  $11.90  per 
ton ;  fourth,  that  the  voidings  of  the  sheep  contain  95  per  cent,  of 
the  manurial  values  of  the  hay;  fifth,  that  no  corn  has  been  fed. 


Maintain  the  Fertility  of  Our  Soils.  ii 

On  these  assumptions,  the  total  weight  of  hay  consumed  will 
be  37,000  tons,  with  a  manurial  value  of  $431,300.  The  voidings 
equal  95  per  cent,  of  this  value  or  $409,735.  I  do  not  mean  to  say 
that  this  full  value  can  be  realized  or  that  no  losses  will  occur,  but 
it  is  a  fact  that  if  our  community  should  desire  to  purchase  the 
amounts  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  contained  in  the 
voidings  of  these  250,000  lambs  for  100  days,  each  lamb  consum¬ 
ing  three  pounds  of  alfalfa  per  day,  it  would  cost  them  not  less  than 

$409,735- 

Is  it  feasible  to  preserve  the  whole  of  the  voidings?  Very 
nearly  all,  and  the  straw,  which  is  still  burned  in  considerable  quan¬ 
tities,  could  be  used  to  good  advantage  as  an  absorbent  and  would 
thereby  be  converted  into  an  excellent  form  for  application  as  a 
manure.  We  know  that  no  one  man  in  the  community  would  reap 
the  benefit  of  this  great  value,  but  the  community  as  a  whole  should. 
While  I  have  singled  out  the  sheep  feeding  as  an  example,  the 
principle  applies  to  every  individual,  whether  he  keeps  only  one 
horse  or  a  cow,  or  is  a  feeder  on  a  large  scale.  Everyone  ought  not 
only  to  try  to  preserve  and  utilize  all  of  the  barnyard  manure  natur¬ 
ally  produced  on  his  farm,  but  he  ought  to  use  every  practicable 
means  to  increase  the  amount.  While  this  is  particularly  applicable 
to  the  farming  districts,  it  applies  in  a  less  degree  to  the  towns  and 
cities  as  well. 

In  using  barnyard  manure  which  is  produced  upon  the  farm, 
we  preserve,  in  a  large  measure,  the  plant  food  originally  present, 
but  we  do  not  add  any  to  the  total  originally  present;  on  the  con¬ 
trary  a  little  goes  off  of  the  farm  in  various  forms — in  the  increased 
weight  of  the  lambs,  in  the  case  which  we  have  already  used  as  an 
illustration.  The  exception  to  this  statement  is  in  the  case  of  the 
nitrogen,  provided  alfalfa,  clover  or  pea-vine  hay  has  been  fed, 
when,  owing  to  the  fact  that  these  plants  obtain  a  considerable  por¬ 
tion  of  their  nitrogen  from  the  air  through  the  agency  of  certain 
organisms,  we  may  actually  return  more  than  we  took  away  from 
the  soil  with  the  crop. 

The  use  of  barnyard  manure  is  preeminently  a  method  of  main¬ 
taining  the  fertility  of  the  land,  but  is  in  a  measure  a  method  of  in¬ 
creasing  it  by  improving  the  conditions  of  the  soil;  also  by  adding 
organic  matter,  and  in  our  case  by  increasing  the  supply  of  nitrogen. 

green  manuring. 

The  next  best  method  is  probably  that  of  green  manuring,  and 
for  this  purpose  we  have  no  better  plant  than  alfalfa.  I  know  that 
there  are  some  who  may  think  it  too  big  a  sacrifice  to  turn  under  a 
good  growth  of  alfalfa  for  the  sake  of  its  manurial  effect  upon  the 
soil.  The  writer  has  a  great  deal  of  sympathy  with  this  view,  but 
it  is  not  well  supported  by  any  facts  which  we  can  produce.  There 
seems  to  be  no  plant  which  could  be  grown  here  for  this  purpose. 


12 


Bulletin  99. 


Crimson  clover  is,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  a  failure  with  us ;  red 
clover  is  by  no  means  a  pronounced  success,  though  it  will  grow; 
pea  vines  do  not  make  a  sufficiently  early  growth.  Some  of  the 
vetches  might  be  better,  but  they,  too,  are  not  early  enough.  Rye 
might  be  used  if  we  aimed  at  adding  succulent  organic  matter, 
which  would  easily  decay,  but  would  add  no  nitrogen  or  other  fer¬ 
tilizing  substance. 

In  green  manuring  we  take  nothing  away  from  the  soil,  nor 
do  we  use  the  crop  grown  for  any  other  purpose,  but  simply  return 
it  to  the  soil  in  its  succulent  and  easily  fermentable  condition,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  total  content  of  plant  food  which  it  has  gathered 
from  the  soil.  The  effects  produced  may  be  marked,  but  they  are 
not  due  to  actual  addition  of  plant  food,  as  in  the  case  of  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  mineral  manures,  but  are  due  to  the  availability  of  the  plant 
food  contained  in  the  crop,  the  effect  of  the  fermenting  material 
upon  the  soil  and  probably  to  the  humus  substances  produced. 

I  have  stated  that  alfalfa  is  our  best  plant  for  this  purpose.  It 
is  out  of  the  question  to  use  this  plant  for  this  purpose,  except  in 
some  systems  of  rotation,  which  is,  under  all  circumstances,  ad¬ 
visable,  whether  the  last  crop  is  to  be  potatoes  or  sugar  beets.  I  am 
not  prepared  to  even  suggest  what  rotation  will  prove  to  be  most 
advisable ;  some  of  our  practical  men  can  work  that  out  in  detail. 

I  fully  appreciate  the  fact  that  a  good  plantation  of  alfalfa 
which  will  yield  3  1-2  to  5  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  per  acre,  is  a  valuable 
asset  on  a  farm,  but  some  of  our  people  are  coming  to  realize  that 
it  is  a  good  thing  to  plow  under,  too,  though  it  is  not  the  easiest  task 
to  perform,  especially  when  it  is  in  full  growth  in  the  spring  time. 

alealea  our  best  plant  to  use  as  a  green  manure. 

There  are  several  considerations  which  lead  me  to  think  this 
the  best  plant  which  we  possess  for  this  purpose. 

Our  soils  are  only  fairly  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  an  addition  of 
this  element  from  time  to  time  is  very  advisable.  Alfalfa  is  an 
energetic  gatherer  of  this  substance,  largely  from  the  atmosphere, 
the  young  alfalfa  shoots  being  relatively  very  rich  in  this  element. 
There  are  but  few  plants,  even  among  the  legumes,  by  means  of 
which  we  can  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  so  cheaply  as  by  means  of 
alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  is  not  only  an  energetic  gatherer  of  nitrogen  from  the 
atmosphere,  but  it  is  also  an  energetic  gatherer  of  other  plant  food 
from  the  soil,  so  much  so  that  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  made  from  plants 
cut  in  May  before  any  blossom  buds  had  appeared,  contained  about 
60  pounds  of  potash,  equivalent  to  1 1 1  pounds  of  the  pure  sulfate  of 
potash,  and  whose  value  would  be  $3.00  at  the  price  prevailing  last 
year,  while  the  nitrogen  in  the  same  would  be  worth  $8.50,  nearly. 


Maintain  the  Fertility  oe  Our  Soils. 


i3 


EEEECTS  OE  ALEALEA  DUE  TO  DEEP  DEEDING. 

I  will  here  digress  a  little  to  discuss  a  fact  which  I  have  made 
rather  prominent  and  one  which  may  seem  to  some  as  an  objection 
to  the  alfalfa.  I  have  stated  that  the  alfalfa  plant  is  an  exception¬ 
ally  heavy  feeder,  which  I  have  shown  to  be  the  case  by  showing 
that  the  market  value  of  the  food  constituents  removed  from  the  soil 
by  one  ton  of  alfalfa  hay,  assuming  one-half  of  the  nitrogen  to  have 
been  derived  from  this  source,  was  $7.57  at  the  prices  which  potash, 
phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  commanded  in  1904.  Some  persons 
have  before  now  asked  me  how  it  is  possible  to  harmonize  this  fact 
with  the  observed  improvement  produced  by  putting  land  down  to 

alfalfa  for  a  few  vears. 

«/ 

Both  facts  are  well  established,  i.  e.,  that  a  piece  of  land  which 
once  produced  50  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  and  had  been  so  far  ex¬ 
hausted  that  it  would  produce  only  18  bushels,  may  be  so  far  re¬ 
stored  in  its  fertility  by  being  put  down  to  alfalfa  for  a  few  years 
as  to  produce  35,  40  or  even  more  bushels  per  acre. 

In  the  meantime  it  is  very  probable  that  an  average  yield  of 
four  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  has  been  cut  annually.  This  land  was  no 
longer  able  to  produce  50  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  which,  with 
the  straw,  would  require  not  more  than  143  pounds  of  potash,  phos¬ 
phoric  acid  and  nitrogen  taken  together,  but  it  would  very  probably 
yield  four  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  during  the  season,  which  would  re 
quire  469  pounds  of  these  ingredients.  The  alfalfa  crop  of  four 
tons  per  season  removes  a  trifle  over  three  times  as  much  of  these 
elements  of  plant  food  as  a  fifty  bushel  crop  of  wheat,  together  with 
its  straw,  and  that  from  soil  which  has  been  so  far  depleted  of  its 
supply  of  plant  food  as  to  no  longer  yield  more  than  eighteen  bushels 
of  wheat. 

I  would  not  be  too  sure  that  I  can  fully  explain  this  great  dif¬ 
ference.  It  is,  however,  no  less  certainly  a  fact  than  it  is  that  such 
land  will  again  produce  wheat  at  a  very  greatly  increased  rate  after 
it  has  been  in  alfalfa  for  a  few  years. 

While  I  may  not  explain  the  facts  in  the  case,  I  will  suggest 
some  things  which  are  apparent.  The  root  systems  of  the  two 
plants  are  entirely  different.  The  wheat  plant  has  a  fibrous  system 
which,  under  favorable  conditions,  may  penetrate  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  four  feet,  but  the  conditions  obtaining  in  our  soils  are  not 
favorable  to  their  attaining  this  depth.  It  is  a  fibrous  system,  one 
admirably  adapted  to  gathering  sustenance  for  the  plant  from  rich, 
mellow  ground,  especial  at  no  great  distance  from  the  surface,  but 
not  to  penetrate  hard  soil  to  more  considerable  depths. 

The  four  feet  mentioned  as  the  maximum  depth  to  which  the 
wheat  roots  may  penetrate,  is  probably  very  much  deeper  than  they, 
in  fact,  penetrate  our  soil,  unless  it  be  in  very  exceptional  cases. 

The  alfalfa  has  a  simple  tap  root  system,  at  the  best  only 


14 


Bulletin  99. 


slightly  branching,  but  able,  in  our  soils  to  attain  to  a  depth  of  from 
9  to  12  feet,  even  through  soil  so  firm  that  a  pick  is  necessary  in  or¬ 
der  to  remove  it.  The  largest,  most  branching  portion  of  this  root 
system  is  at  the  point  of  its  greatest  depth  or  nearly  so.  This  sys¬ 
tem  is  marvelously  free  from  fibrous  roots,  though  under  special 
but  easily  explained  conditions  there  may  be  a  fair  abundance  of 
what  may  be  termed  fibrous  roots.  For  our  present  purpose  we 
may  waive  the  question  of  the  relative  ability  of  these  two  plants, 
the  wheat  and  the  alfalfa,  to  obtain  food  from  sources  which  may 
yield  it  slowly  or  with  great  reluctance,  and  simply  consider  the 
amount  of  soil  which  they  respectively  lay  under  tribute,  consider¬ 
ing  that  the  whole  of  the  soil  from  the  surface  to  the  maximum 
depth  attained  by  the  respective  root  systems  is  involved.  Using 
this  assumption  as  our  basis,  we  see  that  no  part  of  the  soil  would 
be  laid  under  a  relatively  heavier  tax  by  the  alfalfa  than  by  the 
wheat,  because  the  alfalfa  feeds  to  a  depth  at  least  three  times  as 
great  as  the  wheat  plant.  Our  assumption,  however,  is  not  jus¬ 
tified  by  what  we  know  of  the  roots  of  the  alfalfa,  which  form  a 
cone-shaped  system  whose  base  is  from  9  to  12  feet  from  the  sur¬ 
face.  The  first  few  feet  of  the  root  may  consist  of  a  single  tap  root 
and  cannot  possibly  come  in  contact  with  more  than  a  small  fraction 
of  the  soil  reached  by  the  smaller  roots  of  the  deeper  portion  of  the 
system.  The  larger  portion  of  the  tap  root  near  the  surface,  even 
if  it  is  as  active  in  gathering  food  as  any  other  portion  of  the  root 
system,  can  only  gather  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  food 
used  by  the  plant.  This  justifies  us  in  using  the  term  so  frequently 
heard,  characterizing  the  alfalfa  as  a  deep  feeding  plant.  These 
considerations  also  justify  the  popular  expression  that  the  alfalfa 
rests  the  land,  meaning,  of  course,  that  portion  of  the  soil  pre¬ 
viously  exhausted  by  the  wheat.  The  correctness  of  this  assertion 
is  not  in  the  least  affected  by  the  apparently  contradictory  fact,  that 
a  four  ton  crop  of  alfalfa  hay  removes  from  the  soil  a  trifle  over 
three  times  as  much  plant  food  as  a  fifty  bushel  crop  of  wheat,  in¬ 
cluding  the  straw. 

There  are  some  interesting  facts  relative  to  this  question,  and 
while  certain  reservations  ought  to  be  made,  we  can  still,  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy,  state  that  the  alfalfa  obtains  its  food  very 
largely  below  the  depth  to  which  the  wheat  root  can  penetrate.  This 
explanation  may  not  be  a  complete  one,  but  it  answers  two  ques¬ 
tions  which  are  frequently  asked:  First,  Is  alfalfa  a  heavy  feeder? 
To  which  the  answer  is,  yes.  Second,  How  does  it  rest  the  soil? 
To  this  we  offer  the  following  answer:  By  feeding  below  the 
depth  had  in  mind  by  the  questioner. 

EFFECTS  OF  ALFALFA  DUE  TO  OTHER  CAUSES. 

We  will  now  turn  to  some  other  facts  which  cannot  be  omitted 


Maintain  the  Fertility  oE  Our  Soils. 


i5 


in  considering  the  question  of  alfalfa  as  a  green  manure.  Alfalfa 
is  not  a  plant  which  can  be  sown  in  late  summer  or  early  fall  with 
the  expectation  of  obtaining  a  growth  of  desirable  material  to  plow 
under  the  following  spring.  We  can  only  use  it  as  a  green  manure 
at  the  end  of  a  rotation  in  which  the  alfalfa  is  one  of  the  crops,  and 
involves  a  longer  rotation  than  can  advisably  be  used  under  Eastern 
conditions,  consequently  it  is  necessary  to  take  other  factors  into  the 
account. 

We  have  assumed  that  our  alfalfa  has  yielded  four  tons  of  hay 
annually  and  we  have  removed  from  the  soli  a  total  of  469  pounds 
of  plant  food  in  the  form  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen, 
or  369  pounds,  considering  that  only  one-half  of  the  nitrogen  came 
from  the  soil.  The  loss  in  making  alfalfa  hay  ranges  from  20  to 
66  per  cent. ;  in  other  words,  a  four  ton  crop  of  hay  gathered,  repre¬ 
sents,  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  five  tons  cut,  not 
counting  the  stubble.  This  ton  lost  is  composed  of  leaves  and  the 
fine  stems,  portions  richer  than  the  average  sample  of  hay  in  nitro¬ 
gen  and  ash  constituents,  and  representing  a  total  of  1 1 7  pounds  of 
plant  food.  This,  owing  to  our  practice  of  irrigating  after  each 
cutting,  especially  after  the  first  and  second  cuttings,  is  almost 
wholly  incorporated  into  the  soil,  for  the  moisture  will  facilitate  its 
decay  and  the  strong  stubble  will  prevent  its  being  washed  away 
to  any  considerable  extent.  The  stubble  proper  is  not  considered 
in  the  preceding  statement,  on  account  of  which  we  are  justified 
in  increasing  this  amount,  117  pounds,  to  150  pounds,  which  alone 
is  as  large  an  amount  of  plant  food  as  is  required  to  raise  a  fifty 
bushel  crop  of  wheat.  It  is  further  to  be  remembered  that,  as  we 
have  assumed  one-half  of  the  nitrogen  added  came  from  the  air 
and  the  rest  of  the  substances  from  portions  of  the  soil  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  wheat  plant,  the  amount  of  plant  food  added  is  prac¬ 
tically  a  clear  gain. 

So  far  two  important  points  have  accrued  to  our  soil  by  simply 
being  put  down  to  alfalfa,  a  practical  resting  of  the  surface  soil, 
which  would  be  still  further  benefited,  as  I  firmly  believe,  if  we 
could  give  our  alfalfa  a  cultivating,  and,  second,  by  an  addition  of 
plant  food.  These  are  not  the  only  points  which  we  will  gain  if 
at  the  end  of  our  rotation  we  turn  under  a  good  growth  of  succu¬ 
lent  alfalfa,  rich  in  nitrogen  and  potash.  Our  soils  need  organic 
matter,  but  coarse  manure  or  such  as  has  been  firmly  matted  do  not 
readily  pass  into  decay  under  our  conditions,  but  the  green  alfalfa 
ferments  easily,  exercising  a  very  beneficent  influence  upon  the 
soil,  not  only  adding  its  own  available  plant  food,  but  possibly  act¬ 
ing  quite  vigorously  upon  the  soil  itself,  greatly  improving  the 
mechanical  as  well  as  the  chemical  conditions.  Some  of  our  farmers 
have  already  discovered  that  these  things  are  facts  and  do  not 
hesitate  to  turn  under  a  fine  growth  of  alfalfa,  though  some  still 
look  upon  it  as  a  doubtful  practice. 


1 6 


Bulletin  99. 


Some  other  facts  at  which  we  have  arrived  are  of  interest 
in  this  connection,  i.  e.,  the  actual  manurial  value  of  the  stubble. 
On  an  acre  of  alfalfa  taken  to  the  depth  of  six  inches  it  is  worth, 
estimated  in  the  same  manner  that  we  have  estimated  the  manurial 
value  of  the  hay,  not  far  from  $20.00  per  acre,  while  the  roots 
below  the  depth  of  six  inches  possess  a  value  of  $16.00,  or  the 
stubble  and  roots  together  have  a  value  of  about  $36.00  per  acre. 
It  may  be  a  rather  difficult  task  to  turn  under  a  growing  crop  of 
alfalfa  in  middle  or  late  spring,  but  it  is  also  difficult  to  correctly 
estimate  the  great  manurial  value  of  the  excellent  material  thus 
added  to  the  soil ;  it  is  certainly  very  much  in  excess  of  the  figures 
given  above  . 

There  is  still  another  respect  in  which  alfalfa  is  probably  our 
best  crop  to  use  as  a  means  of  benefiting  the  soil.  It  has  been 
intimated,  though  not  explicitly  stated,  that  our  soils  are  often 
very  firm  at  shallow  depths,  so  much  so  that  it  is  very  probable 
that  scarcely  any  cultivated  plant  may  be  able  to  reach  the  greatest 
depth  to  which  it  can  and  would  feed  under  ordinarily  favorable  con¬ 
ditions.  A  good  stand  of  alfalfa,  say  three  years  old,  will  probably 
have  500,000  plants  to  the  acre,  or  more  than  ten  plants  to  the 
square  foot,  every  one  of  which  penetrates  the  soil  to  a  depth  much 
greater  than  the  usual  feeding  depth  of  such  plants  as  potatoes, 
beets,  wheat,  etc.  They  not  only  in  this  way  open  up  the  soil  to 
the  attack  of  less  vigorous  roots,  but  fill  these  channels  with  a 
supply  of  plant  food,  accompanied  by  a  mass  of  organic  matter 
that  by  its  decay  may  bring  still  more  plant  food  into  available  form. 

This  subject  of  preserving  and  even  of  increasing  the  fertility 
of  our  soils  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  upon  the  attention  of 
our  agricultural  population. 

While  our  soils  contain  a  large  amount  of  potash  in  the  total, 
due  to  the  presence  of  the  potash  felspar,  the  amount  of 
the  available  potash  is  not  extraordinarily  large,  and  that 
locked  up  in  the  felspar  is  only  slowly  becoming  available, 
too  slowly  to  replace  that  removed  by  crops.  Our  soils  are  poor 
in  organic  matter  and  only  fairly  well  provided  with  nitrogen. 
Our  climate  does  not  favor  the  formation  of  humus,  nor  do  our 
soil  conditions  as  a  rule.  The  best  means  at  our  disposal  to  meet 
these  conditions  and  to  maintain  our  good  yields  are,  I  believe, 
to  husband  all  the  material  available  for  conversion  into  well-rotted 
barnyard  manure,  our  alfalfa,  all  of  which  should  be  fed,  if  possible, 
on  the  farm  which  grows  it,  being  of  great  value  for  this  purpose. 
All  of  the  straw,  while  of  itself  not  of  very  great  value,  can  be 
used  to  good  advantage  and  should  be  so  used. 

Our  alfalfa  is  an  excellent  plant  to  turn  .under  as  a  green 
manure,  but  owing  to  facts  which  are  evident  to  every  ranchman, 
this  involves  a  certain  rotation  of  crops,  at  the  end  of  which  a  good, 
vigorous  growth  of  alfalfa  can  profitably  be  added  to  the  soil. 


019443 081 


